Full text of "Encyclopædia britannica;"

See other formats

Google

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project

to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject

to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books

are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the

publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at |http: //books .google .com/I

f'-''-

/^.

t ,

•^Q-IA BJtITANNICAf

•^.

.J^V^ ...

>. «

I •

■>'

- h

ENCTCLOPjEDIA

OK, A

D I C T r O NARY

ARTS, SCIENCES,

AHD

MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE?

Conftru£led oa a Plan..

« '^ ■

• • • • •

BTWHICH

TUR DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS

Are dieefted into the Form of DUUn^

T R E A T I S E S or & Y &T Mi&S^

«tafrpaBBBiiDf»o

The Hist o r t. Theory, and Practice, of each,;

according to the Lateft Difcoveries- and- Imj^oremcots y
AifD Fvit EXPLANATIONS Ginif op the

VARIOUS DETACHED FARTS OF KNOWILEDGfi,.

WHBTliBft BB1*ATiMO TO

Natural and AitriFiciAL Ohjc€t9^ or to Mkttera EoohE^iAmcAL^

Civil, Military^ CoMMERoiALt &c.

ftiduding £luoidatiohs of the moft important Topics felative to lUirioiOKy'MoRaLd^.

Manksrs^ and the Oeoonomy of LiFr :

TOO BT Bin WITB

A^ Dbscmption of aU the Gounerics, Cities, principal • MoimtaiDS^ Seas^ Rircfs^ 4vw

throughout the World;

A<iGciieral.HisTORr» jfnciini' znd MocUrn^ of the different Emp>es, KingdomB^^and Suteai

AMD

All Account of the Li V Its of the nioft Eminent Perf^nt in ererj Nation^.

from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times*^

attar iramtts ; i6t Tramfaaiiu^ Jowmah^ ami Memwr$y •/ Leamtd Si^detiet, h^th ai hamt ami abroad \ »b« MS, JLtOmrfs ^
JSauaent FtrfeJ^n m difftrtmifekuiet ; aad a variety ^ OAj^uud Materials^ fwrmifitdby an Etetfrnfixt C9rr^§Mdeat*»

mm,»-^m

THM> THIRD EDITION, JN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES^ GREATIX INit^OVZD.

ILLUSTRATED WITHTIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES/

VOL. X.

iNDOCTi DISCAKT^ M^ AMB'^T MMMtNISSB PMBiTi,

B D I K B U R O H.
MllTTSD FOa A* BE LI* AK0 €• MACrAa^ftAIi

4 '

* *

» ».

Cnleeeti In Mrtfonet^ IftXHh CtttiiUK «f 4)e aft of j|g>«tU(anem»

SsaaksaaC

' t

m*^

ENCYCLOPiEDIA BrITANNICA

L E S
LeftofTi I" ESTOFF, w Lbostoff, a town of Snfelk in
L*BfrMigf* 1^ England^ feated on the feah-fhore, 117 miles norths
weft of London* It it concerned in the fiflicriee of the.
North-fea, cod* hernnrt, mackertSUy and fprat»i has a<
church, and a diftnting meettn^-houfe ; and for its
fecnrity, fix dghteen^pounders, ^ich they can move
as occafion requires ; but it has no battery. The town
confifb of 500 houfes ; bat the ftreets, though toler-
ably pavedy are narrow. It has a market ' on Wednet
days, and two fairs in the year for jP^^ chapBAcn*
The coaft is there very dangerous for ftrangers.

L'ESTRANGE (Sir Roger), a noted writer in
the 17th century, was defcended from. an. ancient ia*
mily, feated at Hunftanton*haH in the county of Nor-
folk, where he was bom in 16 16, being the youngeft'
ion of Sir Hammond L'Eftrange baronet, a zealous
royalift. Having in 164J. obtained a .commiffion from
King Charles I. tor reducmg Lyrni in Norfolk, then in
pofiefTion of the parliament, his defign was difcovered^
and hi» perfon feized. He was tried by a court mar-
tial at Guildhall in London, and condemned to die as
a fpy ; but was reprieved, and continued in Newgrate
for fome time. He afterward went beyond fea; and
h) Auguft 1653 returned to Enffland, where he 1^
plied himfelf to the protef^or Cmver Cromwell, and
having once phyed before him on the bafs-viol, he was

LET
fome to be eafy and humorous, while Mr Gordon fays,^^-*^**^^
«* that his produ^ons arc not fit to be read bv «ny Xcthiify*
who ha^ tafte or good4)reeding. They are full ofi,^ ^ di
phrafes picked up in the ftreets, and nothing can be
more lo w or na ufeous.**

LESTWEITHEL, a town of Comwal in Eng-
land, about 219 miles diftant firom London. It is a
wdl-bdlt town, where are kept the conunon gaol, the
weights and meafures for the whole ftannary, and the
county courts. It iUnds on the river Foy, which
brought up vcflcls from Fowey, before it was choaked
up with land coming from the tin-mines, and therefore
its once flourifhing trade is decayed ; but it holds thtf
buflielage of coals, fistlt, malt, and com, in the town
of Fowey, as it does the anchorage in its harbour. It
was made a corporation by Richard earl of Comwal
when he was king of the Romans, and has had othei^
charters fince. ft confifls of feven capital buigeflea
(whereof one is a mayor), and 1 7 alfiftants or common
council. It is part of the duchy of Comwal, to which
it pays L. It : 19: loa year for its liberties. Its chief
trade is the woollen manufadory. Its church has a
fpire^ the only one- except that of Helfton in the coun«
ty. Its market is Friday, and its fairs are three. It
firft retumed members to parliament in the 33d of Ed-
ward I. They are chofen by their burgenes and a£i

by fome nicknamed Oftver'sjtiidfer. Being a man of fiftants. It was anciently the (hire-town, and the

parts, mafter of an eafy humorous ftylc, but withal in
tiarrow circundbmces, he fet up a newfpaper, under
Ac title of Ti!>e Fvbkc IntilSgencer^ in 1 663 ; but
which' he laid down, upon the publication of the firft
London gazette in 1665, having been allowed, how-
ever, a confideration by government. Some time af»-
ter the Popifli plot, when the Tories began to gain the
afcendant over the Whigs, he, in a paper caued the
Oi/ervatoTf became a zealous diampion for the former.
He was afterwards knighted, and ferved in the pariia-

kniffhts of the (hire are ftill chofen here.

LETCHLADE, a town ofjGloucefterihircpomilea
firom London, on the borders of Oxford/hire and Berks,
and the great road to Gloucefter; .had anciently a nun*
nery, and ajpriory of black canons. In this parifh is
Clay-hill. The market is on Tuefday ; and it has two
fidrs. It is fuppofed to have been a Roman town: for
a plain Roman road runs firom hence to Cireitcefter i
and by digging in a meadow near it fome years ago, an
old building viras difcOvered, fuppofed to be a Roman

ment called by King James II. in 1685. But things bath, which was 50 feet long*, 40 broad, and 4 high»
taking a different turn in that prince's reign, in point fupported with lOO brick pilkuv, curiouily inlaid with
of liberty of confcience, fix>m what moft people exped- ftones of divefs coloun of teiferaic work. The Leech»
ed, our author's Obfervatort were difufed as not at all the Coin, the Chum, and Ifis, which all rife in the
fuiting the rimes. However, he continued licenfer of Cotfwould-hill, join here in one full ftream, and be-
the prefs till King William's acceffion, in whofe reign come one river, called the Thames^ which begins here

to be navigable, and barges take in butter, cheefe, and
Other goods, at its quay for London.

LETHARGY, in medicine (from ^^^^obRvton^ and
•p'm mmbneft^ laxmefs)^ a difeafe confifting of a pro*

he met with fom< trouble as a difaffedted perfon.
However, he went to his grave in peace, after he had
in a manner funrived his mtellefiuals. He publiihed
a great many political trafts, and tranflated fevcral
works from the Greek,
iiephus*8 works, Cicero'

raimus*8 Colloquies, iEfop's FaUes, and Bonas's Guide pid, without fcnfe or memory, and prefently finks again
to Eternity. ' The charaAer of his fhie has been va- mto kis former fleep. See Medici nb-/ii^<x.
riouily reprefented ; his language being obferved by LxTHiiRCY> in nrriery> See there, ( o.
Voi.X.Pait.L . • • _ A LETHE/

L, Latin, and Spanifh ; vi%. Jo- found drowfinefs or fleepinefs, from which the patient
's Offices, Seneca's Morals, E- can fcarce be awaked ; or, if awaked, he remains ftu-

LET

[ * ]

LET

X.ETHE» in the ancient mythology-, one of the Tented them, and among what people thef were firft Letter.

rivers of hell, fignifying oblivion or forgetfulnefs ; its in ufc, there is ftill room to doubt: Philo attributes'

waters having, according to poetic fidtion, the peculiar this great and noble invention to Abraham ; Jofephus^

quality of making thofe who drank them forget every
thing^that was pad.

LeTI (Gregorio)» an eminent Italian writer, was
defcended of a family* which once made a confiderable
figure at Bologna : Jerom, his father, was page to
l^ince Charles de Medicis ; ferved fome time in tlie
troops of the grand duke as captain of foot ; and
fettling at Milan, married there in 1628. He veas af-
terward governor of Almantea in Calabria, and died
at Salerno in 1639* Our author was bom at Milan
tn 1630, ftudied under the Jefuits at Cofenza, and
was afterward fent by an unde to Rome, whp would
have him enter into the church ; but he being averfc
to it, went into Ceneva^ where he ftudied the govern-
ment and tlie religion there. Thence he went to Lau-
fanne; apd contradling an acquaintance with John
Anthony Guerin, an eminent phyiician, lodged at hit
houfe, made profeiSon of the Calvinift religion, and
married his daughter. He fettled at Geneva ; where
Be fpent almoil twenty years, carrying on a correfpon-
dence with learned men, efpecially thole of Italy. Some
coatefU obh'ged him to leave that city in 1679; upon
which he went to France, and then into England, where
he was received with great civility by Charles 11/ who,
after his firft audience, made him a prefent of a thou-
land crowns, with a promife of the place of hiflorio«
grapher.^He wrote there the Hiflory of England;
but that work not pleafing the court on account of his
too great liberty in writing, he was ordered to leave
the kingdom. He went to Amfterdam in 1682, and
was honoured with the place of hiftoriographer to that

St Irenaeus, and others, to Enoch ; Bibliander, to A*
dam ; Eufebius, Clemens Alexandrinus, Cornelius
Agnppa, and others, to Mofes; Pomponius Mela,
Herodian, Rufus Feftus, Pliny, Lucan, &c^ to the
Phoenicians ; St Cyprian, to Saturn ; Tacitus, to the
Egyptians ; fome, to the Ehtiopians ; and others, to
the Chinefe : but, with refpe6l to thefe laft, they can
never be intitled to this honour, fince all their charac-
ters are the figns of words, .formed without the ufe of
letters ; which renders it impoffible to read and write
their language without a vaft expence of time and
trouble ; and abfolutely impoffible to print it by the
help of types, or any other manner bi^t by engravings
or cutting in wood. See Pr x n x i n G.

There have been alfo various conjedlures about the
different kinds of letters ufed in different languages ;
thus, according to Crinitus, Mofes invented the He-,
brew letters ; Abraham, the Syriac and Chaldee a the
Phoenicians, thofe of Attica, brought into Gre^e by
Cadmus, and from thence into Italy by the Pelaf-
gians ; Nicoftrata; the Roman ; liis, the^gypthn ^
and Vuliilas, thofe of the Goths.

It is probable, that the Egyptian hieroglyphics.
were the firft 'manner of writing : but whether Cadmua
and the Phoenicians learned the ufe of letters from the
Egyptians, or from their neighbours of Judea or Sa-
maria, is a queftion ; for fince fome of the books of
the Old Teftamefit were then written^ they are more
likely to have given them the hint, than the hierogly-^
phics of Egypt. But wherefoever the Phoeniciana
learned this art, it is generally agreed, that Cadmua

city. He died fuddenly in 1701. He was a man of the fon of Agenor firu brought letters into Greece ;

indefatigable application, as the multiplicity of his whence, in following ages, they fpread over the refl

works fhow. The principal of thefe are, i. The uni- of Europe. See Alphabet and Writing.
verfal monarchy of Louis XIV. 2. The life of Pope Letters make the firft part or elements of grammar ;.

Sixtus V. 3. The life of Philip II. king of Spain, an afTemblage of tliefe compofe fyllables and words,^

4. The life of the emperor Charles V. 5. The life and thefe compofe fentences. The alphabet of every

of Elizabeth, queen of England. 6. The hiftoryJof language confifts of a number of letters, which ought

Oliver Cromwell. 7. The hiftory of Great Britain, each to hiive a different foand, figure, and ufe. A&

-5 vols i2mo. 8. The hiftory of Geneva, &c.. the dift*erence of articulate founds was intended to ex-

LETRIM, a county of Ireland, in the province of prefs the different ideas of the mind, fo one letter waa

Connaught, 44 miles in length and 1 7 in breadth ; originally intended to fignify only one found, and not^

bounded on the eaft and north-eaft by Cavan and Fer-
managh, by Sligo and Rofcommon on the weft and
fouth-weft, and by Longford on the eaft and fouth-eaft.
It is a hilly country, with rank/grais, which feeds a
finreat number of cattle. The cluef town is Letrim,
leated not fur from 'the river Shannon. It contains
4.000 houfes, 2 1 parifhes, 5 baronies, 2 boroughs, and
iGrnds 6 members to parliament.

LETTER, a cliarader ufed to exprefs one of the
fimple founds of the voice ; and. as the different fimple
founds are expreffed by different letters^ thefe, by be-
ing differently compounded, become the vifible figns

as at prefent, to exprefs fometimes one found and.
fometimes another ; which prance has brought a great
,deal of confufipn into the languages, and rendered the
learning of the modem tongues much more difficult
than it would otherwife have been. This confidera-
tion, together with the deficiency of all the 'known al-
phabets, from their wanting fome letters to exprefa
certain founds, has occafioned feveral attempts towarda
an uniyerfal alphabet, to contain an enumeration of
all fuch fingle founds or letters as are ufed in any lan-^
guage. See Alphabet.

Grammariana diftinguilh letters' into vowels, confo-

QT chara(^ers of all the modulations and mixtures of nants, mutes, liquids, diphthongs, and charai^eri-

founda ufed to exprefs our ideas in a regular language ;

( See L AN guage). Thus, as by the help of fpeech we

render our ideas audible ; by the afliftance of letters we

tender them vifible, and by their help we can wrap up

our thoughts, and fend them to the moft diftant parts

of the earth, and read the tranfa£lions of different ages, italic, and black letter,

Ai to the firft letters^ what they were, who firft iu- The texmL£TT£&; or T^/^i among printers^ not on-

ftic8« They are likewife divided into capital and fmaS
letters. They are alfo denominated from the fhape.
and turn of tne letters ; and in writing are diftinguifti-
ed into different hands, as round-text, German-text,,
round-hand, Italian, te. and in printing, into Roman^

LET

I 3 I

LET

Uiw, Iv includes the CAPITALS, small capitals, and

'^*— V**— ^ fmall letters, but all the points, figtnres, and other

marks call and ofed in printing ; and alfo the lar^e

ornamental ktt«rs, cut in wood or metal, wliich take

{>lace of the illumined letters ufed in manufcripts* The
etters ufed^in printing are ball at the ends of fmall
pieces of metal, about three quarters of an inch in
Jength ; and the letter being not indented, but raifed,
cafily gives the impreffioin, when, after being blacked
^th a glutinous ink, paper is cloTely prefled upon it.
^ See the articles Printing and Type, A fount of

. ^letters includes fmall letters, capitals, fmall capitals,
points, figures, fpaces, &c.; but befides, they have dif-
ferent kinds of two-hue letters, only uf^d for titles,
and thebeginning of books, chapters, &c. See Fount.
Letter is sdfo a writing addrefTed and fent to a
perfon. See Epistle*

The art of epiftolary writing, as the hte tranflator
t>f Pliny's Letters has obferved, was efteemed by the
Romans in the number of liberal and polite accpm-
,pli{hment8 ; and we find Cicero mentioning with great
.pleafure, in fome of his letters to Atticus, . the elegant
.fpecimen he had received from his fen of his genius
in this way. It feems indeed to have formed part of
;their education ; and, in the opinion of Mr Locke,
jt well dcfervcs to have a Ihare in ours. " The wrt-
^ ting of letters (as that judicious author obferves)
^ enters fo much into all the occafions of life, that no
^ gentleman can avoid fhewing himfelf in compofi-
*^ tions of this kind* .Occurrences will daily force him
V to make this ufe of his pen, which lays open his
** breeding, his fenfe, and his abilities, to a feverer
^' examination than any oral difcourfe/' It is to be
wondered we have fo few writers in our own language
whodeferve to be pointed out as models upon fuch an
^ccafion. After having named Sir William Temple, it
would perhaps be difficult to add a fecond. The elegant
writer of Cowley's life mentions him as excelling in
•tliis uncommon talent; but as that author declares
.4iimfelf of opinion, ** That letters which pafs between
familiar friends, if they are written as they (hould be,
can fcarce ever be fit to fee the light," the world is
deprived of what no doubt would have been well worth
its infpe£tion. A late diftingui/hed genius treats the
very attempt as ridiculous, and profefles himfelf ** z,
mortal enemy to what they call ajme ktterJ* His
averfion however v^s not fo ftrong, but he knew to
conquer it when he thought proper $ and the letter
which clofes his cori'efpondence with bifhop Atterbury
is, perhaps, the moft genteel and manly addrefs that
' ever was penned to a friend in difgrace. The truth
is, a fine letter does not confiiL in. faying fine things,
but in exprefiUng ordinary ones in an uncommon man-
ner. It is ihtproprie communia Stere^ the art of giving
grace and elegance to familiar occurrences, that con-
ftitutes the merit of this kind of writing. Mr Gay's
letter, concerning the two lovers who were ftruck
dead with the fame fiafh of lightuing, is a mafter-piece
of the fort ; and the ipecimen he has there given of
his talents for this fpecies of compofition makes it
much to be regretted we have not more from the fame
hand.
Warf* Of the Style of Efijhlary Compofition. Purity in the

^rot9ry^ choice of words, and jufbicfs of conftru£lion, joined
.with perfpicuity, are the chief properties of this flylc^

Accordingly Cicero fays : ** In writing lettets« we Let tcf*>
make ufe of comm6n words and exprefiions." And
Seneca more fully^ ** I would have my letrers to be
like my difcourfes, when we either fit or walk to-
gether, unftudied and. eafy." And what prudent
man, in his common difcourfe, aims at bright and
fbrong figures, beautiful turns of kneuagey or la«
boured periods I Nor is it always requifite to attend
to exadl order arid method. He that is mafler of
what he writes, will naturally enough exprefs hia
thought without perplexity and confufioti ; and more
than this is feldom necefiary^ efpecially in familiar
letters.

Indeed, as the fubje^ls of epifUes are etceedingly
various; they will necefiarily require fbme variety in
the manner of expreflion. If the fubje^S^ be fomething
weighty and momentous, the language fhould be
flrong and fblemn ; in thing^s c^ a lower nature, more
free and eafy ; and upon lighter matters, jocofe and
pleafant. In exhortations, it ou^t to be lively and
vigorous; in confolations, kiiid and compaffionate; and
in advifing, grave and ferious. In narratives, it fhould
be clear afid diftin6k ; in requefts, modcft; in commen-
dations, friendly ; in profperity cheerful, and mournful
in adverfity. In a word, the flyle ought to be ac-
commodated to the particular nature of the thing about
which itisconveriant.

% Befides, the different charafter of the perfon, to
whom the letter is written, nequires a like difference
in the modes of expreffion. We do not ufe the fame
language to private perfons, and thofe in a public fta»
tion ; to fuperiors, inferiors, and equals. Nor do we
exprefs otirfelves alike to old men and young, to the
grav^and facetious, to cOUrtiers* and j^ofophers^
to our friends and ftrangers. Superiors are to be ad-
dreffed to with refpe£^, inferiors with courtefy, and
equals with dvility$ and every one's charaf^er, fta-
tion, and circumflances in life, with the relation we
fland in to him, occafions fome variety in this refped.
But when friends and acquaintances correfpond by
letters, it carries them into all the freedom and good-
humour of converfation ; and the nearer it refdnbles
that^ the better, fince it is defigned to fupply the room
of it. For when friends cannot enjoy each othert
company, the next iatisfadlion is to converfe with
each other by letters. Indeed, fometimes greater
freedom is ufed in epifUes, than the fame perfons
would have taken in difcourfing together; becauie»
as Cicero fays, " A letter does not blufli." But fliH
nothing ought to be faid in a letter, which, confidered
in itfelf, would not have^ been fit to fay in difcourfe %.
though modefty perhaps, or fome other particular
reafon, might have prevented it. And thus it fr^
quently happens in requefls, reproofs, and other cir-
cumflances of life. A man can afk that by writings
which h^ could not do by words, if prefent ; or blame
what he thinks amifs in his friend with greater liberty
when abfent, than if they were together. From hence
it i^afy to judge of the fitnefs of any expreffion to
fland in an epIfUe, only by confidering, whether the
fame way of fpeaking woidd be proper in talking with
the fame perfon. Indeed, this difference may be al-
lowed, that as perfons have more time to think, when
they write, than when they fpeak ; a greater accur
racy of Iimguage may fometimes be expeded in one,

A a tW

XjCtiace.

LET I 4 1 LEU

fitRer, tlKin At other. However, this tiakt9 no odds as to LEVANT, in geography, (igntfies any coiuitrf Lamot

the kind of ftyle ; for etery one would choofe to fpeak fitoated to the caft of us, or in the eaitem iide. of any "

as €0ite6dy as he writes, if he q^uld. And there- continent or country, or that on which the fun rifes* *'««c»tt#
fore all fuch words and expreifions, as are unhc^com- Levant, is alfo a name given to the eaftem part

ing in converfation, (hould be avoided in letters ; and" of the Mediterranean fea, bounded by Natolia or the

a manly fimplicity free of all afie^tion, plain, but Leifer Afia on the north, by Syria and Paleftine on

tlecent and agreeable, fhbuld run through the whole, the eafl, by Egypt and Barca on the fouth, and by

^is is the ufual ftyle of Cicero's epiftles, in which the ifland of Candia and the other part of the Medi*

the plainnefs and ;iimplicity of his di6tion is acconw terranean on the weft.

^nied with fomething fo pleafant and engaging, that LEVATOR, in anatomy, a name given to fevenS

he keeps up the attention of his reader, without fuf- mufcles. See- Anatomy, Y^i^ of the Mafcks.
fering him to tire. On the other hand, Pliny^s ft]^e LEUCA, in antiquity, a geographical meafore of

is fuccind and witty ; but generally fo full of turns length in ufe among the later Gauls ; which, acconii^

"and qiubbles upon the found of words, as apparently ing to Jomandes, who caUs it An^«, contained fi^

lender it more ftiff and afFe£ied than agrees with
converfation, or than a man of fenfe would choofe in
difcourfe, were it in his power. You may in fome
meafure judge of Pliny's manner, by one fhort letter
to his friend, which runs thus f ** How fare you ?

teen hundred paces, or one mile and a half. Hence
the name of league^ now reckoned at three miles ; in
the lower age, called Uwoa.

LEUCADENDRON, in botany : A genus of the
Ynonogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria dafs of

As I do in the country? pleafantly ? that is, at leifure? plants \ and in the natural method ranking under the

For which reafon I do not care to write loiig letters,
but to read them ; the one as the effect of nicenefs,
%nd the other of idlenefs. For nothing is more idle
than your nice folks, or curious than yoUr idle ones.
•Farewefl.*' Every fentence here confifts of an anti-
thefis, and a jingle of words, very different frcttn the
ftyle of converfation, and plainly the effeft of ftudy.
6ut this was owing to the age in which he livedo at
%hich time the Roman eloquence was funk into puns,
tftd an aifedation of wit ; for he was otherwife a man
«f fiYie fenfe and great learning.

' LsTTSR of Attorney i in law, is a writing by which
Ibne perfon authorifes another to do fome lawful aA
hi his ftead; as to ^vft. feiiin of lands, to receive debts,
&e a third perfon, &c.

The nature of this tnilrument is to transfer to the
perfon to whom it is given, the whole power of the
maker, to enable* him to accomplifh the a^ intended
to be performed. It is either general or fpecial : and
t>metimes it is made revocable, which is when a bare
vuthority is only given ; and fometimes it is titevo-
(table, as where debts, &€• are alfigned from one per-
fon to another. It is generally held, that the power
granted to the attorney muft be ftri£)tly purfued ; and
that where it is made to three perfons, two cannot
execute itw In moft cafes, the power given by a let*
fer of attorney determines iq>on the death of die per*
fen who gave it. No letter of attorney made by any

48th order. Aggregates* The florets are tripetalous,
with one petal of each trifid ; the receptacle is a little
villous ; there is no proper calyx ; the anthene are al«
moft coalited*

LEUCADIA, formerly called NerUUf a penin-
lula of Acamania, ( Homer) ; but afterwards, by
cutting through the peninfula, made an ifland, as it
is at this day, called St Maura,

LEUCAS, Tanc. geog.), formerly called Nerkas
and Neritum^ a town of Leucadia or Leucas ; fituated
near a narrow neck of land, or ifUimus^ on a hiU fa-
cing the eaft and Acarnania : the foot or lower part
of the town was a plain lying on the fea by which
Leucadia was divided from Acamania, (Livy ) ; though
Thucydides places Leucas more inward in the ffland»
which was joined to the continent by a' bridge. It
was an illuftrious city, the capital of Acarnania, and
the place of general aftembly.

LEUCATA, or Leucate, (anc.geog.); a pro-
montory of Leucadia according to Strabo, a white
rock proje6Ung into the fea towards Cephalenia, on
which ftood a temt>le of ApoUo fumamed LeucaAut,
At his fefUval, which was annually celebrated here, the
people were accuftomed to offer an expiatory facrifice
to the god, and to avert on the head of the vidlim all
the calamities ^th which they might be threatenodw
For this purpofe, they made choice of a criminal com
demned to die \ and leading him to the brink of the

Iftwen, &c. in any fhip of war, or having letters of promontory, precipitated him into the fea amidft the

iniarqiie,' or by their executors, &c. in oider to em- loud fhouts of the fpedbtors. The criminal, how

^M»wcr any perfon to receive any fhare of prizes or ever, feldom periihed in the water ; for it was th^

Somtty^money, ihall be valid, unlefs the fame be made cuftom to cover him with feathers, and to faften birds

Revocable,, and for tlie ufe of fuch feansen, and be to his body, which by fpreading their wings might

^nted tend- executed before, and actefted by, the cap- ferte to break his fall. No fooner did he touch the

lam and one^ other of the figning oificeiB oi the fhip,
Ht the mayor or chief magii&ate of fome corporation.
' Lbttbr of Mart or Marque,. See Marque.

LBTTMRf PaNnt or- Overt', are writing^s fealed with
the great feal of Engkod, whereby a man is autho-
rifed to do, or enjoy any things which, of himfelf,
he conld net do. Sie PArEKT.--They are fo called,
1»y reafon of their form ; as being- open, with the feal
tJSxed, ready to be fhown for the eonfirmation of the
iwrthority given by them.

LETITX^Ej in bttauy. Sec Lactuca*.

iea, than a number of boats ftationed for the purpofe^
flew to his affiftance, and drew him out ; and after be^
ing thus faved, he was banifhed for ever from the
territory of Leucadia. (Straboj Hb. 10. p. 452,)

According to ancient authors, a ftrange opinion
concerning this promontory prevaOed.for fome time
among the Gredcs. They imagined that the leap of
Leucata was a potent renoedy againft the violence ot
love. Hence dtfappotnted or defpairing lovers, it is.
iaid, were of^en known to have come to Leucadia^,
fuidi having afcended tlie promontory, offered facri*

ficea

lETJ fs] tEU

lAn^Pfm ficet in tlie tefnplcy and engaged by a (omul now to "Lev torn a^ in fargtrjf adiftemper of tlie eye, I^eueopefn.
_ n perfonn the defperate ad^y to have voluntarily preci* otherwife catted tf/t^jf^. See ALBUGO^andSuRGEaT* _ ''^
■1^^^""'' 'I)itated themfdves into fea* Some are reported to have LEUCOPETRA, (anc. geog.) fo called from ntt ^'*^*^'

recovered from the elFe£b of the fall ; and among o- vhite colour (Strabo) j a promontory of the Bruttii^
5 P/o/m. thtfrs mention is niade^ of a citizen of ButhrotOn, in in the territory of Rhegium : the termination of the
Htph^fi, Epirusy whole paifions always taking fire at new ob- Apennine. The outmoll extremity of the Bruttii^

^. rhu, j^^g^ he four times had recou/fe to the fame remAdy^ and -or the modem Caiahria Ulira;^z& the Japygium is o£

''^'* always with, the fame fuceefs. As thofe who made the ancient Calabria, or the modem ^Csdabria Citra*

the trial, however,' feldom took atty precaution 'to * LEUCOPETRIANS, in ecclefiafiical hiftory, the

render their faU lefs rapid, they were genevafly deftroy^ name of a fimatical fe6i which fprang up in the Greek

ed; and women often fell vidims tcf this ad of defpe- «nd Eaftem churdies towards the dofe of the lath

ration*^— At Leucata was fhown the tomb of Artemi* Century ; the fiinatics of this denomination profededt^

iia, that celebrated tjiieen of Caria who gave fo many believe in a double Trinity, rejef^ed wedlock, abftain^

^Htf9d9t. proofs of courage at the battle of Salamisf. Inflamed >ed from fle(h, treated with the utmoft contempt the

^^' ^* with a violent paffion for a young man who inflexibly -^laments of Baptifm and the Lord's Supper, and all

^^ ^* refufed her love, fhefurpriied him in his fleep and put the various branches of e^tternal worfhip^ placed the

t>ut his eyes* Regret aiid defpair foon brought her to eflence of religion in internal prayer a]oae> and main*

Leucata, where fhe periflied in the waves notwithiland* tained, as it is faid, that an evil being, or genius^

f Vtoi4m. Ing every effort to lave her j;. Such Itkewife was the dwelt in the breail of every mortal, and could be ex*

Heph^* end of the unhappy Sappho. Forfaken by her lover petted from thence by no other method than by peiv

ibid, J Phaon, (lie came hither to feek relief from her fuf- petual fupplication to the Supreme Being.^ The

ferings, and found her death. {Menami. 9p* Strobe founder of this enthufiaflical fe^ is faid to have been-

lib. I o. p. 452.) a perfon called Leucopetrus^ and his chief difciple Tyw

' LEUCIPPUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher chicus, who corrupted, -by fanatical interpretations^

and mathematician ; 6rk author of die famous fyftem feveral books of fcripf ure> and particularly St Mat^

tof atoms and vacunm^ and of the hypotheiis of florms ; tfaew^s gofpeL

fmce attributed to the modems. He flourifhed about I^EUCOPHLEGMATIA, in medicine, a kin4

428 B.C. ^ ^fdn^fy, otherwife catted tfnij/SirAi. Sec (/nJSrx fub**

LEUCOGiBUS, (anc. geog.), a hill fituated ht- joined to) Medicine.
tween Puteoli and Neapolis in Campania,* abounding LEUCOTHOE^ or Lbucothea (fab. hifi.), xhit

4n fulphur ; ' new rAiumera. Whence there were alfo wife of Athamus, changed into a fea deity i fee Ino.
springs catted Let^og^i fimtes ; the waters of which, ac- She was caUed MahUa by the Romans. She had a

cording to Pliny, gave a firmnefs to the teeth, dear* temple at Rome, where aU the people, particularly

Hefs to the eyes, and proved a cure in wounds. women, offered vows for their brother^s children*

LEUCOJUM, Great Snow^drof : a genus of -They did not intreat the deity to protect their owa;.

the monogynia oider, belonging to the hexandna clafs children, becaufe* Ino had been unfortunate in hers,

of plants ; and in the natural method iluiking under -No female flaves were permitted to enter the temple \.

the ninth order, Spathact£. The coroUa is campanu- or if their curiosity tempted them to tranfffrefs thia

lated, fexpartite, the fegments incrcafcd at the points, rule, they were beaten with the greatefl fev^ity. To

the iligma fimple. this fupplicating for other people's* children, Ovid'a^

Species. I. The veraum, or fpring leucojtun, lades in thefe lines \ ^

has an oblong bulbous root, fending up feveral S»m Umen bant pre fftfefia pia mtier €i»na^

*4at leaves fix or 'eight inches long; and amidft them • Jpfitpmrumfdhtvifa/mijkparuts. Ftfl. 6. .

«n npright, chann^d, hoUow, naked fblk, about LEUCTRA, (anc. geog.), a town of Boeotia, t^

% foot high, terminated by a fpatha, protmding one or the weil of Thebes, or lying between Platex and Thef*

t:wo white flowers on flender fbotflalks drooping down*- piae, where the Lacedemonians luid-a great defeat gi-

n^rds, andappearing in Mareh. 2. The xftivum, or ten thetn by Epominondas and Peli^dis the Theban

Summer leucojum^ has a large, oblong, bulbous root, geiferals. The Theban army confified at moil but of

crowned with feveral long, flat, broad leaves ; and fr 6000 men, whereas that of" the enemy Was at leaii

v&idil them an upright, diick, hottow flalk, 1 j or 18 thrice that number : but Epaminondas trufted nwft ift

«nchea hi^ ; terminated by a fpatha, protmding many his herfe, wherein he had much, the advantage, botk.

^hite flowers, on lender footflalks, drooping downr in their, quality and good management ;. the JtA he en^

wards ; flowering in May. 5. The autmnnale, or aiK deavoured to fupply by the difpofitionf of his men, and

tnmnal leucojum, hath a large oblong bulbous root, the vigour of the attack. He even refufed to fufler

-«rowned with many narrow leaves, an upright, naked, «ny to ferve under him in the engagemeaftt but fuck^

%oflow fbdk, terminated by a fpatha protruding many as he iinew to be fully refolved to conquer or die. He

^hite flowers on Idng weak footfblka» hanging dowiN. put himfdf at the head of the left wing, (^pofitc to.

waids, and flowering in autumn. Cleombrotns king of Sparta, and placed the main

Ctdture. AU the three f][>ecies are very hardy, du* flrefs of the battk ther» ; rightly concluding, that if.

*table in rooti and increafe exceedingly by of&ets, which he coidd break the body of the Spartans^ . whkh was

•%liay be feparated every tn^ or three years^ but 12 m&k deep, whereas his own was 59, the refl

LEUCOMA, in. aptiquity, was a public n^fler 'would be foon put to fisghit* He dofcd his own withfi

amongft the Athenians, in which were inferted the the facred band^ which was commanded by Pelopidas y\

Barnes of all the citizens, as foon as the/ were of age and placed his horfe .in the froat« His right, frooR.

Ao enter upon . their paternal inberitaaee* . - "whieh he had dcama fio maiiy flueo, -be aaEdered^ to fiiU i

bafijt^^

t E T

I « ]

LEV

l>eaAn, Vack, in i flanting line, as if they declined to fight,
^«^«^' that they might not be too much expofed to the c-
nemy> and might ferve him for a corps of referve in
cafe of need. This was the wife difpofition which the
two Theban generals made of their few but refolute
forces ; and which fucceeded in every part, according
to their wiih. Epaminondas advanced with his left
wing, extending it obliquely, in order to draw the ene-
my *8 right from the main body j[ and Pelopidas char-
ged them with fuch defperate fpecd and fury, at the
head of his battalion, before they could reunite, that
their horfe, not being able to (land the (hock, were
forced back upon their infantry, which threw t!ie
whole into the greatefl confufion : fo that though the
Spartans were of all the Greeks the moft expert in re-
covering from any furprife, yet their fkill on this oc-
^aHon either failed them or proved of no cfftA ; for
the Thebans, obferving the dreadful impreffion they
•had made on them with their horfe, pufhed furiouily
upon the Spartan king, and opened their way to bun
vrith a great flaughten

Upon the death of Cieombrotus, and feveral offieets
•of note, the Spartans, according to cuflom, renewed
.the fight with double vigour and fury, not fo much to
' j*evenge his death as to recover his body, which was
fuch an eftablifhed point of honour as they could not
^ive up without the greateft difgrace« But here
<he Theban general wifely chofe rather to gratify*
them in that point, than to hazard the fucoels of a
Second onfet; and left them in poUKsffion of tlieir
king, whilil he mavched ftraight againfl their other
wing, commanded by Archidamus, andooniiiled chiefly
t>f fuch auxiliaries and allies as had not heartily enga-
ged ii) the Spartan intereft^ thefe were fo difcou-
iraged by the death of the king and the defeat. of
jthat wing, that they betook themfelves to flight, and
twere prefently after followed by the reft of the army.
The Thebans, however, purfued them fo clofcly, that
^hey made a fecond. drendfiil flaughter among them i
•which completed £paminonda3'« Tidory, who remain-
ed mafler of the field, and ere Aed .a trophy in memory
of it. This wzs the coacluTion of the famed battle of
Leu6tra, in which the Lacedemonians loft 4000 men,
«nd the Thebans but 300*

LEVEL, an inftrument-v^erewith to draw a U|ie pa-
rallel to the horizon, by means of which the true level, or
;the difference of afceitt or defcent between feveral places,
siay be found, for conveying water, draining fens, &c.

There are ^feveral inftruments of different contrivance
and matter, invented for the perfe6lion of levelling ; all
of which, for jthe pradUce, may be neduced to the
following.

jilr^LRyELj that which ihows the fine of level by
-means ,of a hubble of air inclofed with fome liquor in
a £^s-tube of an indeterminate length and thicknefs,
whofe two ends are herinetically fealed. When the
bubble fixes itfelf at a <;ertain mark, made exa£Uy in
the middle of the tube, -the plabe or nder wherein it
is fixed is level. When it is not level, the bubble will
rife to one end. This glafs-tube may be fet in another
.t)f brafs, having an aperture in the middle, whence the
Jbubble of air may be obferved. The liquor wherewith
dtlie tube is filled is oil of tartar, or aqua fecunda ;
thefe not being liable to freeze as common water, nor
to tare&dion amd condenfatlon^ as fpirit of wine is.

This application of a bubble of air was the inTeiitioft
of Dr Hooke.

There is one of thefe inftruments made with fights, being
an improvement upoh that laft. defcribed, which, by the
addition of more apparatus, becomes more commodious
and exa6l. It confifts of an air-level, fig. i. about eight
inches long, and feven or eight lines in diameter, fet
in a brafs tube, 2, with an aperture in the middle,
C. The tubes are carried in a ftrong ftraight ruler, a
foot long ; at whofe ends are fixed two fights, 3, 3^
exadly perpendicular to the tubes, and of an eqiml
height, having a fquare hole, formed by two fiUets of
brafs croffing each other at right angles, in the middle
whereof is orilled a very little hole, through which a
point on a level with the inftruihent is defcried. The
brafs tube is faflened on the ruler by means of twe
fcrews ; one whereof^ marked 4, ferves to raife or de-
prefs the tube at pleafure, for bringing it towards a
leveL The top of the ball and focket is revetted to a
little ruler that fprings, one end whereof is faftened
with fcrews to the great ruler, and at the other end has
a fcrew, 5, ferving to raife and deprefs the inflrdment
when nearly level.

Thfi infta-ument juft defcribed, however, is yet lefs
commodious than the following one \ beeaufe though
the holes be<ever fo fmall, yet tbey will ftill take in torn
great a fpace to determine the point of level precifely.

The inftrument alluded to confifts of an air-level, with
telefcope fights. This level (fig«^') is like the laft ; with
•this difierevce, that, jnftead of plain fights, it carries a
telefcope to determine exadlly a point of level at a
good diftance. The telefcope is a little brafs-tube^
about 15 inches long, faftened on the fame ruler as the
level. At the end of the tube of the telefcope, mark-
ed I, enters the little tube i, carrying the eye-glafe
and an hair horizontally placed in the focus of the ob-
je^-^lafs, 2 ; which little tube may ]}e drawn out, or
pufhed into thereat one, for adjufting the telefcope
to di£reret\t fights : at the other end of the telefcope is
placed the objed-glafs. The ficrew j, is for raifing
or lowering the little fork, for carrying the hair, and
making it agree with the bubble of air when the iir«
ibrument is level ; and the fcrew 4, is for making the
bubble of air, D or E, agree with the telefcope ; the
whole is fitted to a ball and focket. M. Huygens is
faid to be the firft inventor of this level ; which has this
•advantage, that it may be inverted by turning the ru-
ler and telefcope half round ; and if then the hair cut
the fame point that it did before, the operation is j\ifi.

It may be obferved, that one may add a telefcope to
any kind of level, by applying it upon, or parallel to^
the bafe or ruler, when there is occafion to take the le-
vel oi remote objeds.

Dr Defagnliers contrived an inftrument, by which
the difference of level of two places, which could not
be taken in lefs than four or five days with the beft
telefcope-levels, may be taken in as few hours* . The
inftrument is as follows. To the ball C (fig. 3.) is
joined a recurve tube B A, ^ith a very iine bore, and
a fmall bubble at top A, whofe upper part is open.
It is evident from the make of this inflrument, that
if it be inclined in carrying, no prejudice will be done
to the liquor, which will dways be right both in the
ball and tube when^ the inftrument is let upright. If
the air at C b^ fo expanded with heat, as to drive the
6 liquor

UmL

Plate
GCLXX.

L E V t.

Le^I* Kquor to the top of the tube, the cayxty A will receive
the liquor, which will come down again and fettle at
Dy or near it, according to the level of the place
where the inftrutnent is, as foon as the air at C retitms
to the feme temperament as to heat and cold. To
preferve the fame degree of heat, when the different
obfervationsare made, the machine is fixed in a tin vef-
iel ^F» filled with water up to^ by above the baU,
and a very fenfiUe thermometer has alfo its ball under
* water, that one may obferve the liquor at D, in each
experiment, when the thermometer ftands at the fame
height as before* The water is poured out wheo
the inftrument is' carried ; which one may do conve-
ftiently by means of the wooden frame, which is fet
upright by the three fcrews, S, S, S, fig* A* and
a line and plummet P P, fig. 5. At the back ^art of
the wooden frame, from the piece at top K, hangrs the
plummet P, over a hnts point at N; Mm are brackets
to mak^ the upright board K N continue at right
angles with the horizontal one at N. Fig. 6. reprefents
a front view of the machine, fuppofin^ the fore part
of the tin-veffel tranfparcnt 5 and here toe brafs-focket
of the recurve-tube, into which the ball is fcrewed, has
two wings at 1 1, fixec) to the bottom, that the ball
may not break the tutfe by its endeavour to emerge
when the water is poured in as high as^ /&•

After the Do£lor had contrived this machine, he
confidered, that as the tube is of a very fmall bore, if
the liquor (hould rife into the ball at A (fig. 3. ) in car-
rying the inftrument from one place to another, fome
of it would adhere to the fides or the ball A, and up-
on its defcent in making the experiment, fo much
might be left behind, that the liquor would not be
high enough at D to fhow the difference of the level :
therefore, to^ prevent that inconveniency, he contrived
a blaqk fcrew, to fhut up the hole at A, as foon as one
experiment is made, that, in carrying the machine, the
air in A may balance that in C, To that the liquor
fhall not run up and down the tube, whatever degrree
of heat and cold may ad upon the inftrument, in go-
ing from one place to another. Now, becaufe one ex-
periment may be made in the morning, the water may
be fo cold, that when a fecond experiment is made at
aoon the water cannot be brought to the fame degree
of cold it had in the morning ; therefore, in making
the firft experiment, warm water muft be mixed with
the cold^ and when the water has ftood fome time, be-
fore it comes to be as cold as it is L'kely to be at the
warmeft part of that day, obferve and fet down the de-
gree of the thermometer at which the fpirit ftands,
and likewife the degree of the water in the barometer
at D ; then fcrew on the cape at A, pour out the wa-
ter, and carry the inftrument to the place whofe level
you would know ; then pour in your vrater^ and when
the thermometer is come to the fame degree as before,
open the fcrew at top, and obferve the liquor in the
barometer.

The Do6tor*s fcale for the barometer is ten inches
long, and divided into tenths; fo that fuch an inftru-
ment will fervefor any heights not exceeding ten feet,
each tenth of an inch anfwering to a foot in height.

The DoAor made no allowance for the decreafe of
denfity in the air, becaufe he did not propofe this ma-
chine for meafuring mountains (though, witha proper
«llow;mce for the decreafine denfity of the air, it will

4o very well), but for height! that want to b^ i^ura

7 J LEV

* in gardens, plantations, and the conveyance of .water, l^^^
where an experiment that anfwers two or three feet in
a difbmce of 20 miles, will render this a very ufeful
inftrument. ^

jirtUkry Fooi-LMFEi is in form of a fquare, l^aving-
its two legs or branches of an equal lengrth ; at a junc-'
ture whereof is a little hole, whence hangs a thread
and plummet playing on a perpendicular line in the
middle of a quadrant. It is divided into twice 45"
degrees from the middle. Fig. 7.

This inftrument may be irfed on other occafions, by'
placing the ends of its two branches on a plane ; for
when the thread plays perpendicularly over the middle
divifioa of the quadrant, that plane is affuredly leveL-
To ufe it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece
of artillery, which you may raife ^0 any propofed
height, by means of the plummet, whofe thread will*
give the degree above the level.

CarfaUer*t and Pavior*s LErsLt confifts of a long-
ruler, in the middle whereof is fitted, at right angles^
another fomewhat bigger, at the top of which is*
fJE^lened a line, which, when it bangs over a fiducial'
Une at right angles with the bafe, ftiows that the faid^
bafe is horizontal. Sometimes this level is all of one.
board. Fig. 8.

Gunner*! Lsrsiy for levelling cannona and raovtarSr
confifts of a triangular' brafs plate, about four inches*
high, fig. 9. at the bottom of which is a portioa
ot a drcle, divided into 45 degrees; which number*
is fulficient for the higheft elevation of cannons and',
mortars, and for giving (hot the greateft range : on.
the centre of this leement of a circle is fcrewed a piece
of brafs, by means of which it may be fixed or fcrewed
at pleafure: the end of this piece. of brafs is made fo*
as to ferve for a plummet and index, in. order to fhow*
the 'different degrees of elevation of pieces of artillery.
This infbument has alfo a brafs foot, to fet upon can-**
nons or mortars, fo as, when thofe pieces are horizon*
tal, the inftrument will be perpendicular. The foot
of this inftrument is to be pkced on the piece to be
elevated, in fuch a manner, as that the point of the
plummet may fell on the proper degree : this is what
they call levelling the fiefe.

^ AIq/bn*s Lsrsiy is compofed of three rules, fo- join-
ed as to form an ifofceles-redangle, fomewhat like a<
Roman A ; at the vertex whereof is faftened a thread,,
from which hangs a plummet, that paffes over a fidu«
cial line, marked in the middle of the bafe, when the
thing to which the level is applied is horizontal ; but?
dechnes from the mark, when the thing is lower on
the one fide than on the other.

Plumh or Pendulum Lskel^ that which (hows the*
horizontal Hues by means of another line perpendicular-
to that defcribed by a plummet or pendulum. Thi»
inftrument, fig. 10. confii^s of two legs, or branches^
joined together at right angles, whereof that whicb
carries the thread and plummet is about a foot and a
half long ; the thread is hung towards the top of the
branch, at the point 2. The middle of the branch
where the thread paffes is- hollow, fo that it may han^
finee every where : but towards the bottom, where there-
is a little blade of filver, whereon is drawn a line per-»
pendicular to the telefcope, the faid cavity is covered
by two pieces of brafs, making as it were a kind or
<^fe, left the wind (hould agitate the thread; for which
{C^H the fi^Tci. ^lade is covered with a f^aS^ O^to the

todl

MtJB^Ki*

LEV' t

end that it may be (een when the thread and plun^et
play Hpon the perpendicular : the telefcope is faftened
to the- other branch of the infl:ruinent» and is about
two feet long ; haying an hair placed horizontally a*
crofs the ibcuB of the objed-glals, which determines
the point of the level. The telefcope muft be fitted
9t nAt angles to the perpendicular* It has a ball
and fockety by which it is faftened to. the foot, and
Vfas invented by M. Picard.

RefieQmg Lbfei^ that made by means of a pretty,
long furface of water reprefenting the fame obje<^ in-
verted which we fee erefted by the eye^ fo that the-
point where thefe two objedb S4>pear to meet i$ a level,
with the place where the furface of die water is found.
This is the invention of M. Marriotte.

There is another refle^ng level confifting of a mir-
flor of fteel» or the like» wdl poliAied« and placed a
little before the obje6^-glafs of a telelcopey fufpended
perpendicularly. This mirror muft make an angle of
45^ with the telefcope, in which cafe the perpendicu-
lar line of the faid t£lefc<^e is converted into a horizon-
tal line» which is the fame with the line of level. This
is the invention of M. Cafllni*

JVater^LsyEi^ that which (hows the horizontal line
t>y means of a furface of water or other liquor; found-,
ed. on this principle^ that water always places it&lf
level.

. The moft fimple Is made of a long wooden trough
or canal, whofe fides are parallel to Uie bafe ; fo that
'being equally filled with water, its furface ftiows the
line of level. This is the chorobates of the ancients*
See Chokobata.

It is alfo made with two cups fitted to the two ends.
of a pipe, three or four feet long, about an inch in.
diameter, by means whereof the water communicates
from the one to the other cup ; and this pipe being
reable on its ftand by means of a ball and focket,
whenthg Mno, cups become equally full of water, their,
two furfaces mai^ the line of level.

This inftrument, inftead of cups, may alfo be roadCi
with two ihort cylinders of glafs three or four inches
iottg, faftened to each extreme of the pipe with wax
or maftic. Into the pipe is poured fome common or.
coloured water, which fliows itfelf through the cylin-
ders, by means whereof the line of level is determined ;.
the height of the water, with refped to the centre of
the earthy being always the fame in both cylinders ;
this level, though very fimple, is yet very commodious
ibr levelling iinall diftances.

Lkvrl of Mr Hnygtfu^t imm^onf confifts of a tele-
fcope a^ fig. 1 1, in form of a cylinder, going through
a ferril,. in which it is faftened by the middle. This
ferril has two flat branches bl, "one above, and the other
below : at the ends whereof are faftened little moving
pieces, which carry tvfo rings, by one of which the
telefcope is fufpended to an hook at the end; of the
fcrew 3, and by the other a pretty heavy weight ia
fufpended, in order to keep the telefcope in mqm&brio.
This weight hangs in the box 5, which is almoft-fifled
with Unfeed oil, oil of walnuts, or other matter that
will not eafily coagulate, for more aptly fettling the
balance of the weight and telefcope. Ixie inftrument
carries two telefcopes dofe and very parallel to each
other ; the eye-glafs of the one being againft the ob*
]c£i glafs of the other, that one may fee each

No 181.

8 1 L E

without turning the leveL Xi the focus of the obje6U Levels
glafs of each telefcope muft a little hair be ftrained ho-
rizontally, to be railed and lowered as occafion requires
by a little fcrew. If the tube of the telefcope be not
found level when fufpended* a ferril or ring,. 4, is put
on it, and is to be Did along till it fixes to a leveL!
The hook on which the inflrument is hung is fixed te
a flat wocxl^n crofs; at the ends of' each arm wh^^if
there is a hook fervine.to keep the telefcope biStxC
too much Irritation in ufing or carriage* To the &id.
flat crofs is applied another hollow one, that ferves aa\
a cafb for the inftrument ; but the two ends are left,
open, that the telefcope may be fecured from the wea*
ther and always in- a condition to be ufed. The foot
of this,ii\ftrument is a round brafs plate, to which are(
&ftened three brafs ferrils, ncwveable by means of joints
whereon are put fbiipes» and on this foot is placed
the box.

Fig. 1 2. marked I, is a balaace-levd ; which being
fufpended by the ring, the two fights, when m squt*
Rbriof will be horizontal, or in a level.

Sfirit Levrl* The moft accurate levelling infbu*,
roent, and that poffefled of the greateft eflential advan<«.
tages in ufe, is the fpirit-level ; .which was firft con«
{lru£^ by th(p late Mr Siflbn, and to which fom^^
fmall additions and improvements have been fince made^
The following is a defcription of one of the beft of
thefe levels, as made by the principal mathematical^
inftrument makers.

Fig. 13. is a rqprefentation o£ the inftrument mount-
ed on its complete ftaves, copied (exc^ Jthe letters),
firom Mr Adams's Graphical Eflays, Plate xvii. fig. 3*,
The telefcope (ABC) is> made from 15 inches to z
feet in length, as may be required. It is achromatic,,
of the beft kind, and Ihows the objeds ered. In the
focus of the eye-glafies are exceedingly fine crofs wires,,
the interfe£Uon of which is evidently fixown to be.
perfedly in the axis of the tube ; for by turning it
round on its two fupporters D£, and looking through,
the telefcope, the interferons of the wires will con-,
ftantly cut the fame part of the obie^ viewed. By
turning the ifcrewa at th«rfideof the telefcope, the objeft-L
glafs at^ isjmoved ; and thus the telefcope is exafUy a<«
dapted to the eye. . If thefe crofs wires are at any time
out of their adju(lment» -which is difcovered oy their
interfedion not cutting the fame part of the object
during the revolution of the telefcope on its axis» diey
are esdily adjufted by means of the four fcrews hhh^
placed on the telefcope about an inch from the end
for the eye. Thefe fcrews aft in perpendicular di-
reftions to one another, by mifcrewing one and ti^t«
ening the other oppofite to the wire, fo that if conneoed
with it, it may be moved either way at pleafure ; and
ifl this manner the oth<9r wire perpendicular to it may«
be moved, and thus the interfeftion of the wires brought
exaftly in the axis of the tube.

To the telefcope is fixed, by two finall fcrews f f, the
level tube containing the fpirits, with a fmaU. bubble
of air: This bubble of air, when the inftrument ia
well adjufted, will fettle* exa6tty in the fame place, ia
or near the middle of its tube, whether the telefco|>e
be reverfed or not on the fupporters, which in this
cafe are kept unmoved.

It is evident, that the axis of the telefcope, or the
Ihterfe&iofi of the wireS) as before fliown, muft be in this

4 cafe

Plate CCXXX.

t^^a{<3.

«. 3SS??>(ij<W/^..^

LEV [9

' he^t cife truly l^vel. In this facile mode of adjuftment
coofiib the new improTement of the inftnunent ; and
k is hereby capable of being adjufted by only one fbu
tion and one objefly which wiU at the fame time de-
termine it to be in a true leveL If by change of wea-
ther, accident, or otherwife, the inftrument fliould have
loft its levf^l adjuftment or ftate, it may thus be readily
reftored and readjufted at the firft ftation ; which is an
advantage none of the inftnunents fonnerly made have
been capable of. The two fupporters D£, on which
the level refts and turns, are {haped like the letter Y.
The telefcope refts within the upper part of them; and
the inner fides of each of thefe is are tangents to the
cylindric tube of the telefcope, which is turned to a
true cylinder, and each touches it but at one place
only.

The lower end of thefe fupporters are inferted into
a ftrone brafs plate (F£), and fo as to ftand perpen-
diculany on it. One is kept faft by a tightening fcrew
G, and to the other is applied a fine threaded fcrew
H, to adjuft the tube when on its fupporters to a true
level. To the fupporter D is fometimes applied a
line of tangents as far as 1 2 degrees, in order to take
an angle of depreffion or elevation to that extent. Be-
tween the fupporters is alfo fometimes fixed a compafs-
box I, divided into 360. degrees, and s^ain into four
90*^; having a centre pin and needle, and trigger, at^,
to throw off the needle from the centre when not ufed ;
fo in this manner it conftitutes a perfe6l circumferen-
ter, conneded with aU the foregoing improvements.
This plate is fixed on a conical brafs ferrel K, which
is adapted to the bell-metal fruftum of a cone at top
of the brafs head of the ftaves, having a ball and fock-
ct, with three bell-metal joints, two ftrong brafs pa-
'rallel plates LL, the four fcrews eeee for adjufting the
horizontal motion, a regulating fcrew M to this mo-
tion, and a faftening fcrew N to lighten it on the cone
when neceffary. Tne faftening fcrew N, and the regu-
lating fcrew M, by which the whole inftrument is
moved with accuracy through a fmall fpace in an
horizontal dire^on, was an addition of Mr Ramf-
den's.

The matmer ofa^^ufimg the fplrU'level at thtJirRfiatlon.
The whole level being now placed fteadily on its ftaves,
it muft be rendered parallel to the axis of the telefcope
before you adjuft the horizontal motion. To this end
the telefcope muft l)e placed in a line with two of the
fcrews ee^ and then levelled thereby till the bubble of
air in the fpirit-tube keeps its pofition in the middle,
while turned about to three points, making neariy
right angles at the centre to one another.

The horizontal motion being thus adjufted, the rims
ff of the Ys are to be opened, the telefcope taken off
and laid the contrary way upon the fupporters. If the
bubble of air then refts exadly the fame, the level and
telefcope are adjufted rightly to one another ; but if
the bubble does not remain the fame, the end to which
the air bubble goes muft be noticed, and the diftance
of it from the telefcope altered; correding one half
the error by the fcrews cc^ and the other lulf by the
fcrews ee.

Now the interfedkion of the wires being direded
to any diftant obje6i, it may be one of the vanes of
the ftaves hereafter defcribed : if thef continue to be

VouX. Partl.

] LEV

againft it predfely while the telefcope is turned roimd Levelline»
on its Ys, it proves, as before mentioned, that the axis i*

of the telefcope coincides with the interfe^lion of the
wires, and ^at the inftrument wiU give the true level
dire6lion.

The operation of levelling being of a very accurate
and important nature, and the beft inftrument when
out of its adjuftment being of little ufe, it is quite ne-
ceffary that every perfon ufing fuch an inftrument
fhould have it readily in his power to correA it ; and
the one above defcribed appears to be the beft adapted
for that purpofe of any hitherto contrived.

LEVELLING may be defined, the art which in-
ftru6l8 us in finding how much higher or lower any
given point on the furface of the earth is than another;
or, in other words, the difference in their diftance from
the centre of the earth.

The pradice of levelling therefore confifts, i. la
finding and marking two or more points that (hall be
in the circumference of a circle whofe centre is that of
the earth. 2. In comparing the points thus foUnd
with other points, to afcertain the difference in their
diftances from the earth's centre.

With regard to the theory of levelling, we muft ob-
ferve, that a plumb-line, hangring freely in the air,
points dire^y towards the centre of the earth ; and a
line drawn at right angles, croffing the diredion of
the plumb-line, and touching the earth's furface, is a
true level only in that particular fpot ; but if this line
which croffes the plumb be continued for any confi-
derable length, it will rife above the earth's furface,
and the apparent level will be above the true one, be*^
caufe the earth is globular ; and this rifing will be as
the fquare of the diftance to which the faid ri^ht line
is produced ; that is to (ay, however much it is raifed
above the earth's furface at one mile's diftance, it will
rife four times as much at the diftance of two miles*
nine times at the diftance of three, &c. This is owinpr
to the globular figure of the earth ; and this rifing is
the difference betwixt the true and apparent levels ;
the real curve of the earth being the true level, and
the tangent to it the apparent level. Hence it ap-
pears, that the lefs diftance we take betwixt any two
flations, the truer will be our operations in levelling ;
and fo foon does the difference betwixt the true and
apparent levels bec^pie perceptible, that it is neceffary
to make an allowance for it if the diftance betwixt
the two ftations exceeds two chains in length. The
following is an infallible rtile for determining the al-
lowance to be made :

*^ Multiply the number of Gunter's decimal ftatute Zam&'x ISu
chains that are contained in length between any two'*^***^"
ftations where the levels are to be taken by itfelf, and*******
the produ^ arifing therefrom again by 124; which is
a common mtdtipuer for all manner of diftances for
this purpofe on-account of the earth's curvature: then
divide the fecond produ6l arifing therefrom by 100,000;
or, which is alfo the fame, with the dafh of the pea
cut off five figures on the right hand fide of the pro-
du£l, and what remains on the left fide is inches, and
the five figures cut off decimal parts of an inch.''

TTi

LEV

listening;

The following is A Table of Curva^gre rf the Eurth
and fhows the quantity below the apparent level at
Okc end of every number of chains to loo.

Chains. <

Inches.

a»

•

Inches.

IO.OOI25I

i'4

0.24;

0.91'

3.00

20.005

0.28

28,0.98,

2.28

30.01125

0.32.

29? 1. 05.

■50 3.1 J

40.02

I'Z

0.36

30 1. 12

551 3-78

50.03

0.40,

3111.191

60 4.50

6,0.04

»9

0.45

■* 1
32 1.27'

^S 5-3 »

7,0.06

0.50

33'i-35

70 6.12

80.08

o-55i

3411.441 75 7.03I

9.6.10

0.60

35''-53

80 8.00

6.12

0.67:

36 1.62

1 85 9-03

0.15

0.72,

37'i-7i

90 10.12

I2|o.l8

250.7838.1.80 9511.28

»3

0.21

0.84

i.9i>

100 I2.50I

Levelling is either fimple or compound. The for-
mer is when the level points are determined from one
ftation, whether the level be fixed at one of the points
or between them. Compound levelling is nothing more
than a repetition of many fimple operations.

An example of fimple levelling is given Plate
CCLXXI. fig. I. where A B are the ftation points
of the level ; C D the tw<J points afcertaihed. Let
the height

Feet. Inches.
From A to C be - 600

From B to D be - 900

The difference - 300

IhowB that B is three fe t lower than A.

If the ftation-points of the level arc above the line
of fight* as in fig. 2. and the diftance frbm A to C be .cr than the ground at A.

10 1 LEV

The operatioit nuiy be begun ia the foHowiiig mutr Leveling,
ner. Let the firft ftatton be at i, equally diftant from
the two points A and By which themfelves are diflant
166 yards. Write down then in one column the firft
limit A ; in another, the number of feet, inches, and
tenths ; with the points of fight indicated on the ftation*
ftaff at A, viz. 7. 6. o. In the third column, the fe-
cond limit B ; in the fourth, the height indicated at
theftation-ftaffB, viz. 6. o. o. Laftly, in the fifth c<»
lumn, the diftance firom one ftation-ftaff to the other ;
which in this cafe is 166 yards. Remove now the le«
vel to the point marked 2, which is in the middle be-
tween B and C, the two pkce» where the ftation-
ftaveff are to be held ; obferving that B, which was the
fecond limit in the former operation, ns the firft in this.
Then write down the obferved heights as before ; in
the firft column B ; in the fecond 4. 6. o ; in the third
C ; in the fourth 5. 6. 2 ; in the fifth 560, the di<-
fbince between B and C.

It being impofiible, on account of the inequality of
the ground at the third ftation, to place the inftrument
in the middle between the two ftation-ftaves^ find the
nkoft convenient j>oint as at 3 ; then meafure exa^lly
how far this is from each ftation-ftaff, and you will
find that from 3 to C is 160 yards ; from 3 to* D, 80
yards ; and the remainder of the operation will be at
m the preceding ftation.

In the fourth operation, we muft endeavour to com-
penfatc for any error which might have happened .in
the laft. Mark out, therefore, 80 yards from the fta-
tion-ftaff D to the point 4 ; and 160 yards from 4 to
£ ; and this muft be carefully attended to, as by fuck
compenfations the work may be much facilitated. Pro-
ceed in the fame manner with the eight remaining fta-
tions, obferving to enter every thing in its proper co-
lumn ; and when the whole is finifiied, add the fums of
each column together, and then fubtradl the leffer from
the greater \ the difference, which in the prefent cafe is
5. 4. 8. (hows the ground at N to be thus much low-.

fix fett, and from B to D nine feet, the difference will
ftill be three feet which B is higher than A.

As an example of compound levelling, fuppofe it
were required to know the difference of height be-
tween the point A on the river ZomCf and N on the
river Bflann, fig. 3. (As our author could find no fatif-
fSL^orj examples in any Englifh author, he copied
this and the following ones from M. Ic Feburc). In
this operation ftakes (hould be driven down at A and
N, exa6l1y level with the furface of the water ; and
thefe ftakes fhould be fo fixed, that they may not be
changed until the whole operation be finifhed : a plan
of the ground between the two rivers (hould then be
made, by which it will be difcovered, that the (hort-
«ft way between the rivers is by the dotted line AC,
CH, HN ; from whence alfo the number of ftations
neceflary to be taken will be determined. The ope-
rator will alfo be enabled to diftribute them properly
according to the nature and iituation of the ground.
In the figure 12. ftations are marked. Stakes ought
then to be driven in at the limits of each ftation,- as A,
B,C,D, &c. They ought to be about two or three
inches above the ground, and driven j 8 inches into it.
Stakes (hould alfo be driven in at each ftation of the

inftrument, as i, 2, 3, 4, Uc.

To obtain a fedtion of this level, draw the dotted
Hne 0, fig, 4. either above or below the plan ; which
may be ts^en for the level or horizontal line. Let fall
then perpendiailars upon this line from all the ftation-
points and places where the ftation-fUves* were fixed.
Beginning now at A, fet off 7 feet 6 inches upon the
line from A to a : for the height of the level-point de-
termined on the ftaff at this puce, draw a line through
a parallel to the dotted line 0, which will cut the third
perpendicular at ^, the fecond fiation-fUff. Set off from
this point downwards fix feet to B, which (hows the fe-
cond limit of the firft operation ; and that the ground
at B is one foot fix inches higher than at A : place
your inftrument between thefe two lines at the height
of the level line, and trace the ground according to it»
different heights. Now fet off, on the fecond ftation-
ftaff B, four feet fix inches to C, the height deter-
mined by the level at the fecond ftation ; and from C
draw a line parallel to 00, which will cut the fifth per-
pendicular at 1/, the third ftation-ftaff. From this point
fet off 5 feet 6 inches -^ downwards to C, which vrxU
be our fecond limit with refpe6l to the preceding one
and the third with refpe6i to the firfL Then draw
your inflrument in the middle between B and C»
and delineate the ground with its inequalities. Pro-
ceed

LEV r I

L.0Te1Uhg. eeed in ^e fame manner from ftation to ftation, till
you arrive at the laft N, and you will have the profile
of the ground over which the level was taken.

Thiai method anfwers very" well where only a gene-
ral profile of the different ftations is required ; but
where it is neceflary to have an exa^ detail of the
ground between the limitsy we muft then go to work
more particularly. Suppofe, therefore, the level to
have been taken from A to N by another roiite, but
en more uniform ground, in order to form a canal
marked O, P, Q^ R, S, T, U, X, Y. Draw at plea-
fure a line Z, Y, fig. 5. to reprefent the level, and re-
gulate the refi $ then let fall on this line perpendicu-
ULTs to reprefent the flaves at the limits of each ftation,
taking care that they be fixed accurately at their re-
ipedtive diflances from each other. The difference be-
tween the extreme limits, in this cafe, ought to be the
fame as in the former, vix, 5 feet 4 inches ^. Set off
this ^lieafure upon the perpendicular the firft limit ; and
from Of prolonging the perpendicular, mark off at a
the height determined at uie firft ftation-ilaff; then
do the lame with the fecond and third, and fo on with
the following, till this part of the work is finifhed ;
there remains then only to delineate in detail the ground
between the ftation-ftaves, the diftances in this example
being affumed larger on account pf the detail.

To obtain the fe6lion of the ground between O and
P, place your inflrument at one of the liihits, as P,
fixing it fo that the crofs hairs may anfwer to the point
C ; then look towards the firft limit 0, raifing or de-
preiling the vane till it coincides with the interfe6^ion
of the crofs hairs ; and the line of fight from one point
to the other will mark the level or horizontal line.

To fet off the height of the brink of the river above
the firft limit, drive a fkakc down clofe to the ground
at a; and place your ftation-ftaff upon it, obferving where
the hairs interfe6l the vane, which wiU be at 4 feet 10
inches ; then, laying off upon the line 0% the diflance
from the firft to the laft ftake, let. fall from thence a
perpendiculaC^ and fet off thereon 4. 10. o to^, which
gives the height at the firft flake ; or, which is the.
fame, the height (torn the edge of the river above the
furface of the water, as is evident from the fe6lion.
Drive a fecond ftake at 6, in a line between the limits $
place the ftation-ftaff upon this ftake, and obferve the
height 4. 6. interfe<fted by the. crofs Hairs, the inftru-
ment ftill remaining in the fame fituation. Set off on
the level-line the diftance from the firft ftake a to the
fecond ^ ; and then let fall a perpendicular, and mark
upon it 4« 6 to bt which gives the height of the ground
at this place.

The fmall hollow c is marked out by driving down
a third ftake even with the gpround, in the middle of it
at e; but the exa6k diftance of the fecond ftafte 6 from
the third r, muft be marked upon the level line : then
let fall a perpendicular from o and fet. off upon it
6. 8. Q, pointed out by the crofs hairs on the ftaff,
which determines the depth of the hollow, as appears
from the figure. As the diftances between the flakes
are now very fhort, they can eafily be marked by the
operator, who can fettle any little inequalities by a
comparifon with thofe already afcertained. Proceed
thus with the other ftations till you arrive at the laft,
%nd you will always obtsun an accurate fedion of your

I ] LEV

work ; by which it is eafy to form a juft eftimation of LeveUiug.
the land to be dug away, in order to form the canaly
by adding the depth to be given to it.

Fig. 6. gives an example of compound levelling,
where the fituation is fo fteep and mountainous, that the
ftaves cannot be placed at equal diftances from the in-
ftrument, or where it is even impoffible to make a re-
ciprocal levelling from one ftation to the other. Thua
fuppofe the point K to be the bottom of a bafon where
it is required to make a fountain, the refervoir being
at A ; fo th^t, in order to know the height to which
the jet d'eau will rife, it is neceflary to know how high
the point A is above K.

In great heights fuch as this, it will be neceffary to
proceed by fmall defcents, as from A to D. The inflru-
ment muft be adjufted with all poflible care ; and it
will even be proper; in fome part of the work, to ufc
a fmaller inftrument. The following is a table of the
different operations ufed in making this level, it having
been taken from M. le Febure's practice.

1 feet i.i.| fccc. lu., yards. j

A 21 6C 09

C 4 3D 3

D 3 9E 16 3

350

E 5 oF 17 9

250

F 10 6

G 5

375

G 5

H 19

300

H 5
95

K 47 3

1000
H9J.

106 9

In this cafe only two levellings are made between
A and D, though more would have been necelTary ;
but they are omitted to avoid confufion. In the
fourth flation the height found was 1 6 feet 8 inches ;
but on account of the great length, it was requifite to
reduce the apparent level to the true one, which is al-
ways neceffary where the length is confiderable. At the
laft limit we get the height from N to ; then from to
1 1 from I to K, fig. 7. &c. ; all which added together,
and then corre£led for the curvature, gives 47 feet 3
inches. Now, by adding each column together, and
fubtradling one from the other, we have 51 feet 9
inches for the height which the point A is above the
bottom of the bafon, and which will cjiufe the jet
d*eau to rife about 45 feet. The general fedion of
this operation is fhown at fig. 7, 8. but an exa^ profile
,of the mountain is more difficult, as requiring many
operations ; though fome of thefe might be obtained-
by meafuring from the level line without moving the
inftrument. •

The laft example given by our author is likewifc
lirom M. le Febure, and includes a length of near five
German miles (25''of ours) in a ftraight line, and 9 or
10 (45 or 50 £ngli(h) including the timings and
windings. In this the dedivity of the river ^/7jF/iojf
was meafiu^d from Lignebruk to ViUebourg. The
firft operation was to drive ftakes at feveral parts of
the river even with the water's edge ; the firft of
which a little above the mills of .Lignebruk fhowed
the upper water-mark,- and another fhowed the lower
water-mark at the fame mills. Two ftakes above and
below the mills of Mazurance, fome what more than
ha)f way between Lignebruk and ViUebourg, pointed,

B a ou('

LEV

Levelling out the difference between high and low water there,
. 11 and formed iikewife the third and fourth limits of the
operation ; whUe the flakes above and below the mills
of Villebourg pointed out the difference between high
and low water, and Iikewife formed the laft limits of the
operation.

' Thefe marks were all made at the edge of tlie wa-
ter, exadtiy even with its furfece, and all made at the
different parts of the river nearly at the fame indant
of time. *' 'nie principal limits of the levelling (fays
Mr Adams) being how determined and fixed, it only
remains to find the level between the limits, according

[ 12 3 LEV

or power. In this as in all the refl, we lia'v onlyHo

increafe the diflance between the flrength and prop Lcvigatioo-

to give the man that works the- inflrument greater

power.

The lever of the fecond kind, has the prop at one
end, the flrength is applied to the other, and the weight
to be raifed refls between them. Thus in raidng the
water-plug in the flreets, the workman puts his iron
lever .through the hole of the plug till he reaches the
ground on the other fide, and, making that his prop,
lifts the plug with his flreugth at the other end of the
lever. In this lever alfo, the greater the diflance of

to the methods already pointed out, ufing every ad- the prop from the flrength, the greater is the work-
irantage that may contribute to the fuccefs of the work, man's power

and at the fame time avoiding all obflacles and diffi-
culties that may retard or injure the operations. The
iirfl rule is always to take the fhorteH poffible way
/rom one li/nit to another, though this rule ought not to
be followed if there are confiderable obflacles in the
way, as hills, woods, marfhy ground, or if, by going
afide, any advantage can be obtained." in the pre-
sent cafe it was found necefTary to deviate very conA-
derably from the general rule, in order to take in fe-
veral ponds, the furfaces of which ^ght all be taken
for a perfe^l level ; and thus levels were frequently ta-
ken acrofs the country for a confiderable way. The
difference of height between the mills of Lignebruk
and Villebourg was at lafl found to be about 19 feet,
indicating a defcent of not quite a foot in a mile.

LRyRLiiNG'Siawsj inflrutnents ufed in levelling,

ferving to carry the marks to be obferved, and at the

fame time to meafure the heights of thofe marks from

the ground. They ufually <:onfifl of two mahogany

ftaves ten feet long, in two parts, that flide upon

Pl^tc one another to about ^^'^ feet, for the more por-

CCLXX. table carriage. They are divided into 1000 equal parts,

%• '4* and numbered at every tenth divifion by 10, 20, 30,

8cc, to 1000 ; and on one fide the feet and inches are

alfo fometimcs marked.

A vane A flides up and down upon each fet of thefe

' flaves, which by brafs fprings will fland at any part.

Thefe vanes are about 10 inches long and 4 inches

Thefe inflruments, as we fee, aflifl the flrength ; but
fometimes a workman is obliged to a«^ at a difadvan
tage, in raifmg either a piece of timber or a ladder
upon one end. We cannot, with grammatical proprie-
ty, call this a frver^ fmceTuch a piece of timber in hdi
in no way contributes to raife the weight. In this cafe,
the man, who is the flrength or power, is in the middle,
the part of the beam already raifed is the weight, the
part yet at the ground is the prop on which the beam
turns or refls. Here the man's Ilrength will be^dimi-
nifhed, in proportion to the weight it fuflains. The
weight win be greater the farther it is frona the prop,-
therefore the man will bear the greater weight the
nearer he is to the prop. See Mechanics.

LEVERET, among fportfmen, denotes a hare ii»
the firfl year of her age.

LEVIGATION, in pharmacy and chcmiflry, the
reducing hard and ponderous bodies to an impalpable
powder,, by grinding them on a porphyry, or in a mill.
See Chemistry, n'>599.

A new method of reducing powders to a great dew
gree of finenefs has lately been invented by means of 3
fanner. This has the advantage over the other me-
thods, in being much niore expeditious, and attended
with lefs trouble and expence ^ the degree of Enenefa
to which they are reducible being thus dKb in a man*
ner unlimited. The conflrti6lion of the fanner em-
ployed for this purpofe is different from that employ-

broad ; the breadth is firfl. divided into three equal ed for winnowing com ; the blafl not being colle^ed

parts, the two extremes painted white, the middle into a fmall compafs as in the latter, but diffufed over

fpace divided again into three equal parts, which are a confiderable fpace, lefl a violent blafl fhould hurry

lefs ; the middle one of them is al&> painted white, and off both coarfe and fine together. For this purpofe,

the twa other parts black ; and thus they are fuited the leaves of the fanner are made as long in the direc*

to all the common diflances. Thefe vanes have each tion parallel to the axis as can be done conveniently*

a brafs wire acrofs a fmall fquare hole in the centre, In the other diredion projecting frt>m it, they differ

which ferve to point out the height c6rre6lly, by co* not from the ordinary length, nor do they in the ge«

inciding with the horizontal wire of the telefcope of neral fituation with refpeSk to each other. Before the

the level.

LEVENf a river of Lenox or Dunbartonfhire. in
Scotland, oee Lenox.

LEVER, in mechanics^ is a bar of iron or woody
one part of ip^hich being fupported by a prop, all other
mrts turn upon that prop as their centre of motion.
This inflrument is of two kinds.' Firfl, the common
fort, where the weight we defire to raiie, refls at one

leaves is a wooden partition reaching half way up, to
prevent the grofs powder from falling in among the
leaves, which reaches about half way from bottom ta
top ; and about two feet or lefs from tlbisy according
to the fize of the fanner, is another partition in a flop-
ping diredlion, reaching from the bottom of the box^
to near the top. The whole is inclofed in a large box
fix or feven feet long, having in the end farthefl off

#nd^f it, our ilrength is a)>pliedat the other end, and from the leaves a flit equal to the fpace left b^wixt

the prop is between both. When we flir up the fire the top of the box and the floping partittoa already'

with a poker, we make ufe of this lever ; the pocker is mentioned. On the top of this is another box, ex-

thc lever, it refls upon one of the bars of the grate as tending from the farthermofl end of the former to the

a prop, the incumbent, fire is the weight to be over* hopper which holds the coarfe powder, with a hole ii>

come, and the other end keld in the hand is the firength the end neareft to the &aner; and upon this another

I box*.

LE VELLING .

naicrrijoa.

. <:.J46^'A^W^Aya

<<..A^r/iJt.

LEV [

JLcvigation. box, &c. as long as it is found that ikt air carries off
'^ "-v*— with it any quantity of powder. This will be befl under-
ftood from the following defcription of the figure.
Plate A reprefents the fanner itfelf» having a hole in the

CCLXXI* cafe for the admiffion of the air, as ufual.

B, The firft wooden diviilon, to prevent the return
of the powder upon the leaves of the £anner.

Cy The fecond divifion, reaching not quite to the
top of the box. Its ufe is to direS the current of air
produced by the fanner obliquely upwards : thus it
ftrikes the powder, flailing down from the hopper, in
the fame oblique diredkion, and carries off the fine
parts, firfl through the aperture a ; after which fbme of
them are lodged in the box D ; the ftill finer particles
are carried through the aperture 6 into the fecond
box £, where part of them are lodged : they next pafs
through the aperture e into tlie box F, and tlirough
d into the box G ; the powder becoming ilill finer and
in fmaller quantity as it afcends into the higher boxes,
until at lafl the wafle becomes fo trifling, that the air
may be allowed to pafs off entirely through the aper-
ture it in the fourth or fome other box, as is found
mofl convenient.

Thus it is evident we may obtain powders of every
degree of finenefs, and fuch as neither fieve nor levi-
' gating mill could equal. Wafhing over with water
may indeed produce powders equdly fine ; but the
length of time requifite for fettling, and the trouble of
drymg them again, muil decidedly give the preference
to the fanner; efpecially when we confider, that there
is not any occafion for taking out the powder in fmall
quantities, as is the cafe in fifting, waflung, or leviga-
ting ; but it may be allowed to remain till as much is
colle^ed in the boxes as we defire.

The principal difHculty in the conflru&ion of this
fanner is the letting down the powder in a proper man-
ner, fo that the flream of air, which ought not to be
very ftrong, may freely pafs through it. For this
purpofe, the hopper muil not let it fa& in a large body,
as in winnowing of com, but in a long and thin iheet,
• which can eaiily be pervaded. The beil method feems

to be to make the hopper extend the^whole breadth of
the box, having a narrow Hit at bottom. Clofe on
the under part of this Hit, a fluted roller ought to turn,
which (hutting up the aperture exa^Uy, cannot allow
any powder to pafs but what does fo in confequence
of the hollow flutes of the roller ; for a fmooth round
one would allow nothing to pafs. It would be pro-
per alfo that the flutes be but fmall, that a thin and
nearly continued flream of powder be always defcend-
ing ; for this will contribute greatly to the finenefs of
the produce: and on this account the powder ought,
before it is put into the hopper, to be paffed through
a lawn fieve. In the figure, e reprefents the hopper,
and /the fluted roller. Motion is eafily communica-
ted to the latter by means of a wheel faflened on the
axis of the fanner.

The coarfe powder is kept back by the partition C,
and defcends through, a flit i in the bottom of the low-
^rmoft box, into a receptacle i, which maj be removed
occafienaSy. AH the joints and feams oi the machine
mufl be very clofe, for the fine powder is very pene-
trating ; for this reafon alfo the hopper ought, to have
a lid.

13 ] LEU

LEWDNESS. See FoRNicATioN.^Lewdnefsis
punifhable by our law by fine, imprifonment, &c. And
Mich. 15 Car. II. a peHbn was indidled for open lewd*
nefs, in~ ihowing his naked body in a balcony, and
other mifdemeanors ; and was fined 2000 marks, im-
prifoned for a week, and bound to his good behaviour
for three years, i Sid. 1 68. In tiroes pail» when any
man granted a leafc of his houfe, it was ufual to infert
an exprefs covenant, that the tenant fhould not en-
tertain any lewd women, 3cc«

LEVITE, in a general fenfe, means all the defcen*-
dants of Levi, among whom were the Jewifh priefls
themfelves, who, being defcended from Aaron, were
like wife of the race of Levi. In a more particular
fenfe, Lmie is ufed for an order of officers in that
church, who were employed in performing the manual
fervice of the temple. They were obedient to the
prieilsin their miniflration, . and brought them wood,
water, and other neceffaries for the facrifice.*«They-
fung and played upon inftruments in the temple and
in other places. They applied themfelves to the fludy
of the law, and were the ordinary judges of the coun-
try, but always fubordinate to the priefls. Their fub-
fi Hence was the tythes of com, fruit, and cattle,
throughout Ifrael : but the priefls were intitled to »
tenth of their tythes, by way of firfl-firuits to the Lord.
Eight and forty cities were afiigned for the rcfidence
of the Levites, of which the prieds claimed thirteen^
fix whereof were chofen for cities of refuge. They
were confecrated, before they entered \ipon their mi-
niflry, by (having their fle(h, wafliing their cloaths, and
fpnnkltng with the water of expiation. Impofition of
hands was ufed in confecration, and two bullocks were
offered at the door of the tabernacle. They waited
weekly, and by turns, in the temple, beginning their
attendance on one fabbath and ending. the next: Du-
ring this time they were maintained out of the offer-
ings, &c. In the time of Solonnon, the number of
Levites, from the age of 20 and capable of ferving,
was 38,000.

LEVITICUS, a canonical book of the Old TeOa-
ment, fo called from its, containing the laws and regu-
lations relating to the priefls, Levites, and facrifices.

LEVITY, in phyfiology, the privation or want of
weight in any body when compared with another that
is heavier than it ; in which f(;nfe it flands oppofed to
gravity.

LEUK, a town of Switzerland, almofl in the middle
of the Valais ; remarkable for its natural flrength, for
the affembly of the flates that often meet there, and
for its baths, whofe water is fo hot that they will boil
eggs.

LEUNCLAVIUS (Joannes), a learned German,
was defcended from a noble family, and born at AmeU
brunJn Weftphalia, 1533. He travelled through air-
mod aR the countries in Europe. While he was in
Tiu-key, he colle&ed very good materials for an ** Hi-
flory of the Ottoman Empire;*' which he publifhedj
and alfo feveral other pieces concerning it, in La»
tin. He gave Latin, tranflations alfo of Xcnophon,
Zoumus, &c. To a knowledge of the learned lan^
guages he added that of the civil law. He died at.
Vienna in 1593* aged 60.

LEUSDEN (John), a cdebiated philologer, born

LeVite'

II
LcufJen*

LEW

t^vikkk in 1624. He ftudied the learned langaagettnd ma-
il thematicB at Utrecht ; and then Went to Amderdamy
to converfe with the rabbis, and perfe6i himfelf in the
Hebrew tongue. After which he was profeffor of
Hebrew at Utrecht^ where he acquired a greit repu-
tation, and died in 1699. He wrote many valuable
works ; the principal of which are, i . Onowiqfticum Sa»
crumy 8vo. 2. Clav'u Hebraka ^ PhUologica VeUnt
Tejlamentu 4to. 3. Ntnn Teftamenti Clav'u Gr^cdy cum
jinnoiatlonibus Phllologicis^ 8vo. 4. Compendkum Bibli*'
€um VeterU Te/iamenti^ 8vo. 5. Compendium Gracum
Novi Teftamenti ; the beil edition of which is that of
London, in 1668, i2mo. 6. Ph'dologuj Hebr^us^ 4to.
7- Ph'dologui Hebnto mixtut^ 410. 8. Philologus Hebneo^
Gr£cvsy 4to. 9. Notes on Jonas, Joel, Hofea, &c.
He alfo gave correct editions of feveral learned woxics.

LEUTKIRK, a free and imperial town of Ger-
many, in Suabia, and in Algow, feated on a rivulet
that falls into the lUar, in £. JLong lo. 10. N. Lat.

47- 53-

LEUTMERITZ, a town of Bohemia, capital of a

circle of the fame name, with a bifhop's fee, feated on
the river Elbe, in E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat. 50. 34.

LEWARDEN, a handfome, rich, and flrong town
of the United Provinces, capital of Oflergow, Wefler-
gow, Sevenwolden, and Wefl Friefland. It was the
ufual place of refidence of the Stadtholder; and in
buildings, as well public as private, is very magnifi-
cent. It has ieveral canals running tfarou^ the fireets^
which are of great fervice to their trade, efpecially as
they are continued to the lea and to the moft confider-
able tovims of the province. £• Long. 5. 42. N. Lat*

53-12.

LEEUWENHOEK (Anthony de), a celebrated
Dutch phyfician and naturalif!, was bom at Delft ki
1632, of an ancient family of that city t arid acquired
a very great reputation throughout all ^^iirope, by his
experiments and difcoveries. He particularly excel-
led in making glafTes for microfcopes and fpedlacles,
and died in 172^3.'" His letters to the royal fociety of
London, of which n^ was a member, were printed at
Lcyden, in' 1722, in 4to.

LEVY, in-law, fignifies to gather or colle£^; as to
levy money, and to levy a fine of lands in the pafling
a fine.

LEWENTZ, a town of Upper Hungary, in the
county of Gran, and on the river of the fame name,
where the Turks were defeated in 1644. ^* Long. 18.
19. N- Lat. 48. 15.

LEWES, a.large well-built town of SufTex in Eng-
land, feated on an eminence on the banks of the river
Oufe, 50 miles from London. It is famous for a
bloody battle near it, wherein King Henry III. was
defeated and taken prifoner by the barons ; and is fo
ancient, that we read the Saxon king Athelftan ap-
pointed two mint-houfes here, and that in the reign of
Edward the ConfefTor it had 127 burgeffes* It is a
jborougli by prefcription, by the flyle of conflables
and inhabitants. 1'he conitables are chofen yearly.
Jt has handfome flreets and two fuburbs, with fix pa-
«i(h churches. It carries on a good trade ; and the
river Oufe runs through it, which brings goods in
boats and barges from a port 8 mil^s off. On this ri-
•ver are feveral iron-works, where cannon are cafl for
merchant-ihipsy befides other ufeful works. A charity-

4 ] LEW

fchoolwas opened here in 171 1, where 20 boys are I^ewU.
taught, clothed, and maintained, at the expence of a
private gentleman, by whom they were alfo fumifhed
with books ; and 8 boys more are taught here at the
expence of other gentlemen. Here are horfe-racea
aliru>fl every fummer for the king's plate of L. loo.
The roads here are deep and dirty 4 but then it is the
richefl foil in this part of England. The market here
is on Saturday ; and the fairs May 6. Whitfun-Tuef-
day, and 06iober 2. Th^ timber of this part of the
county lA prodigioufly large. The trees are fome-
times drawn to Maidflone and other places on the
Medway, on a fort of carriage called a tug^ drawn by
22 oxen a h'ttle way, and then left there for other
tugs to carry it on ; fo that a tree is fometimes two
or three years drawing to Chatham ; becaufe, after
the rain is once fet in, it flirs no more that year, and
fometimes a whole fummer is not dry enough to make
the roads paffable. It is cheap living here ; and the
town not being under the dire6):ion of a corporation,
but governed by gentlemen, it is reckoned an excellent
retreat for half-pay officers, who cannot fo well confine
themfelves to the rules of a corporation. It fends two
members to parliament.

LEWIS, one of the largefl of the Hebrides or we«
ilem iflands of Scotland, extending about 60 miles in
length from north to fouth, and from 13 to 14 ia
breadth, confifling of a great number of ifles and rocks,
and parted by the fea into two divifions, called Lewu
and Barries^ the former lying to the weflward of the
other. Lewis behnigs to the fhire of Rofs ; is divided
by feveral channels, diflinguifhed by feveral namesy
and portioned out among different proprietors; but
die Lewis y flri^y fo called, flretches about 36 miles
in length, from the north point of Bowling-head to
the fouthem extremity of Huilinefs in Harries. The
air is temperately cold, moifl, and healthy $ great part
of the low ground is flooded, with lakes ; the refl is a-
rable in many places, and has been counted fruitful ia
oats, barley, rye, flax, and hemp. The foil in thefe
parts is a light fand, which the inhabitants manure
with foot and fca-ware ; but great part of the ifland
is covered with heath. The labouring people dig the
land with fpades, and break the clods vrith fmall har-
rows, .the foremofl teeth of which are made of wood,
and the remainder of rough heath, which fmooths what
the others have broken ; and this harrow is drawn by
one man, having a flrong trace of horfe-hair acrofs his
breafl. Of their corn they not only make malt for
ale, but likewife a flrong fpirit called trejiaregy which
16 the whifky, or ufquebaugh, three times diflilled.
Lewis abounds with convenient bays and harbours,
in which are -caught, in great plenty, cod, ling, and
herring : here are likewife whales of different iizes,
which the natives drive into the bays, and kill with
harpoons. Thefe bays afford great plenty of fliell-fifh,
Tuch as clams, oyilers, cockles, mufcles, lympits, welks^
and fuch a prodigious quantity of fpout-fifli is fome-
times cafl up from tlie fand off Loch-tua, that they in-
feft the air, and render it unhealthy to the neighbour-
ing inhabitants, who are not able to confume them,
either by eating, or ufing them as manure for the'
ground. Some of thefe lochs and bays likewife pro-
duce fmall coral and coralline. The frefh-^nter lakes
are well ftored with trout and eel«j and the rivers

yield

LEW

r 15 J

LEW

l^ewU. yieU plenty of £dmon. Along iht coaft arc found a
mat number of caves, which fenre as fhelter for the
feals and otterSy which are aMb eaten as dainties by the
inhabitants ; and vaft numbers of fea-fowl build upon
the rocks and promontories.

The land-animals reared in this ifland, are cows,
horfesy fheep, goats, hogs, and deer ; all thefe are of
a diminutive iize. The beef, mutton, and pork, are
tpicy and delicious ; the horfes are active and hardy z
the deer, which are of the red kind, confine themfelves
to the chace of Ofervaul, about 15 miles in compafs,
which affords tolerable pafturage ; but in the winter,
when the ground is covered with froft and fnow, thefe
animals are forced to feed on fea-ware, and endure all
the rigour of the feafon, without any Hielter from
wood or copfe, for there is not a tree to be feen ; ne^
vcrthelefs, the roots of very large trees, which have
been cut by the ax, are found in different places;
There is likewife a fmall grove of birch and hazle on
the fouth-wefl fide of Loch-Stomaway.

The inhabitants of Lewis are well-proportioned, tall,
£ur, fanguine, ftrong, and healthy. They are in gene-
ral fober, circumfped,' and hofpitable ; dexterous in
footing, fwimnung,And leaping ; bold and fkilful mari-
ners ; and fo temperate, that they will tug at the oar
all day, without any other provifion than bread and
water, with a fnufh of tobacco.

Along this coaft we fee feveral hatural mounts or
forts, called Dun ; fuch as Dun-rowly, Dun-coradel,
and Dun-eiffen. There are alfo the remains of fome
old caftles, and other monumenta of antiquity. At
Stornaway village we fee the ruins of a fortrefs dejlroy-
ed by the Engliih garrifon fent thither by Oliver Crom-
well. To the northward of Brago there is a round
tower buUt of large ftone^, three ffories high, taper^
ing towards the top, with a double wall, and a circu-
lar ftaircafe between, by which one may go quite

In dl probabflity, thefe, as well as the moonmeata we lE^^i
have defcribed in our account of the Orkneys, and
Stone-henge»on Salifbury-plain, were places of wor«
(hip ere6^ed by the Druids in time of Pagan fuperfti-
tioii. 'The chief town 'in Lewis is called Stor-
naway.

There is a coniiderable number of inferior adjacent
ifles and rocks, fome of which hardly deferve to be
mentioned; fuch as the fmall ifland Garvc at the
mouth of Loch Carlvay, Berinfay, Fladda, Bemera
Minor, and Bemera Major, Kialify, Cavay, Carvay^
Grcnim, Pibay, Shirem, Vexay, Wuya the Larger
and LefTer, and the FUmnan iflands, which the fcamen
denominate the northern hunters. Thefe are vifitcd
every fummer by the inhabitants of the Lewis, who
go thither in quefl of fowls, eggs, down, quills, and
feathers, as well as to fhear or kill the iheep that are
kept here for pafture. As thefe iflands are very ffeep
and rocky, the vifitors, after having landed and
climbed up the rock by a ladder, uncover their heads,
and, making a turn fun-ways, tkank God for having
efcaped the danger they have undergone. In the kr-
geft ifland are the ruins of a chapd dedicated to St
Flannan, from whom the ifles derive their name. Thi-
ther the fowlers repairing, flrip themfelves of their up-
per garments, which being laid upon a llone, they ad-
vance towards the altar, and repeat three prayers j an
exercife which is performed every morning and even-
ing. They obferve many other fuperffitious cufloma
during their refidence on thefe rocks ; and when they
have^landed their boat with their purchafe, return to
the larger iflands. Among the iflands belonging to
the Lewis, we may likewife take notice of the Snail
ifle of Pigmies, fo called, becaufe hones refembling
thofe of human creatures, but of very fmall dimenfions^
have been di^ out of the ground.

The ifland of Lewis is divided into the twoparifhea

round the building. On the heaths and fummits of of Barvas and Eye, and in each of thefe gne minifler
hills there are feveral cairns or heaps of ftones, which is fettled ; but there is a great number of churchea
ferved either for cfraves or beacons. In the parifh of and chapels dedicated to different faints, in the diffe»

Barvas we fee a fin^e flone called the thru/hel^ fland-
ing upright, above 20 feet high, and almofi as much
in breadth. Three flones, about 12 feet high each,
are feen ftanding on the north fide of Loch-carlvay ;
and many others ftanding fingle at great diflances,
and in remote parts of the ifland. But the mofl re-
markable monument of this kind appears by the village
of Clafiemifs. Here we find 39 pyramidal ftones fland-
mg upright, about fix or feven feet high from the fur-
face, each about two feet in breadth. They are pla-
ced in form of an avenue, eight feet wide ; the di-
ftance between every ft one amounting to fix feet, and
a fingle piece flands at the entrance. This avenue
leads to a circle of 1 2 flones of the fame dimenfions,
with one in the centre 13 feet in length, and ihaped

rent ifles which oompofe this clufler. AH thefe were
fan^luaries before the reformation, but now they arc
divcfled of that privilege. The people of thefe
iflands are Prefbyterians, with a few Proteftants of the
Englifh communion, and a Itill fmaller number of Ro-
man Catholics. The Proteflants obferve the feftivak
of Chriflmas, Good Friday, Eafler, and Michaelmas ;
on the lafl of which the individuals of both fcxes pei^
form an anniverfary cavalcade.

LEWIS, or Lou IS, the name of feveral kings of
France. See Erance.

Lewis VII. anno 1137, was the firfl who had the
courage to oppofe the encroachments of the popes on
the regal authority : Pope Innocent II. excommuni-
cated him for appointing an archbifhop of Bourges ;

like a rudder : on the eafl, fouth, and well fides of but Lewis defended his prerogatives, and put the

this circle, are four flones, fuch as thofe that compofe
this round and avenue, forming three lines, or as it
were rays from the body of the circle. This is fup-
pofed to have been a Druid temple ; and tradition re-
ports, that the chief Druid ftood by the \Kcg^ flone in
the centre, and harangued the audience. At the di-
ftance of a quarter of a mile there is another circle of
the fame nature ; but without the range tsA avenue

priefls to death who had been the authors of the quar-
rel. In 1 147, he put himfelf at the head of an army
of 8o,ocx> men, and marched againfl the Saracens, in
the fecond crufade, but was defeated 5 and returning
into France by fea, was taken by the Greeks, but
rcfcued by Roger king t>f Sicily. His queen £leo»
nora accompanied him tn this expedition ; and being
fufpefted of infiddity with Saladin, a young Turk^

Lewia

LEW [ i6

l&ewis. Lewis divorced her, and (he was married fix weeks
after to Henry duke of Normandy, (Henry II, king
of England). Lewis died in 1 1 8o» aged 60.

Lewis IX. anno 1226 (canonized), was one of the
greateft monarch s of France ; equally memorable for
his valour and his virtues, but unfortunately mided
by the fuperftition of the times : he facrificed his own
repofe, and the welfare of his kingdom, to the folly of
crufading. In 1248, leaving France to the care of
his mother, he embarked for Egypt, attended by his
queen, his three brothers, and the flower of the French
nobility. At firfl his vidlories were rapid : he took
Damietta in 1 249 ; but the following year he tvas
defeated and taken prifoner by the Turks, with all
the nobility in his train, and the greateft part of his
army. llie fultan fent to him in prifon, to de«
mand an exorbitant fum for his ranfom ; and his
anfwer being truly noble, deferves to be record-
ed : " Tell the fidtan, that a king of France is not
to be ranfomed with money ; I will give the fum re-
quired for my people, and Damietta for myfelf." Thefe
terms were accepted, and a peace of ten years enfued.
Upon his return to France, he diminifhed the taxes,
revoked thofe which the cupidity of the financiers had
introduced ; ifltied feveral falutary edi^ ; founded fe-
veral churches and hofpitals ; and effedkually overturn-
ed the .ecdefiaftical Jurifdi6iion of the court of Rome,
by his pragmatic (an£lion in 1 269, which eftablilhed
th^ independency of the Gallican church. Thirteen
years refidence in his capital indemnified his fubjefts for
his abfence ; but his pious zeal prevented the enjoy
ment of this happinefs : he embarked for the fixth cru-
fade in 1270 $ and di«d the fame year, at the fiege of
Tunis, aged §^.

Lewis XL anno 1461. His oppreflions obliged
his fubjedls to enter into a league againft him, ftyled
** Ligue de bien pukHq" in which his brother the duke
of Berri and fome of the principal nobility were con-
cerned : they folicited fuccoursfrom John duke of Cala-
bria, who joined them ivith 500 Swifs (the firft intro-
du6Uon of Swifs foldiers into the French armies.) His
reign was almoft one continued fcene of civil war; and
it is computed that 4000 of his fubje^ks were executed
in public find privately, either for being in arms againft
him, or fufpeded by him. In his laft illnefs, he
drank the warm blood of children, in the vain hope
of reftoring his decayed ftrength. He died in 1483,
aged 60. The pofts for letters were eftablifhed in his
reign, owing to his cagemefs for news ; the firft in-
ftitution of this nature in Europe.

Lewis XII. anno 1492, ftyled thejufi^ and the Fa-
ther of his people; memorable for his valour in the field,
and his wifdom in the cabinet. A great general; but
unfortunate towards the end of his reign, when he did
not command his troops in perfon : his orders tranf-
mitted from home were mifunderftood, or wilfully dif-
obeyed ; and he had the mortification, before he died,
to fee the total expulfion of the French from the pof-
feifions he had acquired for them by his perfonal bra-
very. At 53 years of age, he married the princefs
Mary of England, fifter of Henry VIII. and being
of a delicate conftitution, fell a vi6lim (according to
the French hiftorians) to amorous dalliance ; for he
died in about two months after his nuptials, in 1515*

Lewis XIII. anno 1610, increafed the military rc-
N« 181.

]

LEW

putation of his country, and made confiderable addi-
tions to its domains. The beginning of his reign was
occupied in civil wars with his mother and his Pro-
tefbint fubjei^s ; in which he was excited to continue
by his famous minifter cardinal Richelieu, who attend-
ed him to the fiege of Rochelle, the bulwark of the
Huguenot party. This p^ace was reduced by famine
to furrende'r, in 1628, after a fiege of more than a
year. Upon this and other occafions, the king gave
proofs of great perfonal bravery. His attachment to
his ally the duke de Nevers, who fucceeded to the
duchy of Mantua, but was refufed the invcftiture by
Charles Vl. emperor of Germany, involved him in a
war with that prince, the Spaniards, and the duke of
Savoy ; in which Lewis was vi6torious ; and obtained
a treaty of peace, by which the duke of Mantua was
guarantied in the pofleilion of his dominions. In 1635*
a new war broke out between France and iSpain, and
the emperor took part with the latter : it lafted 1 3
years againft the emperor, and 25 againft Spain, with
various fuccefs ; and the different armies kept on foot,
in the Low Countries, on the frontiers of France, and
in Italy, in the firft years of this war, paved the way
for the fignal fuccefles of Lewis XIV. the campai^s
of thefe armies being a military fchool of difciphne
and experience for the French officers, befides giving
them a knowledge of the countries which became the
feat of war in the next reig^. Lewis XIIL died 1643^
aged 41.

Lewis XIV. U Grand (king at five years of age),
anno 1643. He was at firft ftyled Dieu-tlonnrf be-
caufe the French confidered him a^ the gift of heavetiv
granted to their prayers after the queen had been
barren 22 years. This princefs (Anne of Auftria)
was declared regent by Lewis XIII. and faw herielf
under a neceffity to continue the war againft Philijp IV*
king of Spain, her brother. The duke d'Enguin was
made general of the French armies ; and fo fignal was
the fuccefs of this renowned warrior (afterwards prince
of^Cond^, and known by the ft^le of the Great Conde)^
that his vi^ories brought on the advantageous treaties
of Munfter in 1648, between France, the emperor
Ferdinand II L and Chriftina queen of Sweden : the
bafis of the aggtandifement of France in this reign ;
the principal events of which, and of the next, are re-
lated tinder the articles Britain, United Profincbs^
&c. Lewis XIV. died in 1 7 1 5, aged 77.

Lewis XV. (his great-grandfon) fucceeded in 1 7 1 5.
He was ftyled, in the courfe of his reign, the weli he-
iovedy which he loft fome years before he died ; and was
detefted and defpifed by his fubjeds for his (hameful
attachment .to a young girl, under the title of his
mfirefif who, by the miniftry of her patron the duke
d'AiguiUon, governed the kingdom, and invaded the
ancient rights and privileges of the people. He died
in 1774, in the 64th year of his age and 59th of his
reign.

LEXINGTON^ a town of North America, and
capital of Kentucky. It ftandd on the head waters of
Elkhom river, is reckoned the capital of Kentucky.
Here the courts are held, and bufinefs regularly con-
duced. In 1786, it contained about 109 houfes and
feveral ftores, with a good aflbrtment of dry goods.
It muft have greatly increafed fince.

LEX, Law. See Law.— The Roman laws were

CCT.

LEX r 17 1 3Ci E V

of tbree kinda: iftf Such as were made hy their kings* lex euriaHai if in the comkia emiunaia^ it bad the name Lcktardii

2d, The kw8 of the twehe tables brought by the De^ of lex cffUuriata; but if it pafied in the conntia trihutat x^en.

cewoiri from Athens, &c. Aqd, 3d» Such as were it was termed ^^^ww. The laws, too, generally bore

propofed by the fuperior magiflrates in the times of the names of the propofers, as lex MBa<i lex Ft^fia^ 3cc.
the rcpubb'c. The laws of this laft clafi were enaded Romulus ufed to make laws by his own iingle au«

in the following manner. thority, but fucceeding kings fought thi^jdpprobatioa

""^"of the people.

No law could be propofed but by fome of the fol-
lowing magiflrates, viz. the Prmtor^ the Cmjuhy the
Dlaaior^ the InUrrex^ the Decemviri, the Mi&tary Tri^
litneif Triumviri^ and Tribunes of the people. If anjr
of thefe propofed a law, it was firft committed to wri-
ting, and privately examined as to its utility and pro-
bable confequences, by fome perfons well qualified for
the uflc ; fometimes it was referred to the whole fe-
nate for their fentiments. It was then hung up pub<»
licly for three market-days, that all the people might
have tfme to examine it, and confider its tendency :
This \911s called legis pramufgatio^ quafi provulgatio^ If
the petfon who fnuned the bill did m>t fee caufe in the
mean time to drop it, the people were convened in
tomiiia, and he ad«lreired them in an oration, being alio
/econded by his friends, fetting forth the expediency
and probable utility of fuch a law : This was called
rog€iiio legisy becaufe the addrefs yms always prefaced
with this petitionary form *of words, VeHtis jubeatifutf
^iriict? <*Will you, O Romans, confent and order this
law to pafs ?" This being done, thoCe that di^iked
the motion delivered their fentiments in oppoiltion to-
it. An urn was then brought to certain priefls who
attended upon the occaiion, into which were cafl the
names of the tribes, centuries, or cmria^ as the cotmtia
happened to be trihtita^ centuriata$ or curiata^ The
names were (haken together ; and the firft drawn tribe
or century was called frsrojgativaf becaufe their fuffxa^
ges were firfl taken. The curia that was firfl drawn
was called frimcipium for the fame reafon. The other
tribes, centuries, &c. were called irihujure vacaUf tm-
turisjure vocais^ &c.

Matters being in this fituation, the vdo or negative
voice of the tribunes of the people might put an entire
end to the proceedings, and diifolre the affembly. The
tribune^s interference was caUcd itiierceffiQ. The conful
alfo had it in his poWer to flop further proceedings,
by commanding any of the holidays called feriaimpe'-
ntttvit to be obferved. The comiiia would of couiie
be diflblved alfo by any of the perfons prefent being
feized vrith the ^dling-ficknefs, or upon the appeai^>
ance of any unlucky omen. But fuppofing the bufi-
nefs to meet with no interruption of this fort, the
people were each of them pre&nted with two tablets,
on one of which was written in large chara&ers A« on
the other U. R. Their difapprobation of the bill was
ezprefled by throwing into an urn the tablet infcribed

LEXIARCHI, at Athens, fjx officers afTifted by
30 inferior ones, whofe bUfinefs it was to lay fines up-
on fuch as came not to the public aflemblies, and aUo
to make fcrutiny among fuch as were prefent.

The lexiarchi kept a regiiler of the age, manners,
and abilities of all the citizensi who were always in-
relled at the age of 20.

LEXICON, the fame with diaionary. The word
is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of Greek didlionaries : it is
derived from the Greek ^<l<t , word, didion ; of ^(^e' /

L£YD£N, in Latin Lugdunum Batavorunt^ one of
the largefl and finefl cities in Holland, abounds with
canals, along which are rows of lofty trees that afford
very plea&nt walks. An ana or fmall branch of the
Rhine runs through it. Over the canals are 145
bridges, mofl of them of flone or brick. The univer*
fity here is the oldefl in the United Provinces : it has
large privileges ; a library well fumifhed, and particu*
larly rich in manufcripts \ a phyfi9-garden* well flocked
with all forts of plants, many of which have been
brought from the Cape ' of Good Hope and the £afl
Indies ; an anatomy-hall, well provided with fkeletons |
and an obfervatory. The proKiTors, who are generally
very eminent, read public ledures four times a week^
fpr wliich they take no money, but about three guii*
neas are paid for a courfe of private le^lures, which
lads a whole year. The fludents have no diilind haj»
bit, but all wear fwords, though they generally go to
the public and private le^ures. in their night-gowna
and flippers. The falaries of the profefibrs are from
lOoL to 200]. a-year: they wear gowns only when
they prefide at public difputations, read public lee*
tures, or meet in the fenate ; and their le^lures are al'-
ways in Latin. The fludents do not lodge in the
univerfity, but where they pleafe in the town. Th$
cloth manufsuElure here is much decayed, which for-
meriy flourifhed to fuch a degree, that 100,000 pieces,
it is faid, have fometimes been made in a year. The
city is famous -for the long and fevere fiege it -main-
tained in 1573 againfl the Spaniards. We cannot,
help mentioning the reply of that iUuflrious magi«-
flrate, Adrian de Verf^ when the citizens reprefented
to him the havoc made by the famine during the fiege,
and infifled upon his furrendering : << Fnenda (faid
he), here is my body, di^e it among you to fatisfy
A. fignifying <^ I forbTd it;*' antique, **1 prefer the. your hunger, hut banifh aU thoughts of furrendering to

old.'' Their afient was fignified by throwing in the
tablet marked U. R. i. e. uti r<^as, *< be it as you de-
iire." According to the majority of thefe tablets the
law pafTed.or not. If it pafied, it was written up-
on, record, and carried into the treafury; this was
called legem ferre* Afterwards it was engraved upon
•plates of brafs, and hung up in the moA public and
confpicuous places : this was termed fegemfigere^ and a
^ture repeal of this laiw was kgem refigere.

li a law pafled in the <wmtiatwiriata^ it was called
Vol.. X. Part L

the cruel and perfidious Spaniard." They took his
advice, in regard to their not furrendering, and nevei
would liflen to any overtures ; but told the Spanuuds,
they would hold out as long as they had one arm to eat
and another to fight. Thexjp are fome finechurches here,
and many lon£, broad, handfome, fbreets ; but the Pa-
pifts, as at Haerlem* are more numerous than the
Proteflants.

Letden Phial, a phial coated on the infide and out-
fide with tinfoil^ or other proper conduding fubftance,

C and

L H n

tcyCora and fnniKKed with a hnb wire snd koofl» ibr giving
jll. the ekdbridl (hock. Sec £LECTRicrTr*/i^x.
^^^ Xvctfj voH LETDSiT. Sec Lucas*

L.EYS£RA| in >botany : A genua of the polyga-
mia fuperfliA order, belonging to the fyagenefia dafs of
plants ; ano^ the natur^ method ranking uhder the
49th order, C(mp^(£. The receptacle is naked ; the
pappus paleaceous ; that of the difc plumy ; the calyx
(carious.

L£ YT£, one of the Philippine iflaads in the Eaft
Indies, fituated in £. Long. 1 1 8. o. N» Lat. 1 1. o. Its
greateft length is about 40 leagues, and its circumfe-
rence about 90 or 100. Its foil on the eaft fide is very
fruitful ; but there are very high mountains which cut
it almofl tfaroogh the midcUcy and occafion fo great an
alteratioa in the air, that when it is winter on the
north fide, it is fummer on the fouthem part of the
ifland. Thus when the inhabitants of one half of the
ifland reap, the others fow ; and they have two plcn-
tifid harveils in a year, to vidiich the rivers running
down from the abovementibned mountains contribute
not a little. The ifland contains about 0000 inhabi-
tants, who pay tribute to the Spaniards in rice, wax,
and quilts.

LHUYD,Wr Lkotd (Humphrey), a learned anti-
Murian of the 16th century, boni at Denbigh, who ap-
plied himfelf to the ftudy of phyfic; and living moftly
within the walls of Denbigh caftk, pra6died there as a
phylician ; and died in 1 5 70, with the character of a wdU
bred gendeman. Ht wrote and tninflated feveral piccea
nlative to hifkory and aati^ities ; in particular. The
hiflory of Cambria, now called WaUt^ fix>m Caradoc
of Langcarvan, &c. but died before it was finifhed :
liowcwr» Sir Henry -Sidney, loid prefideat of Wales,
en^byed Dr Da^id Powd to finifh it, who publifhed
it m 1584. A new and issproved e«£tion of ^is work
was publifted in 1774.

Lhotb (Edward), keeper of the Mu&um at Ox-
{bad, waaa native of Soudi Waks, the fbn of Charies
Lhvyd, £fq; of Lkanvotde. He was educated at Je«
te College, Oxford, where he was created M. A.
Jaly ai» 1701. He was bred under Dr Hot,
nahom he fiiecacded as keeper of the Aihrnoleaii mde-
i«,aDdhadthett(eofa]lVaiigha»'scdleaioiia. With
kicefiaat labomr and great cxa&iefe he em^oyed a coai«
dnrable part of his kfe ia fearching into dM WeUh an-
tiqiiities ; had perofed or coBcdted a great deal of aaei-
•at and valuable asatter from their Ml^. ; tranfcribed all
the old diarters of Uieir moaafteries that he could meet
wkh; tnivcHed fieveral tinfes over Wales, C<MvwaU,
ScotluMl, Irelafid, Armoric Bretagne, countries iaha-
Jbtted by the fame people, coamared their Mtimiities, and
made oblervations on the whole; butdiedinjuly 170^
before he had digefbd then into the form of a difooiwK^
aahe intended, on the ancient inhabitants of this ifland^
The untimely death of this excellent antiquary prevented
the completing of many adauraUe defigns. Far want of
]«oper encowagemeRt, he did very kttle towards on-
«krftaadiag the BritiAi bards^ having feen but one of
thofe of the fisth cent«y> and not beiag able to pror
fore accefs to two of die principal libraries in the coun^
try. He communicated many obfervation» to Bifhop
Gibfon, wbofe edition of the Brit<mma h^ revifed | .and
fvbSlhcd ** ^Mnifhgut firkmujc^t S*^niig feme ae»

[' 18 ]

L I B

♦^»

coant additional to ^Aax has been hitherto pubE&ef^ JL^f^d-

of the languara, hjftories, aad cufloins of the original H

inhdbi.tants of Great Britain, from coliedions and ob- , ^°»^ ^

fervations in trttvds through Wdes, Cornwall, Baa

Bretagne, Ireland, and Gotland, VoL I. dofibgra*

phy, Oxford 1 707," fol. He left in MS. a Scotti*

or Iriih«£nglifh Didionary, propofed tq be publifhed in.

1732 by fubrcription,by Mr David Malcohxic^a minifler

of the church of Scotland, with additions ; as alfo the-

Elements of the (aid language ; with neoelFary and ufe*.

fol infomcHitiont for propagating more effe&ually the^

Engrlifh hiaguage, and for promoting the knowlege q£

the ancient Scottifh or Iri(h, and very many branchea

of ufeful and curious leamiag. Lhuyd, at the end of*

his preface to the Archeeologia, promlfes an hifloricaL

di6boaary of BritiA perfons aad places mentioned in

ancient records. It feems to have been ready for prefs».

though he could not fet the time of publicalion. IHa.

colle^ions for a fecond voLuate, which was to give aa

acconnt of the antiquities, monuments, &c. in the:

priacipi^ty of Wales, were nanMroos and well chofea V

but, on account of a quarrel between him and Dt

Wynne, then follow, afterwards principal of the college^

and bifliop of St Afeph, he refiifed to buy them, and

they were pnrchafed by Sir Thomas Seabright, o£

Beadtwood in Hertfordfhtre, In whole Hbrary the

greateft part dill Kmota^ but fo iodigeftcd, and writ-^

ten with fe many abbreviations, that aobody can un^*

dertake to publifh them. Hiey conM of about 40-

volumea in foKo^ 10 in quarto, and above ioo fmaller^.

and all relate to Iriih or Welfli antk|mties, and diief*

ly in thofe languages. Carta made extrads firon them.

iboxA or before 1 754) \ but thefe were chiefly hifloricaL

Sir John Seabright has given Mr Pennant 23 of Lhayd*8,

MSS. Latin and Eagli^ Many of his letten to Li-

ftn^ and other learned contemporaries, were given by

Dr FothepgiH to^ uaivu^ty of Oxford, andarcnei*

in the Af£miolean mufeum. Lhuyd undeitbok more

for ittaibaaiag this part c£/the kingdom than any one

maabeidcaever did,ortiia»a»y aa* man can be equal

LIBANIUS, a fomoua Gmk Aetoricka and fe^
phift in the 4th century, was boiv at Antioch^ and
had a great &art ia the friendAip of Jolum the A*
poftate. That prince oifored him the dignity of Jhrg*
fiSm Prstfio; but Libanius ir&ifed it, thiafciag the
naoM %ifiphift^ or prtfkffn^ ^ jfefurwfg, much BMxra
honouiabk. There art fl^ extant fievcral of his kt»
ters and Greek oralioBs, by which he. acquired great,
lepvtatian \ but his Ityle ia fomewhat %SkBxA and «lr»
fonre. He was a paffaa. Bafil and Cbryfoftam warn
his ^cipkB about the yea* 560. HSa letters wtsc
publiflMd at Amfberdam ia 1738 $ his onaiona at Ve-^
aice, 175J.

LIBANOMAMTIA, ia antiquity, a fpecles of
divinatioa performed with lirankinecnfe ; iidw^ if it
prefeatly ca^t ike» and^fcnt forth a gratclal odiAv^
was cAeemed a haq>py amen, and wt%erf^

LIBANUS, ijie nanw of a chain of tnauntajasoT
Turkey in Afia, which lie between Proper Syria aad
Ptdeftsne, extending, tvoas waft to call, from the Me«>
ditenraoean fea as ftr aa Arabn. The fumoiitS' ctf
thefe mountains are fo high, that they are alimaya go*
acred with Ikov \ hat heloiW are ncfy pleafiuit, and

fruitful

t I B { 1

XflAtba frnitlul T«Dey8«. They wtre formerly famous For the

"I great nunbcr of cedar-treet flrrowing thereon) but

Libct ^^j^ ^^^ gj^ ^jy fe^ remaining. Geograjphera di-

▼ ikiogttlih this- chain into Libanua and Antilibanus ^
the latter of which lies on the foath £de of the valley,
tiling near the ruins of Sidon^ ind terminates at o-
thers in Arabia, in N. Lat. )^ They are feparated
. from each other at an eqaal diftance throughout |
and form a bafoii» or country, called by the aocieUta
•^mU Syria,

LIBATION, amongft the Greeks and Romans, was
^n effential part of folemn facrifices. It was |}fi> per*
formed alone, as a drink offering, by way of procuring
~ the prote£lion and favour of the gods, in the ordinary
afiairs of life. Libaticma» according to the different
natures of the gods in honour of whom they were
jonadey coniiiled of different liquids, but wine was the
moft ufual. The wine offered to the gods was at-
vrays unmixed with water. We meet 'with Ub«tioiM
of water, libations of honey, libations of oulk, and
libations of oil ; thcfe are called »i»f«Ai« iif*. The lif
batlon was made with a ferious deportment and folemn
prayer. At facrifices, the libation, after it had been
tafled by the prieft, and handed to the byibnderi^
was poured upon the vidim* At entertainments, a
Bttle wine was generally poured out of the cup, be«
ibre the liquor began to circulate, to fhow their gra-
titude to the gods for the bleffings they enjoyed.

Uhations were alfo in ufe among the Hebrews,
who poured an hin of wine o« the vicdm after it was
JuBed^ abd the feveral pieces of the fiKaifice were hid
lOfi the ahar, ready to be confpmed in the flames.

Lib AW, a£ei^>ort town of Couiland, lying on the
Baltio fea, confifluig entirely of wooden houfes. It
Jbdoags to the duke of Courland, Iknd is fituated iiS £.
Long. 21. 27. N. Lat. $6. 27. .

LIBEL, flib^uifamofwjy Uken in iu largeft and
moft extenfive fenfe, fignifies any writing, pi£kure, or
the like, of an immoral or illegal tendency i but, in
« peculiar fenfe, is ufed to denote a malicious defama^-
ikm of any perfon, and efpecially a magiflrate, made
.public by either printing, writing, figns or pifbure^
sa order to provoke him to wnth^ or .expofe him to
pfttblic hatred, contempt, and ridicule. The direA
tendency of thefe libels is the breach of the public
pcace» by flirriflig up the ohj^s of them to revenue,
"^ad pcrhape to bk>odfhed* The . eotmnanication of a
iibel to any one perfbn is a publication in the eye of
tke law : and therefore the fending an abufiye private
letter to a man . is as much a libel as if it were openly
printed, fcr it equally tends to a bre^h of the peace.

With regard to h'bels in geneoral, there are, as in
many other cafes, two remedies ; ono by indi<fbnent,
iod another by -action. The former f6r the pMic of-
fence ; for every Ubd has a tendency to break the
peace, or provoke others to break it : which offence
ts the feme whether the matter contained be true or
falfe ; and therefore the defendant, on an indi<^ment
iixr puhHfhiag a libel, is not adk>wed to allege the truth
of it by way of juiiification. But in the remedy by
^^on oa the cafe, which is to nepair the party in Aa^
mages for the injury done him, the defendiant may, aa
for words fpoken, juftify the truth of the fads, and
flioir thait the plaintiff has received no ii^iuy at alL
What was fesd latk ivgarfi to wprda-%>ake«9 will ai£^

g 3 1 I B

hold in evoy particular with regard to libels by wri- IJfc dl^*
ting or printing, and the civu a£iions confeque^it ^' ^ '
thereupon : but as to iigns or piAures, it foeras necef«
fery always to (how, «by proper innuendos and aver-*
ments of the defendant's meaning, the import and ap«
plication of the ipindal, and that fome fpecial daniag<;
has followed ; otherwife it cannot appear, that fuck liv
bel by pi6^ure was underffood to be levelled at tlie
plaintiff, or that it was attended with any adignabl^^
confequences.

In a civil adion, theii^ a libel muft appear to be
feUe, as well as fcandalous ; for, if the charge b«
true, the plaintiff has received no private injury, and
has no ground to demand a compenfetion for him-
felf, whatever offende it may be againfl the public
peace: and therefore, upon a civil a^on, the truth
of the accufetion may be pleaded in bar a the fuit.
But, in a criminal profecution, the tendency Which
aU libels ha^ve to create animoilties, and to difturb the
public peace, is the fole confideratibn ef the law*
And therefore, in fuch profecutions, the only pointa
to be coniidered are, firft, the making or publishing >
of the book or writing \ and, fecondly, whether the
matter be criminat : and, if both thefe pcnats are m*
gainft the defendant| the offence againft the puhHc itf
complete. The pimifliment of fuch Ubellers, for either
making, repeau'ng, printing, or publifliing the VbAf
is a fine, and fuch corporal punlfhment as the court ia
its difcretion ihall inflt6l ; regarding the quantity of
the offence, ^d the quality of the offender. By th«
law of the twelve Ubks at -Rome, 13>d8, which afiec^
ted the reputation of another, were nuule a capital of*
fence : but, before the reign of Auguftus, the puni(h-i
ment became corporal on^t Under the emperor Va*
lentiaian it was again made capital, not only to writer
but to publifh, or even to omit deftroying diem*
Our kw, in this and many other refpeds, correiponds
rather with the middle age of Ronum jurifprudence»
when liberty, learning, aad humanity, were in their
full vigour, than with the cruel edids that were eftaU
bHfhed in the dark and tyrannical ages of the ancient
decemviri, or the latter emperors.

In this, and other infUnces, where UaiphemouSi
Immoral, treafonable, fehifmatical, feditidns, or (can«
dalous Ubels are puniihed by the EngUflihw, fiMoe
with a greater, others with a lefs degree of feverity |
the Jittnjr of the prtft^ properly uadcrffood, is by no
means infiinged or violated. . See LiBEHtr if tie

LIBELLA, apiece of money amotfgft the Re^
mans, being the tenth part of the denarius, and equsl
in value to the as. It was called Bei/a^ as .bemg a
little pound, becaufe equal to a pound of brafs. — Its
value in our nu)ney ia i ob. x qiu or a half*penny far«
thing. See Money*

Li BELLA, or LaheBuIof ia zoology, a yenus
of four-winged flies, called ia £ngli(h dragnnfies^
or adder JTtes ; the charaders of which are thefe t The
moutli is fiimiflied with jaws : the feelers' are (hort-
esc than the breaft ; aad the tail of the male teb- « ^
xninatei in a kind i>f hooked fofoeps* There are zt ccLXXiT*
(pecies, chiefly diftlnguiihed by thef)* oelour. They
have all two very lai]^ aad reticulated eyes^ covering
the whole furfiice of the head« They Sif very fwiftly ^
^mkI prey i^oa the wing, deanqg tie air of ianumer-

C « ' aUe

L I t

iJMli^ able little flies. They are found in Auguft and Sep-
• tembcr in our fields and gardens^ efpecially near places
where thefc are waters, as they have their origin from
worms living in that element. The great ones ufually
live all their time about waters ; but the (mailer are
common among hedges, and the fmalleft of all fre-
quent gardens. The finaller kind often fettle upon
bufhesy or upon the ground ; but the large ones are
almoft always upon the wing, fo that it is very diffi*
^ult to take them. Their eyes are beautiful obje6l8
for the microfcope. The largeft fpecies is produced
from a water-womi that has fix feet, which, yet
young and very (mall, is transformed into a chfyfalis,
that has its dwelling in the water. People have thought
they difcovered them to have gills like fifhes. It wears
a malk- as perfe6Uy formed as thofe that are worn at a
mafquerade; and this mafk^ faileoed to the infe^l's
neck, and which it moves at will, ferves it to hold
its prey white it devours it. The period of trans-
formation being come, the chrvfalis makes to the
water-fide, undertakes a voyage m fearch of a conve-
nient place ; fixes on a plant, or fticks faft to a bit of
dry wood. Its (kin, grown parched, fplits at the up-
per part of the thorax. The winged infeft iflues forth
gradually, throws off its dough, expands its wings,
flutters, and then flies off with gracefulnefs and eafe.
The elegance of its flender (hape, the richnefs of its
colours, the delicacy and refplendent texture of its
wings, afford infinite delight to the beholder.. The
fexiud parts of the libellulab are differently fituated in
the male and female. It is under the body at the
joining of the thorax, that thofe parts are difcovered in
the males : thofe of the females are known by a (lit
placed at the extremity of the body. Their amours
Conclude in a rape. The male, while hovering about,
watches, and then feizes the female by the head with
the pincers with which the extremity of his tail is arm-
ed. The ravi(her travels thus through the air, tjll the
female yielding to fuperior ftrength, or rather to incli-
nation, forms her body into a circle that terminates at
the genitals of the male, in order to accompli(h the

?urpofe of nature. Thefe kind of rapes are common,
iibellulae are feen thus coupled in the air, exhibiting
the form of a ring. The female depofits her eggs in the
water, from whence fpring water-worms, which after-
wards undei^ the fame transfbrmalions.'

LIBELLI, was the name given to the biUs which
were put up amongffc the Roinans, giving notice of the
time when a (how of gladiators would be exhibited,
^ith the number of combatants, and other circum-
•ftances. This v^as called mtmus fronunciare oxproponere*
— Thefe bills were fometimes termed tdiSa* Thefe pu-
blic notices were given by the perfon who defigned to
#blige the people with Ae (how, and were frequently
attended with pi^ures reprefenting the engagement of
fbme cetebyated gladiatorsw This cuftom is alluded to
by Horace, lib. ii. (at. vii. v. 96, &c.

There vi^as alfo«the famofus Tthelhu^ a defamatory li-
bel. Seneca calls them eonhtnuRofi RhelU^ infamous
rhymes, which by a Roman ordinance were puni(hable
with death. Libellus alfo in the civil law fignifies the
declaration^ or f(ate of the profecutor' charge againft
the defendant \ and it has the like (ignification in our
fpiritual courts.

IJB£R| ia Tcgcuble^ the bark or rittd> pnnci-

20 ] LIB

pally of trees. This is to be conceived as confiding of a
number of cylindric and concentric furfaces whole tex-
ture is reticular, and in foihe trees plainly extrufibk
every way, by reafon that 5ie fibres are foft and flex-
ible. While in this condition, they are either hollow
regular canals, or, if not fo, they have interftitial fp»-
ces which ferve the ofiice of canals. The nutritious
juice which they are continually receiving, remains iil
part in them, makes them grow in length and thick-
nefs, and ftrengthens and brings them clofer together ;
and by this means the texture which was before reticu-
lar ^becomes an afTemblage of ftraight fibres ranged ver-
tically and parallel to each other ; that is, as they are
thvs altered behind one another,* they by degrees be-
come a new fubftance, more woody, called hlea*

LIBERAj in mythology, the name of a goddefs,
which Cicero, in his book Of the Gods, reprefents as
the daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. Ovid in his Fa(U
fays that the name was given by Bacchus tp Ariadne.

Libera is exhibited on medals as a kind of female
Bacchus, crowned with vine leaves.

LIBERAL ARTS, are fuch,a8 depend more on the
labour of the mind than on that of the hands ; or, that
confifl: 'more in fpeculation than operation-; and have
a greater regard to amufement and curiofity than to nc«
ceflity.

The word comes from the Latin ItbergUsi which 9f
mong the Romans fignified a perfon who was not a
(lave \ and whofe wiU^ of confequence, was not check-
ed by the conmiand of any mafter.
- Such, are grammar, rhetoric, painting, fculpture^
architedure, mufic, &c. The liberal arts ufed for*
Qierly to be fummed up in the following Latin verfe :
Littgudf Troput^ Ratio^ Numerusy TonuSf Angultu, A/ir0.
And the mechanical arts, which, however, are innu*
merable, under this :

An/, Nanus f AhnOf Fabery Fuittenif Lana, Rata.
See Arts.

LIBERALIA, fcafts celebrated by the ancient
Romans, in honour of Liber or Bacchus,- the fame
with thofe which the Greeks called Dionysia, and
Dumjifiaca.

' They took their name from £^r, i. e. free^ a title
conferred on Bacchus in memory of the •liberty or
freedom which he granted to the people of Bceotia ^
or, perhaps, becaufe wine, whereof he was the repu*
ted diety, delivers men from care, and fets their mind
at eafe and freedom. Varro derives the name of thia
ieaft from liber, confidered as a noun adje^ve, and fig*
nifying free ; becaufe the prie(b were free from their
function, and eafed of all care, during the time ^f the
liberalia : as the old women officiated in the ceremonies
and facrifices of thefe feafts.

LIBERIA, in Rbman antiquity, a feftival obferved
on the 1 6th of the kalends of April, at which time the
youth laid afide their juvenile habit for the toga virilis,
or habit peculiar to grown men. See the article

ToiSA.

LIBERTINES, Libertini, in ecclefiafbcalhiftc
ry, a religious (ciSk^ which arofe in the year 15259
' whofe principal tenets were, that the Deity was the fgle
operating caufe in the mind of man, and the inunedi*
ate author of all human a6Uons ; that, confequently, the
didindtions of good and evil, which had been e(bd>li(hedi
iritb regard to thofe a£tiosi|. woe faUe and grouodlefs,.

zsaSk

LIB [2

X^(beninci,aQd that aien could not, properly fpeaking, commit
'* fin ; tliat religion confifted in the union of thefpiritor
"* rational foul with the Supreme Being ; that all thofc
.who had attained this happy union, by ful^ime con-
.ten^plation and elevation of mind, were then allowed
to indulge, without exception or reftraint, their appe-
tites or paflions ; that all their actions and purfuits were
then perfectly innocent ; aiid that, after the death of
the body, they were to be united to the Deity. They
likewife (aid that Jefus Chrift was nothing but a mere
jt nefgai quoi^ compofed of the fpirit of God, and of the
opinion of men.

Thefe maxims occafioned their being called Lilfer-
tines ; and^ the word has been ufed in an ill fenfe ever
iince.

The Liberttni fpread principally In Holland and Bra-
bant. Their leaders were one Quintin, a Picard, Poc-
kefius, Rufibs, and anoth^ calleS Chopin, who joined
with Quintin, and became his dJfciple. .

This fe£i obtained a certain footing in .France thro*
the favour and prote^on of Margaret, queen of Na»
varre, and filler to Francis I. and found patrons in fe-
▼eral of the reformed churches. This fe£l was pro-
t>ably a remnant of the more ancient. Beguards or
Brethren of the Free Spirit.

LiBBtiTiNRs of Genemat were a cabal of rakes rather
than of £ematic8 ; for they made no pretences to any
rdigioos fyftem, but pleaded only £>r the liberty of
leading voluptuous and immoral lives. This cabal was
compofed of a certain number of licentious citizens,
who* could not bear the fevere difcipline of Calvin, who
punifhed with rigour not only diflblutci manners* but
alfo whatever bore the afpedl of irreligion and impiety.
In this turbulent cabal there were feveral perfons who
were not only notorious for their diflblute and fcanda-
loua manner of living, but alfo for their atheiftical im-
piety, and contempt of all religion. To this odious
clafs belonged one Oruet, who denied the divinity of
the Chriflian religion, the immortality of the fouls the
.difference between moral good and evil, and rejected
with difdain the do^brinea that are held moft (acred
among Chnftians ; for which impieties he was at laft
brought bcib^ the civil tribunal, in the year 1 550, and
condemned to death. The Genevan fpirit of reforma-
tion, improperly direded'by the- violence and eeal of
Calvin, did at this time operate to a decree wRich has
^narked the chamber of thii^ great reformer with re*-
proach. For in 1544, Sebafiian Caibdio, mafter of
- the public fchool at Geneva, who was a man of probity,
and diftinguiihed by his learning and tafte, was, never^
thelefs, depofed from his office and banifhed the city,
becaufc he difapproved fome of the mcafures that were
pu;rfued and fome of the opinions entertained by Calvin
and his colleagues^ and particularly that of abfolute.
. and unconditional predeilinatioq. Jerome Bolfec alfo,
a man of genius and learning, who became a convert
.to the Proteilant religioa and fled to Geneva for pro-
te6lion, was cail into prifon, and foon after fent into
banifhnienty becauie,. in iSS^% he imprudcritly and in-
decently declaimed, in full congregation-and at the dofe
qi public wcdhip, againfi the do£krine of abfolute de-
crees.

jLIBERTUS, or LiBERTiMus, among the Romans*
a fireedman^.or. a gerfon iet free from a legal ftnri-

I ] LIB

Thefe flill retainAJ fome mark of their ancient (late : LibertjrJ
he who made a (lave free having a right of patronage
over the lihtrhit ; fo that if the latter faned of (bow-
ing due refpe6l to his patron, he was reftored to hit
fervitude; and if the libertus died without children*
his patron was his heir. See Slave.

In the beginning of the republic, Rhertinus denoted
the fon of a IHwrhu or frcedman ; but aften^'ards; be-
fore the time of Cicero, and under, the emperors, the
terms tt^rtus and iibertmuif as Suetonius has remarked*
were ufed as fynonymous.

LIBERTY, denotes a ftate of freedom, in contr^^^
diilindlion to Jlavery or reftraint ; and xriay be con^
(idered as either natural or dW.

The abfolute rights of man, confidered as a free
agent, endowed with difcemment to know good fromv
evil, and with power of choofing thofe meafures whicbuv
appear to him to be moft defirable, are ufually fum«
med up in one general appellation, and denominated^
the natural liberty of mankind. This natural liberty
confifts properly in a power of a6ling as one thinks '
fit, without any reftraint or controul, unlefs by the
law of nature ; being a right inherent in us by birth*
and one of the gifts of God to man at his creation*
when he endued him with the^ faculty of .free-wiU.
But every man, when he enters into fociety, gives up
a part of his natural liberty* as the price of fo va-
' luaUe a purchafe ; and, in confideration of receiving
the advantages of mutual commerce* obligees himfelf
to conform to thofc laws which the community has >
thought proper to eftablifh. And this (pecies of le-
gal obedience and conformity is infinitely more defire-
able than that wild and favage liberty which is facri-
ficed to obtain iti For.no man* thatconfiders a mo-
ment, would wiih to retain the abfolute and uncon*
trouled power of doing whatever he pleafes : the con*
fequence of which is*, that every other man ^ould alfo
have the fame power; and then there would be no
fecurity to individuals ia any of the enjoyments of^
life..

Political, therefore, bn civile liberty, which is that*
of a member of fociety, is no. other. than natural li-
berty, fo har reffanained by human law^.(and no farther )-
as is neceffary and •expedient for the general advantage
of the public* Hence wo may colle^l* . that the law^ .
which reftrains a maq from doing mifphief to his fel-
low citizens, though., it. diminifties the natural* in-
creafes the civil liberty of mankind :. but every wan<«
ton and caufekfs reftraint of the will< of the .fubjed*
whether p'ra^ifed by a monarch* a nobility, or a po-
pular aifembly, is a degKe of tyranny* Nay, that-
even laws themfelves* . whether made, with or without
our confeiit,.if they regulate and cpnftrain our c^ndtt6l
in matters of mere indifference, without any good end .
in view, are laws deftru^ve of liberty : whereas* if
any public advantage can arife from . obferving fuch
precepts, the controul of our private inclinations* ia ^
one or two particular points, will conduce to preferve .
our .genend fireedom in others of more importance*
by fupporting that ftate. of fociety which^ alone can ■
fecure our independence. • Thus ^the ftatute of king.
Edward IV. which forbad the fine gentlemen of tho&
times (under the degree of a lord) to wear pikes upoia*
their (hoes or boots of more than two inches in lengthy
"Viaa aJaw that. favoured of oppreffioni .becaafe*^hoWi»

C»cr.

tIB l««3 LIB

Xfberty. s^er'ndk'uhcft thiti fiifliion then m ti% migbt appear, be as coafiaiitl]^ denounced againfk aH tbde tktt bf
ihe reftrainuig it by pecuniary penalties coukd ferv« word, deed, or counfel, a& contrary thereto^ or in ally
BO putpofe of common utility. Bat die ftatute of degree infringe it« Next by a multitude of fubCequent
King Charles II. which prefcribes a thing feemingly corroborating ftatntes (Sir£dward Coke^reckonsjs)^
M indifferent, vm. a drefs for the dead, who were all -— ___^-

ordered to be burled in woollen, is a law coafifteni
'tvith public liberty; for it encourages the ftaj^ trade,
-on which in great meaiure depends the univcrfal good
of the nation. So that laws, when prudently framed^

Miacifl.

from the firft Edward to Henry I V» Then, after a
long interval, by the fditlm of right; which was a par«
liamentary dedaration of 4he liberties of the pe<^ile,
affented to by King Charles f » in the beginning of his
reign. Which was clofely IbUowed by the ftm more

«re by no atieans fubverilve, but rather introdu6liTe, <tf ample conceffions made by that unhappy prince to his

liberty; for .(as Mr Locke has well obferved) where
•there is no law there is no freedom. But then, on
the other hand, that conftitution or irame of govern*
ment, that fyflem of laws, it alone calculated to mai»>
-^in civfl liberty, which leaves the fubje£t entire ma«
iter of his own condu6^, except in thofe points where^
-in the public good requires fome direction or reftraint.

pariiameftt, before the fatal rupture between them^
and by the many falutary bws, particulary the habeoi
e$rfut fk^i paffed under Charles II. To thefe fucceed*
ed the aU of rlgkty or declaration dcHvered by the lords
and commons to the prince and princefs of Orange,
T3th February 16B8; and afterwards enaded in par-
liament, when they became king and queen: which de*

The sidea and pradiice of this political at civil ii* <claration concludes in thdfe remarkable words ; ^ and
•berty flouri(h in their higkeft vigour in thefe king* they do claim, demand, and Infift upon, all and fingu*
doms, where it falls little mort of perfeftion,' and can lar the premifts, as their undoubted rights and liber-
only be loft or dcftroyed by the folly or demerits of ties." And the a6t^of parliament itfelf recogrnifes ** all
its owner ; the legiflatuie, and of cdurfe-the \xw% of and fingular the rights and liberties afierted and dainv
Britain, being peculiarly adapted to the prefervatioa «d in the fiud declaration to be the true, ancient, asd
^f this ineftimable bleffing even in the meaneft fubje^ indubitable rights of the people of this kingdom.

•Very different from dke modem conftitutions of other

!ilates on the continent of Europe, and from the genius

-of the imperial kw ; which in general aic calculated

-to veft an arbitrary and defpotic 'power, of controul-

Ing the anions of the fid>je6t, in the prince, or in a

.few grandees. And this ^irit of liberty is fo deeply

implanted in our conftitution, and rooted even in our

-very foil, that a (late oir a negro, the moment he lands

in Britain, falls under the prote^ion of the laws, and

'4b hx becomes a freeman ; though the mafler's right

-to his fervice may poffibly fUll continue.

■ The abfolute rights of every Briton (which, taken

''$n a political and extenfive fenfe, are nfually called

their l^erties}^ sis they are founded on nature and rea-

/on,,fo they are .co^vid with our form of government;

-though fubjed at times \o flu6tuate and change, their

.eftabliifhment (excellent as it ia^ being ftill human.

At. fome times we have feen them depreffed by over*

•bearing and tyrannical princes ; at others, fo luxuriant

as even to tend to anarchy, a worfe fUte than tyranny

kfelf, as any government is better than none at all.

But the vigour of our free conftitution has always de^-

iwtied the nation from thefe embarraflments : and, as

foon as the convulfions^ confequent on the ft]*ugg^e have

been over, the balance of our rights and libertiei has

fettled to its prc^>er level ; and their fundamental ai^-

ticles have been from time to time ailerted in pariia-

ment, as often as they were thought to be in danger:

Firll, by the great charter of liberties, which was
obtained, fword in hand, from King John,- and after-
wardiB) with fome alterations, confirmed in parliament
by King Henry III« his fon. Which charter contain-
ed very few new grants; but, as Sir Edward Coke ohr
ferves, was for the moft part declaratory of the prih-
ctpal grounds of the fundamental laws of England.
Afterwards, by the ftatute called ejnfirmatiB cariarvm^

Laftly, thefe Lberties were again a&rted at the coni*
mencement of the prefent century, in the aS rf fettle^
mattf whereby the crown waa limited to his prefent
majefly's illuftrioys houie : and fome new pioviiions
were added, at the fame fortunate ena for better £ecii*
ring our religion, laws^ and liberties ; which the fta*
tute declare^ to be ** the birthri^t of the pcqple of
England,'' according to the ancient doAixne oi the
common law.

Thus much for the dechratiom of our rights and li-
berties. The rights themfelves, thus defined by theic
fevend ibtutes, confift in a number of private immur
nities ; which will appear, from what has been pre^
-nifed, to be indeed no other, than either that refi^
dttum of natural liberty, which is not required by the
laws of fociety to be facrificed to public convenience )
or elfe thofe civil privileges, which fociety hath enga-
ged to provide, in lieu of the natural liberties fo given
up by individuals^ Thefe therefore were formerly, ei-
ther by inheritance or pmx^hafe, the rights of all man-
kind; but, in moft other countries of the world, being
now more or lefs debafed and deftroyed, they at pre-
fent may be faid to remain, in a peculiar and emph»>
tical manner, the rights of die people of Britain. And
thefe Bkay be reduced to three principal or primary ait*
tides ; the right of perfonal fccurity, the right of f>er-
fonal liberty, and the right of private property : hft"
eaufe, as there is no other known method of compul-
fion, or of abridging man's natural free-will,' but bf
an infiringement or diminution ef one or other 'of the^
important rights, the prefervation of thefe inviolate
may jtrftly be faid' to mclude the prefervation of ouf
tVA immunities in their laigeil and moft extenfive fenfe.
Seethe article Rights.

In vain, however, would thefe rights be declared^
afcertained, and proteded by the dead letter of the

whereby the great charter is dire^ied to be tdloived aa laws, if the -conftitution ha^ provided no other m»>
the common hw ; alljudgments contrary to it art de- thod to fecure tlieir a^lual enjoyment. It has ther«-
^toed void ; copies of it are ordered to be f ent to d lore efta^Kfted certain other auxiliary fubordinaite righta
^thodnd churehes, and read twice n*year to the peo« of (lie fubje^, which ferve principally as banriers to
jpfe } and fcnteoce of cxcoznMiaication is dif^^Aed to protect and maixOain inviolate the three great and ^-

mary

LIB

t 2i J

LIB

naj rigliCB» of perlbnal ftcority, perfi>»at libertyi and «• lo. upon thediffolatioa of the cotut of ftar-cliamlicr, LUxrtfJc^

private pr«q>exty. Tlicfc «rc,

I. The conilitutioiiy powerSf and privfleges^of par-
liament ; for which fee Pahliambht.

a. The liinitation of the king*& prerog^ve, by
bounds fo certain and notorious, that, it is impoi&ble
he fhould exceed them without the coafeht of the peo-

that neither ba$ nuyefty, nor his privy-councily have
any jurifdi6kiony power» or authority^ by Englifh bil^
petition, articles, libel (which were the courfe of pro*
ceediog in the ftar-chamber, borrowed from the civil
law), or by any other arbitrary way whatfoever, to ex*
amine, or draw into quefUon, determine,, or difpoft

pk s as to which, fee Prerogative. The former of of the lands or goods of any fubje6b of this king*

. A • « « • ^1 • •11 t.< 4* 1 t..i..i^ ^..1.** «i.

thefe keeps the legiflative power in due health and vi*
gour, fo as to make it improbable that laws ihould
be eaa6led deftru6^Ive of genend liberty : the latter is
a guard upon tlie executive power, by retraining it
from ading either beyond or in contradi^on to the
laws that are framed and eftablifhed by the other.

3. A third fubordinate right of every Britoa is that
of applying to the courts of juflvce for nedreis of in-
juries. Since the law is, in this realm, the fupreme
arbiter of every man's life, liberty, and property.
Courts of juiiice mufl at all times be open to the fub-
jed^^and the law be duly admiiiiftered therein. The
tmphatical words of mogua carta f (poken in the perfon
of the king, who is judgment of kw (fays Sir Edward
Coke) is ever prefent and repeating them in ^ his
courts, are thefe i NmiB vetuUmus^ ttulU megMmMSt aui
dtferemus redum vei jv/IUum ; " and therefore every
fubje^ (continues the fame learned author), for injury
done to him in horns, m urrh, velperfimtf by any other
fiibjed, be he ecclefiailical or -temporal, without any
exception, may take his remedy by the courfie of the
law, and have juftice and right for the injury done to
"Kim, freely without fale, fally without any denial, aad
fpeedily without delay.'' It were eadkfs to enumerate

dom ; but that the fame ought to be tried and deter-
mined in the ordinary courts of juiiice, and by courji

4. If there (hould happen any uncommon injury, or
infringement of the rights before mentioned, which
the ordinary courfe of law is too defe^ve to reach»
there ilill remains a fourth fubordinate right, apper*
taining to every individual, namely, the right of peti-
tioning the king, or either houfe of parliament, for
the redrefs of grievances. In Rufiia we are told, that
the Czar Peter eftablifhed a law, that no fubjed might
petition the throne tiU he had firft petitioned two-
di£Ferent miniflers of flate. In cafe he obtained jufticc
from neither, he might then prefent a third petitioa
to the prince ; but apon pain of death, if found to be
in the wrong. The confequence of which vms, that
no one dared to offer fuch third petition ; and grie^
trances leldom falling under the notice of thefoveneign^.
he had' littk opportunity to redrela them« The re-
ftri(£iian8> for fome there are, which are laid upon pe-
titioning in Britain, are of a nature extremely different ^
and while they promote the fpirit of peace, they are'
no check upon that of liberty. Care only mufk be
taken, lefly under the pretence of petitioning, the fub»

ail the affirmaiivi ads of parliament, wherein juftice it jed be guilty of any riot or tumult ; as happened ta

drreded to be done according to the law of the land :
and what that law is, every Cubjefl knows | or na^
know if he plea&s : for it depends not upon the arb»*

nwin of any judge \ but is permanent* fixed* aad
sflgeable, unleis by authority of parfianent. We
fliall however juft mention a few negativi flatutes,
whereby abufes, perycrfioaii, or deli^s of juftice, efpe*
cially by the prerogative, are veftrained. It is ordain-
ed by wMffM carta^ that no freeaoain fiiall be outlawed,
that is, put o«C of the prote^on and benefit of the
bws, bur according to the law of the land. By 3
£dw. III. c. 8. and 1 1 Ric II. c. lo. it is eaa^ied,
that BO oQSunanda ux letters fhdl be fe»t under the
great feal* or the Sttle feal* the %net or privy feali
m difturbance of the law; or to diflurb or delay
common right : andt though fuch comwaadments
fliottld come, the judges fhall net ceale to do right }
which IB aUb made a part of their oath by ftatute
i« £dw. III. it4. AaA by i W« ^M. ft.a« c. %•
\t is dedareci^ that the preteadod power of fafpeading
o^ di^ieafing with laws, or the execution of lawa^ by
ifegal authority without confait of parliaawat* is ii«
legal

Not only tLe fubftantiid part, or )»dieial decifioiM»
of the laflF^ hut aUo the forasal part,^ or method of
proceeding, cannot be akcfod but by pailiamettt : for,
ifcmce thofc outworks weve denoliihed^. these would

the opening of the memond>le parliament in i640e
and, to prevent this, it is provided by the ftatute 1^.
Car. IL ft. I. c. 5. that no petition to tlie king, or
either houfe of parliament, for any alteration in church-
or ftate, fliall be figned by above 10 perfons, nnlefa
the matter thereqf be approved by three jaftices of the
peace, or the maior part o£ the grand jtny, in the
country ; «nd ia London, by the lord n&ayor, alder-
asep, and comnMn-eouscil : nor fiiall any petition be^
prefented by mom than 10 perfbns at a time. But»
under thefe reguhtions, it is declared by the ftatute
I W. & M. ft. a. c. 2. that the fubjea hath a rig^t
to petition; and that aS commitments and profecutioaa
ibrfiich petitioning are UkgaL

5. The fifth aad laft auxiliary right of the fiibjedl,
thai we flmU at present mention, is that of haring arms
ibr their defence, imtable to their aondition smd de-
gree, and fuch as are allowed by law; Which is aMb
dackred by the fame ftatnte i W. & M. ft. a. c 2,
and is indeed a pvhUe allowance, mnier doe ttScnoH''
ti«M, of the natacal right of lefiftance and fieif^pre-
fervation,. when the fawfUoBS of ibciety and hfPS
are found iafafficicnt to veftram- the viohmoe of op»^
premon.

In thefe fcveral aattdea confift the rightBr or, aa
they ase frequently termed^ tb§ libertidt ^Brtiom •* li-
bevtifls more geiKraU^ talked of, thaft thorougfiiy itn-

be an inlet to all manner of innoivation isthe body of derflood ; aekd yet highly aeuftaiy to be perfectly

the law it&lL The king,, it is true, may craft new Iii^wb and eoofidered by evefy man of s^utk or p«o»

courta of juftice ; hut then they muft pnoosed accoed* peMy^ left his %»onince of the points whereon thcy

isg aa^ the old eftaUiihed forms of the common law^r ave fiiunded ihodd hurry hmi into fiM^boa and licen^

Knt whicE icsa£w itia deobMEod iatltf ibme m5 Car. L tievfacfs ett ^. cMBC^haad^. ar a. gnfilhitMBOBi indiffa>

LIB r H 1 . . ^ ^ ®

^ibetty, refice and criminal fubmUliofi on the otKer. And wc .ment to revive it, in the fubfequent part of that reign , ..^ j_,

have fcen that thefc rights confift, piimarfly; in the (Com. Journ. ii Feb- i6gi^ 26 Nov. 1695. 22 OS. ^"^^

tfree enjoyment of perfonal fccurity, of perfonal liber- 1696. 9 Feb. 1697. 31 Jan. 1698.) yet the parliament

•ty, and 0/ private property. So long as tliefe remain reiifted it fo ftrongly, that it finally expired, and the

{r^violate, the ful^eft is perfedUy free ; for every fpe- prefs became properly free in 1694, and has continued

■ctes of compulfive tyranny and oppreiHon muft aA in fo ever fince. ' •

Dppofition to one or other of thefe rights, having no The liberty of the pn^fs, however, fo effential to
^other objedl upOn which it can pofiibly be employed, the nature of a free ilate, confifts not in freedom from
To preferve thefe from violation, it is neceffary that cenfure for any criminal matter that may be publiftied,'
the conftitutioh of parliaments be fupported in its full but in laying no previous reftraints upon pulblicationF;
vigour; and limits, certainly known, befet to the royal Every freeman has undoubtedly a right to lay what
prerogative. And, lafUy, to vindicate thefe rights,' fentiments he pleafes before the public; to forbid this,
•when actually violated or attacked, the fubjeds of Bri- is to deftroy the freedom of the prefs: but if he pub-
tzln are intitled, in the firft place, to the regular ad- lifhes what is improper, mifchievous, or illegal, he muft
ininiflratjon and free oeurfe of juilice in the courts of take the confequence of his own temerity f. Tofub-f See IMt/^
♦law ; next, to the right of petitioning the king and je6l the prefs to the reftrifkive power of a licenfer in
parliament for redcefs of grievances ; and, laflly, to the the manner above mentioned, is to fubje6^ all freedom
-right of having and ufing arms for felf prefervation of fentiment to the' prejudices of one man, and make ^
«ind defence. And aU thefe rights and liberties it is him the arbitrary and infieiflible judge of all controverted
our birthright to enjoy entire ; unlefs where the laws points in learning, religion, and government. But to
t)f our country have laid them under neceffary reflraints. punifh (as the law does at prefent) any dangerous or
iRefl;raint8 iif tliemfelves fo gentle and moderate, as offenfive writings which, when publifhed, fhall, on a
:will appear upon farther inquiry, that no man of fenfe ' fair and impartial 'trial, be adjudged of a pernicious
or" probity would wifh to fee them flackened. For all tendency, is neceffary for the prefervation of peace and
-of us have it in our choice to do every thing that a good order, of government and religion, the only folid
good man would defire to do ; and are retrained from foundations of civil liberty. Thus the will of indivi-
•notjhing, but w hat would be pernicious either to our- duals is ftiU left free ; the abufe only of that free-will
•felves or our fellow-citizens. So that this review of is the obje6^ of legal punifhment. Neither is any le-
;rtur fituation may fully juflify the obfervation of a» flraint hereby laid upon freedom of thought or inquiry;
-Jearned French author, . who indeed generally both , liberty of private fentiment is flitl left ; the diifemina-
ihought and wrote in the fpirit of genuine freedom ;, ting or making public of bad fentiments, deftrudive
•and who hath not fcnipled to profefs, even in the of the ends of fociety, is the crime whieh fociety cor-
:very bofom of his native country, that the Bntifh is re6ts. A man (fays a fine writer on this fubjedt) may
;the only nation in the world, where political or civil be allowed to keep poifons in his clofet, but not pub-
liberty is the direft end of its conilitution. Recom- licly to vend them as cordials. And to this we may
-mending therefore to the fludent in our laws a far- add, that the only plaufible argument heretofore ufed
ther and more accurate fearch into this extenfive and for refhraining the jufl freedom of the prefs, ** that it
important title, we fhall dofe our remarks upon it with was neceffary to prevent th^ daily abufe of it,*' will
the expiring wifh of the famous Father Paul to his entirely lofe its force, when it is fhown (by afeafonable
xountry, " Esto perpetva !" exertion of the laws) that the prefs cannot be abufed to
Liberty and Nec^Uy. See Metaphysics. any bad purpofe without incurring a fuitable punifh-
* Liberty 9/ the Prefu The art of printing, fooa ment : whereas, it can never be ufed to any good one
After its introduction, was looked upon in England, when under the controul of an infpe6tor«^ So true
as well as in other countries, as merely a matter of will it be found, diat to cenfure the licentioufheik, is to
ilate, and fubje^ to the coercion of the crovni. It was maintain the liberty of the prefs.

.therefore regulated with us by the king's proclamations. Liberty, in mythology, was a goddefs both among

prohibitions, charters of privilege and licence, and fU the Greeks and Romans. Among the former ihe

jially by the decrees of the court of flar-chamber, which was invoked under the title Eleutheria ; and by the

iimited the number of printers, and of preffes which each latter fhe was called Llhertos^ and held in fingular ve-

fhould employ, and prohibited new publications unlefs neration ; temples, altars, and ftatues, were eredled

^revioufiy approved by proper licenfers. On the de* in honour of this deity. A very magnificent temple

molition of this odious juriifdi^on in 1641, the long vras confecrated to her on mount Aventin, by Tibe-

parliament of Charles I. af^er their rupture with that rius Gracchus, before which ^s- a fpacious court, .

prince, aifumed the fame powers as the flau'-chamber called atrium libertatit. The Romans alfo eredied a

liad exercifed with refpedk to the licenfing of books: new temple in honour of Liberty, when Julius Czfar

and in 1643, *^47» i^49» ^^d 1652 (Scobell.'i. 44, eftablifhed his empire over them, as if their liberty ^

134. ii. 88, 230.) ifiued their ordinances for that pur- had been fecured by an event which proved fatal to

pofe, founded principally on. the Har-chamber decree it. In a medal of Brutus, Liberty is exhibited under

of 1637. In 1662, was paffed the flatute 13 >& 14 the figure of a woman, holding in one hand a cap, the

Car. II. c. 33. which^ widi fome few alterations, was fymbol of Liberty, and two poinards in the other, with

copied from' the parliamentary ordinances. This z&, the infcnption idibvs martiis.
^expired in 1679 » hut was revived by ftatute i Jac. II. LJBETHRA (anc.geog.), the fountain of fong,

c. 17. and continued till 1692. It was then continued was'fituated in Magnefik, a diflri<^ of Macedonia an-

for two years longer by ftatute 4 W. & M. c. 24. but nexed to Theifaly ; diftin£k from the town of Li-

iJiough frequent attempts were made by the govern- bethra, which ftood on the mount Olympus^ where it
N?i8i. 3 vetgca

LIB [25

Lil)ethritis verges towards Macedcola : hence the Mutes are called
Libethridesf (VirgiL) Strabo places oh Helicon^ not
only Hippocrene* and the temple of the Mufes, but
alfo the cave of the nymphs Libethrides.

LIBETHRIUS mons (anc. geog.), a mountain
of Boeotiay diftknt frotn Coronea 40 ftadia; where
ftood the ftatues of the Mufesy and of the nymphs,
fumamed Lihetbride, A mountain probably conjoined
withy or at leaft very near to. Helicon.

LIBITINAi in the Roman mythology, a goddefs
which prefided over funerals. This goddefs was the
fame with the P^enus tnfera or Efiikymhia of the Greeks.

I LIB

LiBK J fen/ay in oui* law books, denotes apouad c(
money in weight. It was ufual in former days not
only to tell the money but Co weigh it : becaufe xqpcaj
cities, lords/ and bifhops, haying their mints, coined
money, and often very bad too; for which reafeot
though the pound confifted of 20 (hillings, they al-
ways weighed it.

LIBRARII, among the ancients, were a fori of
cop^fifts who tranfcribed in beautiful or at leaft legible"
chara^lers, what had been written by the ootarii ia*
notes and abbreviatures.

LIBRARY, an edifice or apartment deftined for

8he had a" temple at Rome, where was lodged a cer- holding a conflderable number of books placed regia-'

tain piece of money for every perfon who died, whofe
name was recorded in a regxfler called LiMtime ratio.
This pra^ice was eftablifhed by SerVius Tulh'us, it)
order to obtain an account of the number of annual
deaths in the city of Rome, and confeqyently the
tsitt of increafc or decreafe of its inhabitants.

LIBITINARII, were undertakers whofe office it
was to take care of funerals, prepare all tilings necef-
fary upon the folemn occafion> and ftirnifh every ar-
ticle required.— They got their hvelihood by this
gloomy buiinels, and kept a number of fervants to
perform the wtniung part of the proferffion, fuch as
the pol/inGoreSf w/piiloruf^ &c. The name Libitlnani is
derived from LiSitinaf the goddefs of funerals, in whofe
temple were fold all things relating to funerals. See
Funeral.

LIBNA (anc.geog.), a facerdotal city in the tribe
of Judah, a place of itrength) as appears from Senna-
cherib's laying Ocge lo it, i Kings xix. Ifaiah xxxvii*
In Jerome's time, a tillage, called Lobna, in the ter*
ritory of EleuXheropolis.

LIBOURNE, a town of France^ in Guienne, and
in Bourdelois. It is a populous trading town, and is
feated on the river Dordogne. W. Long.o. 10. N«
Lat. 44. ; c.

.LIBRA, or BALAt«CE» one of the mechanical
powers. See Balance.

Libra, in ailronomy, one of the 12 iigns of the
zodiac, and exactly oppofite to Aries \ fo called be-
caufe when the fun is in this fign at the autumnal
dquinoib, the days and nifi;ht8 are equal as if weighed
in a balance. — The ilars in this conftelhtion accoi^ng
to Ptolemy arc 17, Tycho 10, Hevelius !80> and
Flamftead 51.

Libra alio denotes the ancieht Roman poufld^ bor-
rowed from the Sicilians, who called it /stra^

The libra was divided into 1 2 uncid or ounces, and
the ounce into 24 fcruples.

^ The diviiions of the libra were, the inrr/^r, onfe
twelfth ; the fextans^ one iixth ; the quadrant^ one
fourth ; \ht trims y one thitrl; the quinam^^ live ounces;
x\itfemisf fix ; Xhtfeptunx^ feven : the t^/,' eight ; the
dodransf nine ; the dcxtrans, ten ; the deunx^ eleven j
laftly, the as weighed twelve ounces or one libra.

The Roman libra was lifed in Frfahct for the pro*
portions of their coin till the time of Charlemagne*
or perhaps till that of Philip I. in IC93) their fols being
fo proportioned, as that 20 of them were equal to the
libra. By degrees it became a term of account ; and
every thing of the value of twenty fob .was odled a
Hvre.

Vol. X. Part L

larly on (helves ; or the books themfelves lodged in it.

Some authors refer the origin of libranes to the
Hebrews ; and obferve, that the care thefe took for
the prefervation of their facKd books, and the me*
mory of what concerned the anions of their anceftorst
became an example to other nations^ particulariy to
the Egyptians. Ofmanduas, kjng of &gypt, is bid
to have taken the^int firft ; who, according to Dio-
dorus, had a library built in his palace, with this in-
fcription over the door, vtxhx iafpeion. Nor were
the Ptolemies, who reigned in the fame Country, lefs
curious and magnificent in books.

The fcripture alfo (peaks of a library of the kings
of Periia, Ezra v. 17. vi. i. which fome imagine to
have conlliled of the hKlorians of that nation, and of
memoirs of the afEurs of (late; but, in efie^, it^p<
pears rather to have been a depofitory of laws, chax^'
ters, and ortiinances of the kings. The Hebrew text
calls it the houfe of trtqfiires, and ittflerwards the ioufi
of the rolh^ where the treafures were laid up. Wc
may, with more juHice, call that a library ^ mentioned
ih the fecond of Efdras * to have been built by Nehe«*
miah, and in which were preferved the books of the
prophets, and of David, and the letters of their kings.

The firft who erefl^d a hlnfary at Athens, was the
tyrant Pififtratus : and yet Strabo refers the honour
of it to Ariftotle. That of Piiiftratus was tranfport*
ed by Xerxes into Perfia, and was afterwards brought
back by Seleucus Nicanor to Athens. Long after^
it was plundered by Sylla, and re-e(labli(hed by Ha-
drian. Plutarch fays, that under Eumenes there was
a library at Pergamus, containing 200,000 books.
Tyrannian, a celebrated grammarian, contemporary
with Pompey, had a library of 30,000 volumes. That
of Ptdlemy Philadelphus, according to A. Gellius, con-
tained 700,000, all in rolls, iDurnt by Cxfar's foldiers.

ConfUtatine, and his fuccelTors, ere6led a magni-
ficf nt one fX Conftantindple ; which in the eighth cen«
^ury contained 500*000 volumes, all burnt by order
of Leo Ifaurus ; and, among the reft, one wherein
the Iliad and OdyfTey were written in letters of gold^
oil the guts of a ferpent.

The moft celebrated libraries of ancient Rome, were
the Ulpiahi knd the Palatini. They alfo boaft muck
of the libraries of Paulus j£miliu8, who conquered
Perfeut ( of Lucilius LucuHus, of Afinius I'ollio, At-
ticuSy Juhtts Severus, Domitius, Serenus, Pamphilius
Miutyr, alid the emperors Gordian ,and Trajan.

Anciently, every large church had its library ; as
appears by the writings of St Jerome, Anaftafius, and
others. Pope Nicholas laid the firft foundation of

D that

LIB r * 26 } LIB

ISbntf. Aot «f At Vatkan, ill 145CH It tras deftroyed by Societyi caHed thtf ArundeUah or A^^r/off /iifewyt Be* U%Mto

tike Goafiabk Bourbon, ia the facking of Rome, «i4 caufe die principal part of the collt£^k>ft formerly be**

leftored by Pope Sixtiu V« uid has been confidmbly longed to the family of Arundel, aod was gi'reii to

enriched with the ruing of that of Heidelberg, plan* the fociety by Henry Howard, afterwards duke of

dcred by Count Tilly ia 1612. One of the moil com- Norfolk, in 1666, which L'bnury ha» been increafed

plete libraries in Europe, was faid to be that eredled by the valuable colle^kui of Francis A&on, £fq$ iis

at Florence by Cofmo de Medici^, over the gate I7i5r and is continually increaiing by ihe numerous.

whereof is written, lasor absqvb labohb ; though bencfa6Hons of the works of its. learned members, and

It is now exceeded by that of the French king, be- others: that of St Pi^ul's, of Sion college; the queen*r

gun by Francis I. augmented by Cardinsd Richelieu, librMy, ereded by Queen Caroline in 1757 ;- and the

and completed by M. Colbert. furgeon's library, kept m their hall in the Old Bailey, Sec*-

The emperor's library at Vienna, acodrdlng to Lam* In Edinbuigh there is a good library bekmgiag to»

becius, conMs of 80,000 vc^umes, and 15,940 curious the univeriity, well furni/hed with books;: which are;

medals. kept in good order. There is aUb a noble librarjr

Tlve Bodleian library at Oxford, built on the foun- of books and manufcnpts^ belonging to the faculty of

dation of that of Duke Humphry, exceeds that of advocates. See Advocate.

any university in Europe, and even thofe of all the III B RATION^ in afb-onomy^ an apparent irregu^
fovereigbs of Europe, except the emperor's and French larity of the aoon3> motion, whereby fhe feems to li-
king's, which are each of them older by 100 years, brate about her axis, fometimes from the eail to the.
It was iirft opened in t6o2, and has fince found a well, and now and then from the well to the ealL See:
great number of benefadors; particularly Sir Robert^ Astronomy, n^420.

Cotton, Sir H. Savil, Archbifhop Laud, Sir Kenelm LIBURNIA (anc. g^iOK^'^y a diftri6l of Illyricum,^

Digby, Mr Allen, Dr Pococke, Mr Sclden, and extending towards the Adriatic between lilt^a on the-

others. The Vatican, the Medicean, that of Befia- weft, Dalmatb on the eaft, and mount Albius on the

rion at Venice, and thofe juft mentioned, exceed the north. LilmrMy the people. The apparitocs, w^hv

Bodleian in Greek manufcripts: which yet outdoes at the command of the magiftrate fununoned the

them aU in Oriental manufcripts. people from the country, were called Lihum /, becaufe

As to printed books, the Ambrofian at Milan, and generally men of Libumia. — LiburM% or Lihurmca^.

that of Wolfenbuttlc, are two of the moil famous^ (Horace), denoted a kind of light and fwift ikif^ u&d

ana yet both inferior to the Bodleian. / by the Libumians in their fea-fovings or piracies, for^

King's LiBRARVf at St James's, was founded by which they were noted. Z/^trmiMi (Juvenal) was afpecics^

Henry, eldeft fon of James I. and made up pai'tly of of litter made in form of Libnmian (kiffs,, wherein the

hooks, and pailly of manuscripts, with many other noblemen of Rome were carried, and. where they (at at

diriofities, for the advancement of learning. It has their eafe, either reading or writing,
received many additions from the libraries of Ilaac LIBURNUS'fanc.geog..), a mountain of Campania^

Cafaubon and others. Alfo a port of Tufcany. Now Livorno^ or Leghorn*

Cottonum JLtBttAiVy CMriginafly con&fted of 958 vo E. Long. 11. N. Lat. 43* 30.
lumes of original charters, grants, inflruments, letters LIBYA, in general, according to the Greeks, de-

of fovereign princes, tranui^ons between this and noted Africa* An appellation derived from /v^,

other kingdoms and ftates, genealogies, hiilories, re- ** thirft," being a dry and thicfty country. See

giflers of monafteries, remains of Saxon laws, the book Africa*

of Genefis, thought to be the moil ancient Greek Libya, in a more reftrained fenfe, was the middle-

copy extant, and faid to have been written by Origen part of Africa, extending north and weft, (Pliny) ;-,

io the fecond century, and the curious Alexandrian between the Mediterraneau to the north, and Ethiopia,

copy or mantiicript in Greek capitals^ This library to the eaft ; and vras two-fold, the Jfaher or Exterior

is kept in the Briti(h Mufeum^ with the Iar?e and va* Libya ; and the Farther or Ifaerior, The former lay

luable library of Sir Hans Sloaae, amounting to up-> between the Mediterranean on the north, and the

wards of 42,000 volumes, && There are many pa- Farther LUtya and Ethiopia beyond Egypt on the

blic libraries belongfng to the feveral colleges at Ox- fouth, (Ptolemy;. The Farther or Interhw Ltbyap^

ibrd and Cambridge, and the univerfities in North was a vaft country, lying between the Hither LUfya

Britain* The principal public libraries in London, on the north, the Atlantic ocean on the. weft, the-

JitMti. that of the Muienm, arc thofe of the college of Ethiopxc on the fouth, and Ethiopia beyond Egypt

heralds, of the college of phyficians, of Dofkors Com» on the eaft, ( Ptolemy ]k

mons, to which every biihop, at the time of his con* Libya, in a ftili more reftrained fenfe, called, for

fecratioii, gives at leaft 20L fometimes 50L for the diftindUbn's fake, Lthyii Propria^ vras a northern di--

liurchale of books; thofe of the Gray's Inn, Xincoln's Arid of Africa^ and a part of thcJIkher Lihya ; lku«

Imi^ Inner Temple, and Middle Temple ; that of ated between Egypt to the eaft, the Mediterranean lot

JLambeth, founded by Archbiihop Bancioftin x6io, the north, the SyrtisMsgor and the Regio Tripdi*^

for the life of fuoceeding archbiftums of Canterbury, tana to th^ weft, the Garamantes and Ethioj^ia be^

and increafed by the bene&^ons of Archbiihops Ab- yond Egypt to the foutk- Now the kii^dom and defart

hot, Sheldon> and Tennifon, and faid to. confift of o£ Barea* This Libya was again fubdivided into Zri^tf

at kaft 15,000 printed books, and 617 volumes in taken ift the ftrifkeft fenfe of aD, and into Marmarioa:

msnuicript ; that of Red-Crofs ftreet, founded by Dr and Cyi«naica# Lihya in the ftri£ieft fenie^ otherwife

Daniel Williams, a Prc/byterian'divine, and iince en« the Exterior^ was the moft eailempart o£ Lihya Prt^

richcdhy many private bene&dionss that of the Royal friat next to Egypty with Marmarica on the wt£^ the

Mc*

Lie

C «7 1

L r c

Cicrnce t/lctkftnncmi on the nonb* and the KnU, aow called

;tl NMa* to the ibuth, (Ptolemy).

l^tcheti. LICENCE, in law, an authority givci> to a perfon
to do fome lawful 4iA,

LiCEHstR rfthe Prtfg* Sec LiBsaTY of the Prtft.
LICENTIATE, one who has obtained the degree

the rocks, and mix it with their udlow, to make goUet 'U(iMl»t
gandles to bum on feftival daya«

5* The tartariu9, or large ycUow-faucer'd dyer*f
lichen, if frequent on rocki, both in the Highllnda
and Lowlands of Scotland. The cnift it thick aat
tough, either white, cCr greenlih-whtte, and haa a rpugk

penny, t neir margina are of

•common law, civil law, and phyfic, they muft have the fame colour ai the. cruft. Thii lichen it much ufeA

•^'ftudied feven yean, and in divinity ten. Among U8 a by the Highlanders for dyeing a fine claret or . pom^

licentiate ufually means a phyfician whb has a Ucence padour colour. For this puipofe, after fcrapiag it from

to pra^ifc, granted by the college of phyficians. the rocks, and cleaning it, they fteep it in urine for

LICETUS, a celebrated phyfician of Italy, was bora a quarter of a year. Then taking it out, they make k

•at RappoUo, in the ftate of Genoa, 1577. He came, it into cakes, and hang them up in bags to dry. ThdGe

feems, into the world, before his mother had complete cakes are afterwards pulverifed, and the powder is ufed

-ed the feventh month of her pregnancy ; but his father, ip iqi^part the colour with an addition of alum*

^eing an ingenious phyfician, wrapped him up in cotton, 6. The parellus, or crawfifh-eye lichen, grows upoft

and nurtured him fo, that he lived to be 77 years of walls and rocks, but is not very common. The crufts

age. He was trained with great care, and became ipread dofely upon the place where they grow, and

a very diilinguifhed man in his profefiion ; and was the
author of a great number of works : his book De
Mon/iris every body muft have heard of. He was
pro&ffor of philofopby and phyiic at Padua, where he
died in 1695.

LICHEN, X.1VER WORT, in botany ; a genus of colour.

cover them to a confiderable extent. They are rough*
tartareous, and aih-colouredt of a tough coriaceous fub*
ftance. The ihields are numerous and crowded, having
white or afh coloured, ihallow, plain difcs, with obtufe
ma^ns. This is ufed by the French for dyeing a re4

the natural order of algse, belonging to the ctyptoga-
mia clafs of plants. The male receptacle is roundi/h,
fomewhat plain and fhining. In the female the leaves
have a fanna ot mealy fubftance fcattered over them.
There are about 150 fpecies, all found in Britain.
Among the moft remarkable are the following :

1. The geographicus ; it is frequent in ro^ks, and
may be readily diftlnguiihed at a diftance. The cruft
or ground is of a bright greeni(h«yellow colour,
fprinkled over vrith numerous plain black tubeides ;
which frequently run into one another, and form lines

<refembh'ng the rivers in a map, ftx>m which laft cir-
cumftance it takes its name.

2. The calcarious, or black-nobbed dyer's lichen,
is frequent on calcarious rocks ; and hath a . hard,
Imooth, white, ftoney, or tartareous croft, cracked or
teflelated on the furftioe, vrith black tubercles. Dille*
nius relates, that this fpecies is uicd in dyeing, in the
fame manner as the tMrtareus after mentioned.

^. The ventofus, or red fpangled taitareons lichen,
bath a hard tartareous cruft, cracked and tefielated on
the furface, of a pale yellow colour wlsen freih, and a
light olive when dry. The tubercles are .of a blood-
red colour at top, their margin and bafie of the fame

7. The faxatilis, or grey-blue pitted lichen, is very
common upon trunks of trees, rocks, tiles, and dii
wood. It forms a circle two or three inches diameter.
The ti^>per furface is of a blue-grey and fometimes o£
a whitim afh-colour, uneven, and full of numerous fnaall
pits or cavities ; the under fide is black, and covered all
over, even to the edgc$, with fliort fi/kiple hairs or
radicles. A variety fometimes occurs with leaves tinged
of a red or purple colour. This is ufed by finches and
other fmaU birds in oonftrudliDg the outfide of thek
curiouflv formed nefts.

8. The omphalodes, or dark-coloured dyers Uchea,
is frequent upon rocks. It forms a thick widdy ex**
panded cruft of no regidar figure, compofed of niittie*>
rous imbricated leaves of a brown or dark-purple coUxU^
divided into fmafl fegmenta. The margins of die fliielda
are a little crifped and turned inwards, and their out&k
aih-colourcd. The lichen is much ufed by the High#>
landers in dyeing a reddiAi brown colour. They fteep k
in urine for a confideiable timet till it becomes foft and
like a pafte ; then, forming the pafte into cakes, thef
dry them in the fun« and preferve them for ufe in the
manner already related of the tartarius.

9. The parietinus, or con|mon yellow. wall-Iichen, il

colour as the eruft. The teicture and appearance of very common upon walls, rocks, tiles of houfes, and

ihis (according to Mr Lightfoot), indicate that it
would anfwer the purpofes <^ dyeing as well as fome
others of this tribe, if proper experiments were made.

4. The candelarius, or yellow farinaceous lichen, is
•common upon walls, rocks, boards, and old pakSk
There are tvro yarieties. The firft has a farinaceous
cruft of no regular Agure, covered with numerous,
^aQ, greeaiih-yellow, or olive (hields, and grows
commonly upon old boavda. The other has a ftnooth,
hard, circular cruft, wrinkled, and lobed at the circunw
icrence, which adheres dofely to rocks and ftones. In

trunks of trees. It generally fpreads itfelf in circles
of two or three inches diameter, and is faid to dye a
good yellow or orange colour with alum.

I o. The iikmdicas^ or eataUe Iceland lichen, grows om
many mountains both of the Highlands and Lowlaiida
of Scotland^ It coniifts of nearly trtSt leaves about
two inches hig^ of a ftiif fubftance when dry, .but foft
and pliant when moift, varioudy divided without oader
into broad diftant iegpatkenta, biiid or trifid at the ex-
tremities. The upper or interior furface of the leaves is
concave, cbefnut cdlour, imooth, and (hining, but red at

ithe centre ave numerous ihields of a deeper ydlow or ^e bafe $ the under or exterior furface is imooth and
orange colour, which, as they grow old, fwell in the whitifh, a little pitted, and fprinkled vritli very minute
middle, aqd afiiime the figure of tnfaerdea. The ia^ Uack warts. The margins of the leaves and all 'the
l^i^iunts of Smaland in Sweden fcrape this lichen frcm fegaentj from bottom to top are ciliated with fmall,

D a ihort.

Lie [ 28 1 Lie

lucheo. IkoTtf fiiffy hair-Ilke ipinulesy of a dark che&ut colour, loured $ in mmy. weather, of a dull fufcoat green jco- JLia

' turning towards the upper fide. The fhields are very lour ; their under-iide white and hoary, having many

rarely produced. For the ufes of this as an efculent thick downy nerves, from which defcend numerous^

h^bffee Iceland, n^ lo. Made into broth or gruel, it is long, white, pencil-like radicles. The pdtz, 6r fhields,

faid to be very ferviceable in coughs and confumptions ; grow at the extremities of the elevated lobes, (haped

and, according to Haller and Scopoli, is much ufed in like the human nail ; of a roundifti oval form, convex

thefe complaints in Vienna. above, and concave beneath ; of a chocolate colour on

1 1. The pulmonarius, or lung-wort lidien, grows in the upper lide, and tl\e fame colour with the kaves on
fliady woods upon the trunks of old trees. The leaves the under. There ara two vari^'ties, the one called
are as broad as a man's hand, of a kind of leather-like reddifky and the other manyjingtred^ ground-liverwort,
fubilance, hanging loofe from the trunk on which it The . former is more common than the other. • This
grows, and laciniated into wide angular fegments^. Their fpecies has been rendered famous by the celebrated Dr
natural colour, when frefh, is green ; but in drying. Mead, who afi(ertcd that it was an infallible preventative
they turn fir fl to a glaucous and afterwards to a fufcous of the dreadful confequences attending the bite of a mad
colour. It has an aftringent, bitter tafle ; and, ac- dog. He diredled half an ounce of the leaves dried
cording to Gmclin, is boiled in ale in Siberia, inftead of and pulverifed to be mixed Vith. two drachms of pow-
hops. The ancients ufed it in coughs and afthmas, &c. dered black pepper. This was to be divided into four
but it is not ufed in modem practice. dofes, one of which was ti> be taken by the patient

1 2. The calicaris, or beaked lichen, grows fometiines every morning felling, for four mornings fucceffively,
Upon trees, but more frequently upon rocks, efpecially in half a pint of, warm cow*8 milk ; after which he was

» CD the fea^coafts, but is not very common. It is fmooth, to ufe the cold bath every morning for a month. It is

glofly, and whitifh, producing flat or convex fhields, miich to be lamented, however, that the fuccefs of this

of the fame colour as the leaves, very near the fummits medicine, or indeed any other recommended for the

of the fegments, which are acute and rigid, and, being fame purpofe, hath not always anfwered the expec-

often refie^ed from the pei*pendicular by the growth of tation. There ^ure inflances where the application has

the fhields, appear from under their limbs like a hooked not prevented the hydrophobia, and it is even uncer-

beak. ThU/will dye a red, colour \ and pronufes, in that tain whether it haSv ever been iniirumental in keeping off

intention, to rival the £am6us Lichen Rocolk 6r Argol^ that diforder..

which is brought from the Canary Iflands, and fome- ^6. The aphthofus, or green groundrliverwort with

tiknes fold at the price of $0 1. per ton. It was formerly black warts, grows upon the eround at the roots of

ufed inftead of flarch to make hatr-powder. trees in woods, and other Honey and moffy places. It

13. The prunaflri, or common ragged hoary lichen, differs very httle from the foregoing, and according to.
grows upon aU forts of trees \ but it is genendly moll fome is ooJy a variety of it. Linnaeus informs us, that
white and hoary on the iloe and old palm trees, or the country -people of Upland in Sweden give an infu*
upon old pales. This is the moft variable of the whole fion of this.Hchen in milk to childr^ that arc troubled,
tribe of lichens, appearing different in figure^ magni- with the diforder called the tbru/h or aphth4t^ which iii-
tude, and colour, according to its age, place of growth, duced that ingenious- naturalifl- to beftow upon it the
and fex. The yoimg plants are of a glaucous colour, trivial name otaptbojiu* The fame writer alio tells us^.
flightly divided into fmall acute crefled fegments. As that a decodlion of it in water puxges upwards and.
they grow older, they are ^vided Uke a flag's horn, downwards, and will defbroy worms,
into more and deeper fegments, fome what broad, flat, 1 7* The cocciferus, or ficarlet-tipped cup-h*chen, is .
fofr, and pitted on both fides, the upper furface of a fr^uent in mpors and heaths. It has in the firfl flate
glaucous colour, the under one white and hoary. — The a granulated crufl for its groimd, which is afterwards.
-male plants, as Linnaeus terms them, are fhort, feldom turned, into fmall laciniated leaves,, green above,- and
more than an inch high, not hoary on the underfide $ hoary underneath. The plant affumes a very different,
and have pale glaucous fhields fituated at the extremi- afpe£^ according to the age» fituation^ and other ac-
ties of the fegments, flanding on fhort peduncles, which cidents of its growth; but may be in general readily
at^ only fmall fliff portions of the leaf produced. -~-The diilinguifhed by its fru£lification3, which are fungous
iiemale fpecimens ha¥e numerous farinaceous tubercles tubercles of a fine fcarlet colour, placed on the rim of/
both on the edges of their leaves,, and the wrinkles of the cup, or on the top of the flalk. Thefe tubercles,,
their furface. — The pulverifed leaves have been ufed as fteeped in an alcaline Uxivium, are faid to dye a fine du- -
a powder for the hair, and alfo in dyeing yam of a red table red colour,
coloiu*. 1 8. The rangiferinus, or rein-deer lidien, is frequent .

14. ^The juniperinus, or common yellow tree-lichen, in woods, heaths, and mauntainous places. Its gener-
is common upon the trunks and branches of elms and ral height, when full grown, is about two inches. The
auny other treeft Linnaeus fays it is, very commoa\ip^ ftalk is hollow, and very nuich branched from bottom,
an die juniper. The Gothland Swedes dye their yam to top r the branches are divided arid fubdivided^
of a yellow colour with it, and give it ai^ a fpecific in the and at lafl terminated by two, three, four, or five very
jaundice. s fine, fhort, nodding horns. The axillz of the branch*

15. The caainus, or afh-coloared ground-liverwort, es are often perforated. The whole plant is of a hoary
grows upon the ground among mofs, at the roots of white oc grey colour, covered with white farinaceous
trees in fhady woods, and is frequent alfo in heaths, and particles, light and brittle when dry, foft and elailic.
ftony places. The leaves are large, gradually dilated to- when moift. The fmdifications are very minute, round^^
'Wards the extremities, and divided into roundifh eleva- fufcous, or reddifh-brown tubercles, which grow oa
tedtpb^ Their upper fide, iadry weatheri is aih-co- the very cxtrenuties of the finefl branches ; but thef<u.

\ . 6 tUK

b I c

Ittbcrdet are very Seldom^ found. The plafit feems
to lu\ve no foliaceous ground for the ^afe, nor fcarcely
any vifible roots*— Linnseus tells usy that in Lapland
this mofs grows fo luxuriant that it is fometimes found
a foot high. There are many varieties of this fpeciesy
of which the principal is the fylvaticus, or brown*tipt
rein-deer h'chen. Th^ moft remarkable difference be-
tween them is, that the fylvaticus turns fufcous by age.

C 29 1

L I D

circle of Fnnconia, andbiihopric of Basnbergy feated
on die river Mayne, in £. Long. 1 1« lo. N. Lat.
50. 20.

LICHTENSTElN,a town of Swifferland,in Tock-
erberg, feated on, the river Thour. £. Long. 2. 15*
N. Lat; 47. 25.

LICHTSTALL, an handfome town of Swi JTcrland,
in the county of Bade ; feated on the river Ergetz. In<

whiSe the other always continues white* For the ufesf of £. Long. 7. 57. N. Lat. 47. 40.
thcfc fpccics, fee Lapland.

19. The plicatusy or officinal ftringy lichen, grows
en Uie branches of old trees, but is not very common.
The ftalks are a foot or more in length, cylindrical,
rigid, and ftring-fhaped, very irregularly branched.

LICINIUS Stolo, a famous Roman tribune,
ftyled Stolo on account of a law he made, while tribune,
that no Roman citizen (hould poflefs more than 500
acres of land ; alleging, that when they occupied more^
they could not cultivate it with care, nol^pull up the ufe-
the branches entangled together, of a cinereous or afh- lefs (hoots (fiolotui ) that grow from the roots of trees. He
colour^ brittle and ftringy if doubled, ihorty otherwife- is memorable alfo for enabling, that one of the confuls
tough and pliant, and hang pendent from the trees on (hould always be of a Plebeian £imily. He lived about
which they grow. The (hields grow/generally at the 362 B. C.

extremities of th^ branches, are nearly fiat,, or (lightly LICNON, in the Dionyfian folemnities, the my-
concave, thin, a(h-coloured above, pale-brown under- -ftical van of Bacchus; a thing fo e(rential to all the
Death, and radiated with fine rigid fibres.. As the folemnitiesof this god, that they could not be duly cele-
brated vrithout it. SeeDioNYsiA.

LICNQPHORI, in the. Dionyfian folemnity^
thofe who carried the licnon.

LICOLA^ or Lago-di-Licola, a lake in the king-
dom of Naples» formerly famous for plenty of excellent
fifh^ but in the year 1538 afi explofion of a volcano
changed one part of it into a mountain of afhes, and the
other into a morafs. It was anciently known by the
name of the Lucvine-Iake*

LICONIA, in botany : A genus of the digynia or-
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. There
are ^nt, petals inlaid in the pit of the ne<5^arium at its
bafe \ the capfule is bilocular and feed«>bearing.

LICTORS, among the Romans, were officers efta-
bli(hed by Romulus, who always attended the chief ma-
giftrates when they appeared in public*

The duty of their office confifted in the three follow- >^

plant grows old, the l)ranches become -covered with
a white, rough, warty cruft \ but the youne ones are
deilitute of it. It was formerly ufed in the (hops as an
aftringent to flop haemorrhagies, and to cure ruptures \
but is out of the modem pra£lice. . Linnaeus informs
us, that the Laplanders apply it to their feet to relieve
the excoriations occafioned by much walking*

20. The barbatus, or bearded lighen, grows upon the
branches of old trees in thick woods and pine-forefts.
The ilalks or ftringrs are dightly branched and pendu-
lous, from half a foot to two feet in length, little biff-
rer than a taylor's common fevring thread | cylindrically
jointed towards tlie bafe ; but furrounded every where
elfe with numerous, horizontal, capillary fibres, either
fimple or (lightly branched. Their colour is a whitifh
green. This has an afbringent quality Eke the preceding.
When fleeped in water, it acquires aif orange colour ;
and, according to Dillenius, is ufed in Penfylvania for ing particulars ; i^.Su6matioy or clearing the way for the

dyeing that colour.
> 21. Thc-vulpinus, or gold-wiry lichen, grows upon
the trunks of old trees, but is not Very common* It is
produced in tre€t tufts, from half an inch to two inches
in height, of a fine yellow or lemon-colour, which readi-

magiilrate. they attended : this they did by word of
mouth ; or,L if there was occafion, by ufing the rods they
always carried along with them» 2« ^nimadverfio^ cr
caufing the people to pay the ufual refpedi to the magi-
flrate,. as to alight, i£on horfeback. or in a chariot $ to

ly difcovers it. The filaments which cdmpofe it are not rife up, uncover, nudce viray, and the like«r • 3. Pntttio, or

cylindrical, but a little compreffed and uneven in the
(urface, variou/Iy branched, the angles obtufe, and the
branches ftraggling and entangled one with another.
Linnaeus informs us, that the inhabitants of Sniialand
in Sweden dye their yam of a yellow colour with this
lichen ; and that the Norwegians deflroy woWes by
(luffing dead carcafes with this mofa reduced to pow<-
der, and mixed with poimded glafs, and fo expofinff
them in the winter-iieafon to be devoured by thofe am*
mals.

LICHFIELD. SeeLjTCHFiELD.

LICHTENBERG, a caftle of France, in Lower.
Alface, and the chief place of a county of the fitme
name ; feated on a roA, near* the mountains Vofges,
and is looked upon as impregaableb £« Losg. 7, 35* .
N. Lat. 48. 55,

LICHTENBURG, a town of Germany, ia the
aircle of Franconia, and margravate of Cullembach*
£. Long. 12. o. N. Lat. 50. 26.

walking before the magiilrates : this they did not con-
fuflsdly, or altogether, nor by two or three, abreafl,
but fingly following one another in a firaight line. They
alfo preoedcd the triumphal car in pitblic triumphs ; and
it was alfo part of their office to arreil criminals, and to
be public executioners in beheading, &c. Their enfigns
were the fasces and securis.

As to the number of li^ors allowed each jnagiflrate,
a di6bitor had twenty-four, a mafter of the horle fixy a
€onful twelve, a praetor fix ; and each veRal virgin, when ,
ihe appeared abroad, had one. .

LIDD* See LYi)D.

LJEDDEL (Dr Duncan^), pioftfrorofmathematics
and of medicine ia the univerfity of Helmfbidt, was born
in the year x/6i at Aberdeen, where iie received the.firil
part of his education in languages and philofoplj^. About,
the age of eighteen he repaired to the univerfity of Franc-
fort, where he fpent three .years in a diligent applicat{pn

^ to mathematics and phik)fophy. From Francfort he

LICHTENFELS} a town of. Germany^ in the proceeded to Wratidaw, or Bref^aw, m Sileiia, where -

L I D

I 30 1

LID

l.KMfi!. "lie "U (aul to liave made uncomoion fpogrefi in bia f^
▼ourite flttdy of vnathematicsy under thediivi^on of a
very eminent profeiTor, Pauhis Wittichius. Having ftu-
dled at Breflaw for tlic fpace of one year, he returned to
Francfort, and remained there three yean* paying the
moft iutenfe application to the ftudy of phyiic. A con-
tagions diilemper having hroke out at that place, the
ftudentft were difperfed,and Liddel retired to the univer-
fity of Roftock. Here he renewed his ftudies, rather as
a companion than as a pupil of the celebrated BrucKuSy
whoy though an excellent mathematician^ did not feruple
to conlefs that he was inftni^ed by Liddel in the more
perfedk knowledge of the Copemican fyfLem, and other
aftronomical queftions. In 1 590 he returned once more
to Francfort. But having there heard of the increafing
reputation of the Academta Julia, eftablifhed at Helm-
ftadt by Henry duke of Brunfwick, Mr Liddel removed
thither ; and foon after his arrival was appointed to
' the firft or lower profefibrftiip of mathematics. From
thence he was promoted to the fecond and more digni*
iied mathemadcal chair, which he occupied for nine
years, with much credit to himfelf and to the Juhan
Academy. In 1596 he obtained the d^ree of M.-D.
was admitted a member of that facidty, and began pu»
blicly to teacK phyfic. By his teaching and his writings
he was the chief fupport of the medical fchool at Helm-
ftadt ; was employed as firft phyiician at the court of
Bninfwick, and had much pra^ice among the princi-
pal inhalbitants of that country. Having been feveral times
ele£leddean of the faculties bothof philofephyand phyiic,
he had in the year 1 604 the honour of being chofen pro-
rcdtor of the univerfity. But neither academical honours,
•nor the profits of an extenfive pra^ice abroad, could make
Dr Liddel forget his native country. In the year 1600
he took a final leave of the Academia Jiilia ; and after *
travelling lor fome time through'Gemnany and Italy, he
at length fettled in Scotbiid. He died in the year
i6t3, in the fifty-fecond year of his aec. By his laft
*will he beflowed certain lands purchaied by him near
Aberdeen upon the univerfity there, in all time co*
«iing, for the education and fupport of fix poor fcho-
iars. Among a variety of regulations and injun&ions
for the management of this charity, he appoints the
inagiflrates ok Aberdeen his tniftees, and u>lemQly de-
nounces the curfe of God on any perfon whoihall abufe
•or mifapply it. His works are, I. Di/futsiione^ Medk*
€mata^ Helmjiadi^ 1605, 410. 2. Art Medka fusemtk
et perfpicue expUcata^ Hamhurghl^ 1 607, 8vo. This per-
formance is dedicated to king James VL and is divid-
ed into five books, viz. IntroduSio m tptam Medicmam f
De Phjjiohgia y De Pathologia ; Di Signomm doSrma ;
J)e Therapcutica, 3. De F^lhus L^i trti^NomhurglHy
1 6 1 o, 1 2 mo. 4. TraSaiusde dente aureo^Hambur^bi^ 1628,
n 2mo* This laft performance Dr Liddel publifhed in
Order to refute a ridiculous ilory then current of a
poor boy in Silefia, who, at fi:ven years of age, having
loil fome of his teeth, brought forth, to the aftonifh-
ment of his parents, a 4iew tooth of pure gold. Ja-
cobus Horfiius, do£kor and profefibr of medicine in
the ^cadffnia Jullay at the fame time with our author,
had publiihed a book, which he dedicated to the Em-
peror Rudolph us II. to prove that this wondeiful tooth
^vas a prodigy fent from heaven to encourage the Ger-
viRHS tlien at war with the Turks, a^d foretelling, firom
this golden tooth, the future vi^ories of the Chrif-
tian:], with the final .defim^kion of the Turkifh empire

^d Mahometan faiths and a return of the golden age In
1700, preparatory to the end of the world. The impo^
ture was ioon after difoovered to be a thin plate of goid^
(kilfuHy drawn over tlie natural tooth by an artifl of thnt
country, with a view to «xcite the public admiration and
charity. 5. Artu confer^omuRSamtatem^&bri dno^ Aberihniit^
1651, i2mo. ; a pofUiumous work* The merit of thefe
works of Dr Liddel, it is not now necefTary to efti-
matc withprecifion. They appear, however, to con-
tain the moft fafhionable opinions and pra^ce^ in the
medical art^ of the age in which he lived ; nor is. there
almoft any difeafe or medical fubje6b then known of
which he has not treated in one or other of his writings.
Of his language it may be fufficient to obferve, thac
the Latin is at leaft as pure as is generally found among^
medical writers, and that liis ftyle is plain and perfpi-
cuous, andfometimes even elegant.

LIDFORD, a village of Devonfhire in England,
fitnated on the river Lid, two or three miles cafi of
Breiit Tor, was formerly a famous town, with a caftle^
which wa# always committed to men of quality, and
twice fent burgeffes to parliament. It was Osdly fhat-
tered by the Danes in 997: and though now a con-
temptible village, the parifli may for lands and liberties
fcotnpare with any in the kingdom, the whole fbrefl of
Dartmore beii^ in the verge of it. The river here
■being pent up at the bridge with rocks, has made itAdf
To deep a fall, by its continual working, that pafiengers
"Only hear the noife of the water without feeing it.

LIDKOPING, a town of Weil Gothland in Swe*
den, feated on the lake Wenar, in £. Long. 13. 40.
N. Lat. 58. 25.

LIDNEY, a town of Glonceiterfhire in England*
7'i miles from London, is feated on the weft bank of
the river Severn, and has a market on Wednefdays, with
two fairs in the year. In- the neighbourhood are the
-remains of a large Roman encampment, with founda-
tions -of many ancient buildings, among whidi are the
Tuins of a Roman hypocauft of an oval form, a|id Ro-
man antiquities and coins are often found here in great
number. Mr^athtirfl has a fine (eat here called Syd^
mej^Parh^ with very extenfive woods adjoining. .

LIE, in moralS) denotes a criminal breach of ve-
racity. •«- Archdeacon Paley, in treating of this fubje6k^
obferves, that there are faUehoods which are not hes;
that is, which are not criminal : and there are lies n^ich
are not literaDy and diredly falfe.

I. Cafes of the firfl dafs are thofe, i. WHiere no one
is deceived : as for inftance in parables, febles, novels*
jefts, tales to create mirth, or ludicrous embelliihmentt
of a fiory, in which the declared defign of the fpeaker
ts not to inform, but to divert ; compliments in the
fubfcription of a letter \ a prifoner*s pleading not gud*
ty; an advocate stfferting thejuilice, or his belief of
the juflice, of his client's caufe. In fuch inilances no
confidence is defhoyed, becaufe none was repofed ; no
promife to fpeak the truth is violated, becaufe none
was given or underftood to be given. 2. Where the
perfon you fpeak to has no right to know the truth*
or more properly- where little or no inconveniency re-
fults from, the want of confidence in fuch cafes ; at
where you tell a falfthood to a madman for his own
advantage ; to a robber to conceal your property ; to
an afTaffm to defeat or to divert him from hi» purpofe.
It is upon this principle, that, by the laws of war, it
is afiewcd to deceive an enemy by feints, falfe colours*

4 fpi«9.

f
I

LIE [ 31 I ^ ^ ^. .

fpie8> bUt intelligencet and the Ukr ; but» lyy no means, feet held cf himi tbat thej were, obliged to do Hun alT I^iegt.
in treaties, ttuces, fignals^ of capitulation, or farreader: manner of {enrice, as if they were his doinedics. He
and the difference is, that the former fui^ofe hoftili- adds, this was formerly called Higium/erv'Uwmf and the
ties to continue, the latter are calculated to termiaate pcriba Sig€. In this fenfe, the word is ufed, Ltg*
or fufpeiid them. £dw. cap. 29. Judin fub tutela r^ii ligea dtbetU effe ;

Many peopU indulge in (ierlous difcourfe a habit of that is, wiioUy under his protedion,
fidion and ocaggeration, in the accounts they give of By liege homage, the vaffal was obliged to fervehia
themielves^ of their acquaioUoce, or of the extraordi- lord towards all, and againft all,' excepting his father.

In which feafe, the word was ufed in oppofidon to
fimple homage ; which lafl only obliged the vaflal to pay
the rights and accufiomed dues to his lord ; and not ta
bear arms againft the emperor, prince, or other fupe«
nor lord : fo that a liege man was a perfbn wholly de^
voted to his lord, and entirely luider his command.
Omni^Wf C!fr. Regmalduti rex Infuhrumf fahitem, ScuUit
quodtkvem homo ligetu domini rtgU jtl^gUM yohann'u^ contra
omms mortaUst quamdiu vixero ; C2f inde ciJuUUiatem ^ fih-

nary things which they have feeu or heard \ and fo
long as the fa£^s they relate are indifferent, and their
narratives though falfe are inoffeniive, it may ieem a
f'j^rllitious re^ird to truth to cenfure them merely
for truth's fake. Yet the practice onght to be check-
ed : for, in the firil .place, it is almoft impoilible to
pronounce beforehand,, with certainty, concerning any
lie, that it is inoffenfive | or to fay what ill coofe-
quences may refuk from a lie apparently inoffeniive :

And, in the next place, the habit, when once formed, .cramentum fraJUti^ i^c. MS. penes W. Dugdale.

is eaiily extended to ferve the de%ns of malice or in-
tereft \ like all habits, it fpreads indeed of itiji:lf. Pious
£rauds, as they are improperly enough called, pretend-
ed infpirations, forged books, counterfeit miracles, are
impofitions of a more ferious nature. It is poflible
that they may fometimes, though fcUiom, have been
fet up and encouraged with a deiign to do good: but
the good they aim at requires, that the belief of them
(hould be pci^etual, which is hardly poffible ; and the
detedion of the fraud is fure to difparage the credit
of all pretenfions of the fame nature. Chriftianity has
fuffered more injwy from this cauie than from aU other
aaufes put together.

II. As there may be faliehoods which arc not Hes,
fb there may be lies without literal or dired faifehood.

But it mufl be obferved, there were formerly two
kinds of liege homage : the One, by which the vaiTal
was obliged to ferve his lord, againil all, without ex-
ception even of his fovereien ; the other, by which he
was to ferve him againil all, except fuch other lords as
he had formerly owed liege homage to.

In otu* old ilatutes lieges, and liege people, are
terms peculiarly appropriated to the king's fubjeds ; as
being Z(/«f, ligi^ or Rgatif obliged to pay allegiance to
him; S Henry VI. 14. Hen. VIII. &G. though pri-
vate peifons had their lieges too. Renuddu*^ liei gra^
iia, abbas RamefUf frapofito ^ bomiHilw de Braaceflre^
^ omnibus vicinis Francis iS^ AngUs^ fahUem» SciaiU
m§ d^dtffe terram Ulfcf in depcdem (bodig defedale) huic
Bofeiino^ iff yxori ejus Alfnut^o-^a comditione quod tffe&i

An opening is always left for this fpecies of prevan'ca- Jint homines ieges. Lib. Rame£ •

tion, when the literal and granunatical (iguitication of
a fentence is diflBerent from the popular and caflomary
meaning. It is the wilful deceit that makes the lie ;
and we wilfully deceive, when oiu- expreffioos are itot
true, in the fenfe in which we believe the bearer ap-
prehends them. Befides, it is abfurd to contend for
any fenfe of words, in oppofition to uiage $ for all
fenfes of all words are founded iq»on ufage, and upon
nothing eUe. Or a man nuiy a6l a lie ; as by pointing

LiBGn-Poufiicf in Scots law^ is oppofed to death-
bed; and (igaifies a perfon's enjoying tliat ftate or
health iu -which only he can difpofe of his property at
pleafure.

LI£G£, a bifhopric of Germany, in the circle of
Weflphalia ; bounded to the north by Brabant, to the
fbath by Champagne and Luxemberg', to the eail by
JLonburg and JuUers, and to the weft by Brabaotjk.
Namur, and Hainault. It is very unequal both ia

his finger in a wrong dirc^on, when a traveller in- length and breadth ; the former being in fome placea

quires of ham his road ; or when a tradefman ihuts up
his windows, to induce his creditors to believe that he
is abroad : for to all moral purpofes, and therefore as
to veracity, fpeech and a6tioa are the fiune ; fpeech
being only a mode of a^on.

LI£CHT£NAU, a town of Germany, in the cir-
ele of Franconia and margravate of Anfpach, fubjeA
to Nurenbui^. E. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 48. 43*

LIEGE (LigiuSf) in law, properly iignifies a va£-
£il, who holds a kind of fee, that biiMls him ift a do*
£er obligation to his lord than other people.

The term (eems to be derived irom the French Ser
^^ to bind;'' on ai:countof a ceremony ufed in veadtr*
ing faith or hoooage : which was by locking the vaflal's
thumb or his hand^ in that of the lord, to (how that
he was hXt bound by his oath of fidelity. Cuj^
Vigenere, and Bignoa, choofe rather to derive the
word from the fame fouree with leucSs or Uadi^ '* loy-
al, faithfuL" But Du Cange falls in with the opi-
aion of thofe who derive it from My a kind of vaflals^
£0 firmly attached t» their lord» on account of hmdsor

above 96 miles, in others not half fb much y and the
hitter in fbme places 45, in others hardly 25. The-
air here is very temperate; and the foU fruitful itt
com, wine, wood» and pafture. Here alfo are mines
of lead and iron, pits of coal, quarries of marble and
ftone, and fome celebrated mineral waters, as thofe
of Spa and Chau*fontaine. The principal rivets .are».
the Maes and Sambre. ^ The manufadures and com'*-
modities of the country are chiefly beer, arms, nails*,
ferge, leather, with the produ6is we have juii men-
tioned. . The ftates of the bifliopric are compofed of'
thsce bodies l the firib is the chapter^ of Liege ; the
feooad, the nobility of the country ; and the third, the:
deputies of the capital and the other towns. The
three eftatcs are feldom ealled together^ except to»
raife taxes lor the fervice of the pmrinee, or tipon»
ibme particular emergency ; but there is a comniltee
of the ftates, who meet thirice a-^week, and in time q£
war daily. They are always about the prince-bifhopK
to make remoaftranees, and demand the rcdrefs oiE
gnevaficas*- The biihop is fpiritaai axkd temporal lordL

•»••

Xiiegc.

LIE • r .12 1 LIE

oF the whole country ; but, as bifhop, is Aiflragan to Englifh traveller Sir John Mandeville, with an ief

the archbifhop of Cologne. He ftyles himfelf, ty the fi^ption in baii>arou8 French, requelling thofe %vho

grace of God^ hijhop and prince of Liege^ duke of Bou^ read it to pray for his foul. Near it are kept the

tilon^ marqms of Franchimonif count of LooZf Hoom% 5cc. faddle, fpursy and knife, that he made ufe of in his

His arms for Liege are, a pillar argent, on a pede- travels. After having feeh moft of the cities of anjr

ftal of the fame, with ti cipwn or, in a field ruby, note in the World, he made choice of this to fpend die

In the matricula he was formerly rated |it 50 horfe eve of his life in. A little way from the city, on the

and 170 foot; or 12B0 florins monthly, in lieu of other fide the Maes, ftands the epifcopal palace of

them, but now only at 826. An abatement of one Seraing, in which the bifhops generally refide duripg

third has alfo been granted of the ancient afleflment
to the chamber-court, which was 360 rix-doUars
6 2 1- kruitzers for e^ch term. - Here are feveral col*
leges which fit at Liege, for the government of the
country, and the decifion of caufes^ civil, criminal,
fpiritual, and feudal, and of fuch alfo as relate to the
finances. The chapter confifts of 60 peHbns, who
muft either prove their nobility for four generations,
both by father and mother, before tlicy can be ad*
tnitted : or if they cttnnot do that, muft at leaft have
been do^lors or, licentiates of divinity for'fcven years,
or, of law, for ^v^ years, in fome famous univedity.
The bifhopnc is very populous and extenfive, c6ntain-
ing 1500 pariflies, in which are 24 veiled towns, be-
fides others, 52 baxtonies, befides counties and feignio'
lies, 1 7 abbeys for men, who muft be all gentlemen,
and n for ladies^ exclufive of others.

Liege, the capital of the bifhopnc of the fame

the fummer. The latitude of thi»eity is 50. 36. N. and
the longitbde 5. 40'. £.

Some difturbances took place here in the year 1 7899
in confequence of certain difputes that had ariien be-'
tween the prince-bifhop and the inhslbitants. The latter
having demanded (Certain privileges, which he did not.
think proper to grtnt, they took up arms, and compelled
him and his chapter to comply with their requeil. The
prince, together with many of the <!l6rg)r, nobility, and
citizens^ alarmed by this commotion^ and dreading th(!
confequences of popular fiiry, which when once roufed,
feldom knows any bounds, fought fafety by a voluntary
ekile. They then appealed to the imperial chamber ;
and this tribtinal, inftead of kfUng the part of arbiter,
decided as a fovereign, and ordered the circles of the
Lower Rhine aild Weflphalia to execute the fentence.

The kihg'of Fkiiffia, at whofe -court one of the chiefs
df the tlifurre6iioti had pefided^ aiid who wifhed to gain

name, ftands upon the Maes, in a fine valley, fur- a party at Liege, became mediator •! atid feemed to fa-
rounded with woods and hills, being a free itnperial vour 'the Liegoife^ ihany of whofe claims were juft.

city, and one of tlie largeft and moft eminent in Europe.

though it is 100 miles from the fea by water, the

Maes is navigable up to it. The city has 16 gates;

17 bridgtes* fope of them very handfome ; 154 ftreets.

though they attetnpted to enforce them by violence
and the moft illegal fteps. Intoxicated with this prO'
te£Hon^ the people of Lle^e treated the remonftrancet
of their bifhop, the decrees of the imperial chamber.

many of them ftraight and broad; a fine epifcopal and ijie refolutioiisof the diredoiy of the^wo circles*
palace ; a very large ftately cathedral, in which, be* with the Utftioft tontem^t ; and proceeded fo far as
fides %:st. great filver coffers full of reliques, arc feveral even to dethrone their prince, by appointing a regent
filver ftatues of faints, and a St George oil horfeback iti the perfon of a French prelate. The ele6boral col-
of maify gold, prefented td the cathedral bv Chtirles lege having deliberated oh the beft means of putting
the Bold, by way of atonement for uiing the inhabi- an end to thefe difturbances, its propofitions, though mo*
tants cruelly in the year I468. Of the other churches^ dified by M.Dohm the Prtiffian plenipotentiary, made
that of St Paul is the moft remarkable, both for its the infurgents break out into open fedition. Deluded by
ilru^ure and fine omarfieuts in painting and m^ble^ their leaders, they gave themfetves up every day to new
The city is well fortified, and there are alfb trtro ^cefles; the effeSs of the citizens Were expofed to
caltles on the mountain of the Tioly Walburg for its pillage, and their perfons to infult.. The king of
defence. Befides a great nUxtiber of other convents of Phiflia, who Was delirous to bfing matters to an ap-
both fcxes, here is a college of £ngli(h Jefuits, found* dbmmodation, and not to inftigate the Liegoife to
cd in the year .i6»6, and a fine nunnery of Englifh become independent, finding that tht efforts of hitf
laxlie^. Indeed, churches, convents, and other reli- minifter were not atteiided with the defired fucccfs,
gious foundations, take up xhe greater part of it. feemeed unwilling to interfere any farther in an affaif
The -reader, therefore, ho doiibt, will take it for which rsight have led him into a quarrel with the em-
granted, that it is ^ taoft blelFed, holy, and he^py pire. The exccutii^e- troops, at the fame time, rci-*
city. But however it 'may fare with the profafte, iln- mained almoft in ii ftate of iiui6iivity ; and feemed ra&
.hallowed laity, it is certahily the paradile orprieiU, ther to guard the frontiers of this petty ftktCj than to
as it is exprefsly called, -by Way of eminence* It is make afiy attempt lo reduce it to obedience. Neither
divided into the old and ne\V, or the upper and lower ; this condufl, however, nor the exhortations of Pruilia,
and the latter again into the ifland, alid the quarter added to the moral certainty of th\:ir being foon com^
beyond the Macs. The houfefc are rhigh, ahd built pelled to lay do'^n thtfr armsj ihade any change in the

of bluifh marble. In the toMrn and Aib\irbs are 12
public places or fquares, 10 hofpitals, a )ieguin-hiE>ufe,
and two fine keys, planted with feveral rows of tKeSt
for the burghers to take the air ; but a great part of
that within the walk is taken up with orchards and
vineyards. The manufactures of this city are arms.

dondudi of the malecohtentd. They declared openly, *
ih the face of all Europe, that they would either con-
quer or die ; and they perfifted in this refolution, while
conunerce, ^anhfadures, and the public revenues^
wdre going daily to decay.

Having at length openly attacked th^ executive

nails, leather, ferge, and beer. In St William's forces without the territories of their cfty, the empe-
«onvent, without the city, is the tomb 4>f th( famous ror could no linger remain an indifierent fpeAator. It
N^iSi* ^ was

L 1 E

r iz 1

L I E

^^« «gc, was DOW full time to put a period to that madnefa to
C^ieiens ^^^^ ^^ people had abandoned themfelves ; and to
accomplifh this in an effedtual manner^ the imperial
chamber at Wetzlar requefted the emperor, as a mem-
ber of the ancient circle of Burgundy, to execute its
orders refpe^ing this obje6^. In confequence of this

bom at Ley den in 1607. He difcovered an estrly in-
clination for the arts, and was the difciple firfl of Joris
van Schooten, and afterwards of Peter Lailman. He
excelled principally in painting portraits; but he alfo exe-
cuted fevend hiftorical fubje^s with great fuccefs. He
came over into England, where he refided three years,

KJeou.

meafuret Baron Alvinzi, who commanded a body of and. painted the portraits of Charles I. the queen, the

Aulhians cantoned in Limburgh and the confines of prince of Wales, and feveral of the nobility ; after

brabant, notified, by order of Marihal Bender, to which he returned to Antwerp, where he met with

the ftatcs and municipality of Liege, that the em- fuH employment for his pencil. We have feveral etch-

peror intended to fend troops into their city and terri- ings by this mailer, which are performed in a flight,i

tories, for the purpofe of reftoring tranquillity and but mailerly manner. The chiaro fcuro is very fkil-

good order. The ftates had already been informed of fully managed in them, fo as to produce a moft power-

this refolution by their agent at Wetzlar. They there- ful efFe6b. His ftyle of etching bears fome refcmblancc

fore wrote to Marihal Bender, to aflure him of the
refpe^ul confidence which they placed in the juflice
and magnanimity of the emperor, and to requeil that
the Auftrian troops might enter alone, without thofe
of the ele^ors ; and that they might be confined to occu-
py the gates and the fuburbs only. To this letter, which
was carried to Bruffels by a deputation of the ftates,
Marihal Bender returned a very fatisfa^ory anfwer, re-
lating to the difpofltion of the ele6loral troops : but
Baron Alvinzi, in a note which he wrote to the ftates,
infifted among other articles, that all the citizens fhoidd
throw down their arms ; that proper accommodations
ihould be prepared for the officers and men ; that the
warlike ftores, colle^ed for. making reliftance, fhould
^e removed ; and that cockades, and every other di-
ftin6kive mark of the h'ke kind, fhould be laid afide be*
fore the arrival of the Imperial troops. However hu-
miliating thefe preliminaries might be, efpecially that
of a general difarming, the ftates and municipalities ac-
quielced without the leaft referve ; and their fubmiffion,
as fudden as complete, was communicated to the people,
with an exhortation to follow their example.

Notwithftanding this pacific appearance, two days
before the entrance of the Imperial troops, the muni-
cipal council of Liege, flattering themfelves, perhaps,
with the hopes of aftiftance fi-om Pruilia, affured the
inhabitants that they would remain unfhaken in their
poft, and that they -had fwom never to defert the caufe
in which they were engaged. This, however, did not
prevent the Auftrian troops, to the number of 6ocx>,
from penetrating, without oppofition, into the heart
of the city ; where they occupied every poft ; made
the citizens lay afide their arms, uniforms, and cock-
ades ; and, in a fingle hour, dethroned fo many fove-
reigns of a year. The greater part of the municipal
officers, who, two days before, had folemnly promifcd
fuch g^eat things, betook themfelves to flight, and re-
tired either to France or Wefel ; while the ancient
magiftracy, which had been expelled in the month of
Auguft 1789, vras provifionally re-inftated by the di-
redtorial commiffioners. - The decrees of the imperial
chamber at Wetzlar have fince been executed in their
utmoft extent. The ancient magiftracy and the privy-
council of the prince bifhop have been reftored ; and
the prince himfelf having returned, peace and good
order have been re-eftabli(hed.

LIENTERY, a flux of the belly, in which the
•aliments are difcharged as they ai^ fiiallowed, or very
little altered either in colour or fubftance. See (Jmtix
Subjoined to ) Medicine.

LlEVENS (John or Jan}» a celebrated painter^ was
Vol. X. Part L

to that of Rembrandt ; but it is coarfer in general, and
lefs finifhed.

LIEOU-KIEOU, the name of certain illands of
Afia, fubjeft to China ; but hitherto little known to
geographers, who have been fatisfied with marking
their exiftence and latitude in their charts. They,
however, form a powerful and extenfive empire, the
inhabitants of which are civilized, and ought not to
be confounded with other favage nations difperfed
throughout the iflands of Afia. Father Gabil, a Je-
fuit, has fumifhed us with fome interefting details re-
fpe6^ing thefe iflanders, which he extraded from a
Chinefe relation, publifhed in 1721, at the end of a
voyage that was undertaken on the following account.
The emperor Kang-hi having refolved, in 1719, to
fend an ambaifador to the king of Lieou-kieou, chofe
for this purpofe one of the great doAors of the em-
pire, named Supao-Koang, This learned man depart-
ed from China in 1719, and returned to Peking in
1720, ^vhere, in the year following, he caufed a rela-
tion of his voyage to be publifhed in two volumes. It
is in the firft of thefe that he gives an accurate and
particular defcription of the ifles of Lieou-kieou ; and
what he relates appears to be worthy of the greater credit,
becaufe, being on the fpot, he examined, as he him-
felf fays, according to the orders of the emperor, what-
ever he found curious or interefting, refpe^ling the num-
ber, fituation, and produdions of thefe ifles ; as alfo
the hiftory, religion, manners, and cuftoms of the people
who inhabit them.

Thefe ifles, fituated between Corea, Formofa, and
Japan, are in number 36. The principal and largeft
is called Lieou'kleou ; the reft have each a particular de-
nomination. The largeft ifland extends from north to
fouth almoft 4ifO lys, and 1 20 or j 30 from eaft to weft 5
but on the fouth fide, the extent from eaft to weft is
not 100 lys. The fouth-eaft part of the ifland, \^'hei^
the court refides, is called Cbeouli ; and it is there that
Kint-chin^, the capital city, is' fituated. The king's
palace, which is reckoned to be four leagues in circum-
ference, is built on a neighbouring mountain. It has
four gates, which correfpond to the four cardinal points \
and that which fronts the weft forms the grand entry.
The view which this palace commands is moft extenfive
and delightful ; it reaches as far as the port of Napa-
kiang, at the diftance of ten lys, to the city of Kint-
cking, . and to a great number of other cities, towns,
viUages, palaces, temples, monafteries, gardens, and
pleafure-houfes. It fiands in longitude 146*" 26' eaft,
and in latitude 26 2' north.

If wc believe thefe iflanders, the origin of their cm-

E pirc

LIE

Kieov,

[ 34 1

L I E

pire 18 loil in the remoteft antiquity. They reckon up
25 fucceiBve dynaflies, the duration of which forms a
period of more than 1 8,000 years. It would be ufe-
lefs to employ a iingle moment in pointing out the ab-
Airdity of thefe pretenfions. It is however certain,
that tlie exiilence of the country called Lieou-kieou was
not known in China before the year 605 of the Chri-
ftian aera. It was in the courfe of that year, that one of
the emperors of the dynafty of Soui, having heard of
thefe ides, was defirous of knowing their fituation.
This prince at firft fent fome Chiriefe thither ; but
their expedition proved fruitlefs, as the want of inter-
preters prevented them from acqqjring that knowledge
which was the ohjcdl of their voyage. They only
brought fome of the inlanders with them to Sigan-fou,
the capital of the province of Chen-fi, which was the
ufual refidence of the emperors of the dynafty of Sow*.
It fortunately happened, that an embaflador of the king
of Japan was then at court. This ambaiFador and
his attendants immediately knew tlie ftrangers to be na-
tives of Lieou-kieou ; but they fpoke of thefe ifles as
of a mifcrable and wretched country, the inhabitants of
which had never been civilized. The emperor of China
afterwards learned, that the principal ifland lay to the
call of a city called at prefent Foti-tcheou-fouy which is
the capital of the province of Fo-kien ; and that, in a
paflage of fire days, one might reach the large ifland
where the king kept his court.

On this information, the emperor Yang-ti fent Ikil-
ful men, accompanied by interpreters, to fummon the
prince to do homage to the emperor of China, and to
pay him tribute* This propofal was very ill received.
The king of Lieou-kieou fent back the Chinefe, telUng
them, ftemly, that he acknowledged no prince to be
his fupcrior. This anfwer irritated the emperor, who,
to obtain revenge, caufed a fleet to be immediately
equipped in Fo-kien, in which he embarked 10,000
This fleet fet fail, and arrived in £afety at the

men<

port of Napa-kiang. The army, in fpite of every effort
made by the natives, landed an the ifland ; and the
king, who had put himfelf at the head of his troops to
oppofe the enemy, having fallen in battle, the Chinefe
pillaged, facked, and burnt the royal city, made more
than 5000 flaves, and returned to China.

The emperors of the dynafty of Tang, thofe of the
(I'tort dynallies that followed, and thofe of the dynafty
of Song, although they were fully informed of every
thing refpedUng the Lieou-kieou ifles, made no attempts
to render tliem tributary. In 1 291, Chi-tfou, empe-
ror of the dynafty of Yven, was defirous of reviving the
pretenfions of his predecejfors. He fitted out a fleet
to fubdue thefe iflands ; but fchemes of conquefl had
become difagreeable ttf the Chinefe, fince the difafter
that befel their army in an expedition againft Japan.
The fleet of Chi-tfou went no farther than the ifles of
Pong-hou, and the weftem coaft of Formofa, from
whence, under divers pretences, they returned to the
ports of Fo-kien.

It was only in 1372, under the reign of Hong^vou^
founder of the dynaily of Ming, that thefe iflands fub-
mitted vtJuntarily to the Chinefe government. Hong-
vou had fent one of the grandees of his court to Tfay-
tou, who was then reigning at Lieou-kieou, to inform
him of his acccflion to the throne. The Chinefe noble-
man had received particular iDft.ru^oAa refpe^tisg this

coramifCoOy mod he acquitted himfelf of it with all the
prudence and addrefs of an able minifter. In a private
audience which he had with Tfay-tou, he exhorted
this prince to declare himfelf a tributary of the empire,
and laid before him the advantages he would derive
from' this ftep. His reafoning, fupported by tlie pow*
er of his natural eloquence, made fo much impreflloa
on the mind of Tiay-tou, that he embraced the propo-
fal made him, . and fent immediately to the emperor to
demand the inveftiture of his flates.

Hong-vou received his envoys in a magnificent man*
ner, and loaded them with prefeots. He folemnly de*
clared Tfay-tou a vaifal of the empire ; and, after ha*
ving received his firft tribute (which confifted in yalu-
able horfes, aromatic wood, fulphur, copper, tin, &c. )
he fent to this prince a golden feal, and confirmed the
choice he had made of one of his fons for fucceffor*
The emperor afterwards fent 36 families, almoft all
from the province of Fo-kien to Lieou-kieou. Tfay-
tou received them, afllgned them lands near the port of
Napa-kiang, and appointed certain revenues for their
. ufe, at the fame time that Hong-vou made them con*
fiderable remittances. Thefe families firft introduced
into Lieou-kieou the learned language of tlie Chinefe,
the ufe of their chara^iers, and the ceremonies prachi-
fed in China in honour of Confucius. On the other
hand, the fans of feveral of the ffrandees of the court
of Tiay-tou were fent to Nan-king, to ftudy Chinefe
in the imperial college, where they were treated with
diiUn6lion, and maintained at the emperor's expences^

The ifles of Lieou-kieou had neither iron nor por-
celain. Hong-vou fupplied this wa^it ;. he caufed a
great number of utenfils of iron and inftruments to be
made, which he Cent thither, together with a quantity
of porcelain veflels. Commerce, navigation, and the
arts foon began to fk>urifh. Thefe iflanders learned Uk
caft bells for their temples, to manufa^ure paper and
the fineft ftuffs, and to make porcelain, with whicb
they had been fupplied before from Japan.

The celebrated revolution which placed the Tartars
on the imperial throne of China, produced no change
in the condu6^ of the kings of Lieou-kieou. Chang-
tche, who was then reigning, fent embaffadors to ac-
knowledge Chun-tchi, and received a feal from him, oa
which were engraven fome Tartar chara^ers. It was
then fettled, tlutt the king of Lieou-kieou fliould pay
his tribute only every two years, and that the number
of perfons in the train of his envoys fhould not exceed
150^

The emperor Kang-hi feemed to pay more atten-
tion to thefe ifles than any of his predecefTors. He
caufed a fuperb palace to be eredied in honour of Con-
fucius, and a college where he maintained mafters to
teach the fciences and the Chinefe characters. He aiU
fo inftituted examinations for the different degrees of
the literati. He ordained, that the king of Lieou-
kieou fhould never fend in tribute rofe-wood, cloves,
or any other produ6Uon which was not resdly of the
growth of the country ; but that he fhould fend a
fixed quantity of fulphur, copper, tin, fhdls^ and mo-
ther of pearl, which is remarkably pretty in thefe
iflands. He permitted, that, befidesthe ufual tribute,
h^ might prefent him horfe-fumiture, pift;ol-cafes, and
other things of the fame kind, which thefe iflaaden
aie (aid to maaufa£iiire wkb great tafie and ncatnefs.

It.

Kxcei

L I E

Kienu.

It U more than 900 years fince the bonzes of Chi- on it. The latter have agents, who rcfide at court, r.icutaudi
na introduced at Lieou-kieou the worfhip of Fo, and There are alfo particular tribunals for civil and criminal ^'^^^^"^"^;
the principal books belonging to their fe6l. This matters ; for whatever concerns the families of the gran-
worfhip is at prefent the eftablifhed religion both of dees and princes ; for the affairs* of religion ; for in*
the grandees and of the people. There is ftill to be fpedling the public granaries, king's revenues, duties ;

for commerce, manuf?iftures, civil ceremonies, and for

feen in the royal city a magnificent temple, erected in
honour of another idol borrowed from the Chinefe^
named Tan-fey ^ which fignifies celeflial quern or lady,

Thefe iflanders do not make promifes or fwear be-
fore their idols. When they have occalion to do this,
they bum perfumes, prefent fruits, and ftand refpe£l-
fully before fome ftone, which they call to witnefs the
folemnity of their engagements. Numbers of flones
are to be feen in the courts of their temples, in moil
public places, and upon their mountains, which are en-
tirely appropriated to this purpofe. They have alfo

navigation, public edifices, literature, and vsrar.

The veffels that are built in this»country are greatly
valued by the people of China and Japan. In thefe
the natives go not only from one ifland to another, but
alfo to China, Tong-king, Cochinchina, Coreaj'Nanga-
za-ki, Satfuma, the neighbouring ifles, and to Formofa,
where they difpofe of their different commodities. Bc-
fides thofe articles of commerce which their manufac-
turies of (ilk, cotton, paper, arms, copper utenfils, &c.
fumifh them, they alfo export mother of pearl, tortoife

among them women co^fecrated for the worfhip of and other (hells, coral and whet-flones, which are in

fpirits, who are fuppofed to have great influence over
thefe beings. They vifit the fick, diflribute medi-
and recite prayers for their recovery.

cines,

They refpedl the dead as much as the Chinefe, and
they are no lefs ceremonious in wearing mourning}
but their funerals are neither fo pompous, nor attended
with fo much expence. Their coffins, which are of an
hexagonal or o^agonal figure, are three or four feet
high. They bum the flefh of the bodies of their dead,

great requeft both in China and Japan.

LIEUTAUD (Dr Jofeph), counfellor of flate and
firft phyfician at the court of France, was bora at Aix
in Provence, and refided principally there till he took
the degree of doctor of medicine. After this he profe-
cuted his ftudies for fome years at Montpelier. He
returned to Aix, where he foon acquired extenfive
pi-adlicCy^and became eminent for literary abilities. He
refided there till th^ year 1 750, when he was invited

and preferve only the bones. They never offer pro- ^ to a6l as phyfician to the royal infirmary at Vcr-

vifions to them ; they are contented with placing lamps
round them, and buming perfumes.

Different families are diflinguifhed in Lieou-kieou
by fumames, as in China ; but a man and a woman of
the fame fumame cannot be united in marriage. The
king is not permitted to marry but in the three grand fa-
milies, which always enjoy the highefl offices. There is
a fouith, of equal diilin6iion to the three former ; but
neither the king nor the princes contrail any alliances
with this family ; for it is doubtful, whether it be not
'fprung from the fame (lera as the royal line.

A plurality of wives is allowed in thefe ifles. Young
men and young women enjoy the liberty of feeing one
another, and of converfing together ; and their union is
always in confequenoe of their own choice. The wo-
men are very referved ; they never ufe paint, and wear
no pendants in their ears ; they coUedl their hair on the
top o\ their heads in the form of a curl, aifd fix it in
that manner by means of long pins made of gold or
filver.

Befides the vafl domains which the king poffeffes, he
receives the produce of all the fulphur, copper, and tin-
mines, and of the falt-pits, together with what arifes
from taxes. » From thefe revenues he pays the falaries
of the mandarins and officers of his court. Thefe fala-
ries are eflinvated at a certain number of facks of rice ;
but under this name is comprehended whatever the king
gives in grain, rice, fUk, cloth, 5cc. The whole is va-
lued according to the price of the facks of rice.

There are here, as in China, nine orders of manda-
rins, who are diflinguifhed by the colour of their caps,
or by their girdles and cufhions. The greater part of
the titles of thefe mandarins are heredit^y in their
families ; but there are fome which are only beflowed
upon merit. In the royal city there are tribunals efta-
blifhed for managing the revenue and affairs of tlie prin-
cipal iflandf and of all the others which are dependent

failles. There he pradlifed with fuch reputation and
fuccefs, that he foon arrived at the head of his pro-
feffion ; and in the year 17749 upon the death of M.
Senac, he was appointed archiater. His extenfive en-
gagements in pradlice did not prevent him from culti-
vating the fcience of medicine m all its branches, and
from freely communicating to others the refult of his
own fludies. He publifhed many valuable works ; a-
mongfl which the following may be accounted the mod
remarkable, i. Elementa^ PhiloIogU. 2. Precis de la
Medecine. 3. Pratique Precis de la Matiere Medicale.
4. E/fais jinatomique. 5. Synofjis Untverfs Praxeos
Medicime, 6. Htflorta jinatomicO'Medica. He died at
Verflaillesin 17B0, aged 78 years.

LIEUTENANT, an officer who fupplies the
place and difcharges the office of a fuperior in his
abfence. Of thefe, fome are civil, as the lords lieu-
tenants of kingdoms, and the lords-lieutenants of
counties ; and others are military, as the lieutenant-
general, lieutenant-colonel, &c.

Lord LiRvTRNANT of Ireland^ is properly a viceroy ;
and has all the ftate and grandeur of a king of Eng-
land, except being ferved upon the knee. He has
the power of making war and peace, of beftowing all
the offices under the govcrnihent, of dubbing knights,
and of pardoning all crimes except high treafon ; he
alfo calls and prorogues the parliament, but no bill
can pafs without the royal affent. He is affifted in
his government by a privy<ouncil ; and, on his lea-
ving the kingdom, he appoints the lords of the re-
gency, who govern in his abfence.

Lord LiRUTF.NANrs of Counties ^ are officers/ who,
upon any invafion or rebellion, have power to raife
the militia, and to give commiffions to colonels and
other officers, to arm and form them into regiments^
troops, and companies. Under the lord-lieutenants,
are deputy-lieutenant8» who have the fame power ;

E it thefe

LIE

liicntenanf.

C 36 ]

L I F

thcfe arc chofen by the lords-licutcnants, out of the
principal gentlemen of each county, and prefented to
the king lor his approbation.

LiRUTENANr^CoIontL Sec Colonel,
LiEurRNANT'GfneraL See General.
Lieutenant, in the land-fenice, is the fecond
commiilioned officer in every company of both foot
and horfe, and next to the captain, and who takes the
command upon the death or abfence of the captain.

and acquaints the captain at all other times of the mif- L««»tenn
behaviour of any perfon in the fhip, and of whatever ^' ^^
elfe concerns the f^irvic^ or difcipline.

The youngeft lieutenant in the fliip, who is alfo
ftyled iieutenant at arms, befides his common duty, is
particularly ordered, by his inftrudions, to train the
feamen to the ufe of fm:Jl arms, and frequently to ex-
ercife and difcipline them therein. Accordingly his
office, in time of battle, is chiefly to direct and attend

LiEu%ENANT of Arlilltry, Each company of ar* them ; and at all other times to have a due regard to

tillery hath four; i firfl and 3 fecond lieutenants
The firft lieutenant hath the fame detail of duty \^-ith
the captain ; becaufe in his abfence he commands the
company : he is to fee that the foldiers are clean and
neat ; that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements, are
in good and ferviceable oi-der ; and to watch over every
thing elfe which may contribute to their health. He
muft give attention to their being taught the exercife,
fee them punctually paid, their mefles regularly "kept,
and to viiit them in the hofpitals when fick. He muft
afliil at all parades, &c. He ought to underftand the
dodlrine of projeAiles and the fcience of artillery, with
the various cffcCls of gun-powder, however managed
or diredled ; to enable him to conilru£l and difpofe
his batteries to the be ft advantage ; to plant his can-
non, mortars, and howitzers, fo as to produce the
greateft annoyance to an enemy. He is to be well
fkiUed in the attack and defence of fortified places ; and
to be converfant in arithmetic, mathematics, mecha-
nics, &c.

Second Li EVTEN ANT In the Art'dUry, is the fame as
an enfign in an infantry regiment, being the youngeft
commilfioned officer in the company, and muft affift
the firft lieutenant in the detail of the company's duty

the prefervation of the fmall arms, that they be not loft
or embezzled, and that they are kept clean and in good
condition for fervice.

LiEVTEN ANT'Rfformedy he whofe company or troop
is broke or diftanded, but continued in whole or half-
pay, and ftill preferves his right of feniority and .rank
in the army.

LIFE, is pecuh'arly ufcd* to denote the animated
ftate of living creatures, or the time that the union of
their foul and body lafts.

The Prolongation of Lite [% made by Lord Bacon one
of the three branches of medicine ; the other two re-
lating to the prefervation of health, and the cure of
difeafes. See Medicine.

' The theory of prolonging life he numbers among the
defiderata* Some means ur indications that feem to
lead to it, he lays down as follow.

Things are preferved in two manners; either in their
itientity, or by reparation. In their ukntiiy ; as a fly or
ant in amber ; a flower, or fruit, or wood, in a con-
fervatory of fnow ; a dead carcafe in balfams. By
reparation ; as a flame, or a mechanical engine, &c. To
attain to the prolongation of life, both thefe method*
muft be ufed. And l^ence, according to him, arifc^

His other qualifications fliould be equal with thofe of three intentions for the prolongation of life : Retarda-
the firft lieutenant. tton of confumptlon, proper reparation, and renoimtion

Lieutenant of a fhip of War, the officer next in of what begins to grow old.
rank and power to the captain, in whofe abfence he is Confumption is occafioned by two kinds of depreda-
accordingly charged with the command of the ftilp, as tion ; a depredation of the innate fpirit, and a depre-
alfo the execution of whatever orders he may have re- dation of the ambient air. Thefe may be each pre-
ceived from the commander relating to the king's fer- vented two ways; either by rendering thofe agents lefs
vice. predatory, or by rendering the paffive parts ( wz. the

The lieutenant who commands the watch at fea, juices of the body) lefs liable to be preyed on. The
keeps a lift of all the officers and men thereto belong- fpirit will be rendered lefs predatory, if either its fub-
ing, in order to mufter them when he judges it expe- ftance be condenfed, as by the ufe of opiates, grief^
dient, and report to the captain the names of thofe who &c. ; or its quantity dimlnifticd, as in fpare and mo-
are abfent from their duty. During the night-watch, naftic diets; or its motion calmed, as in idlenefs and
he occafionally vifits the lower decks, or fends thither tranquillity. The ambient air becomes lefs predatory,
a carefid officer, to fee that the proper centinels are at if it be either lefs heated by the rays of the fun, as in
their duty, and that there is no diforder amongft the cold climates, in caves, mountain'^, and anchorets cells ;
men ; no tobacco fmokcd between decks, nor any fire or be kept off from the body, as by a denfe fldn, the
or candles burning there, except the lights which are feathers of birds, and the ufe of oils and unguents with-
in lanthorns, under the care of a proper watch, on par- out aromatics. The juices of the body are rendered
ticular occafions. He is expe6led to be always upon lefs liable to be preyed on, either by making them
deck in his watch, as well to give the neceflary orders harder or more moift and oily : harder, as by a coarfe
with regard to trimming the fails and fuperint ending the ftiarp diet, living in the cold, robuft exercifes, and fome
navigation, as to prevent any noife or confufion ; but mineral baths : moifter, as by the ufe of fweet foods,
he is never to change the fliip's courfe without tlie cap- &c. abftaining from falts and acids ; and cfpecially by
tain's dire^lions, unlefs to avoid an immediatie dan- fuch a mixture of drink as confifta wholly of fine fub-

tile particles, without any acrimony or acidity.

Reparation is performed by means of aliment ; and
alimentation is promoted four ways : By the conco6^ion
of the vifcera, fo as to extrude the aliment: By exciting,
the exterior parts to the attradtion of th^ aliment; as
in proper exercifes and frications,, and fome un£bion»

and

ger.

The lieutenant, in time of battle, is particularly to
fee that aD the men are prefent at their quarters,
where they have been previoufly ftalioned according
ta the regulations made by the captain. He orders
9nd. exhorts them every where to perform their duty ;

Ufe,

L 1 G [37

and baths : By the preparatton of the food itfelf, fo as
it may more czGlj infinuate itfelf, and in fome meafure
anticipate the digeilion ; as in various ways of drefling
meatSy mixing drinks^ fermenting breads, and reducing
the virtues of thefe three into one : By promoting the
adl of aiSmiktion itfelf^ as in feafonable fleep, fome ex-
ternal application, &c*

vThe renovation of what begins to grow old, is per-
formed two ways : By the inteneration of the habit of
the body ; as in the ufe of emollients, emplaflers, unc-
tions, &c. of fuch a nature, as do not extrad^ but im-
prefs : Or by purging off the old juices, and fubflitu-
ting frefli ones ; as in feafonable evacuations, attenua-
ting diets, &c.

The fame author adds thefe tliree axioms: That the
prolongation of life is to be expe^ed, rather from fome
ftated diets, than either from any ordinary regimen or
any extraordinary medicines ; more from operating on
the fpints, and mollifying the parts, than from the
manner of feeding ; and this mollifying of the parts
without is to be performed by fubflantials, impriments,
and occludents. See Longevity.

Vegetable Lifr. See Plants.

LiFh'Retity in Scots law. "When the ufe and enjoy-
ment of a fubjedl is given to a perfon during his life,
it is faid to belong to him in life-rent.

LIGAMENT, in its general fenfe, denotes any
tlu'ng that ties or binds one part to another.

Ligament, in anatomy, a flrong compadl fubflancc,
ferving to join two bones together. See Anatomy,

Li.Jit.

n'7.

LIGARIUS (Quintus), a Roman proconful in
Africa, 49 B. C. 1 aking part with Pompey, he was
forbid by Julius Csefar to return to Rome : to obtain
his pardon, Cicero made that admired oration in his
defence which has immortalized the memory of the
client with that of his celebrated advocate.

LIGATURE, in furgery, is a cord, band, or
firing ; or the binding any part of the body with a
cord, band, fillet, &c. whether of leather, linen, or any
other matter.

Ligatures are ufed to extend or replace bones that
are broken or diflocated ; to tie the patients down in
lithotomy and amputations ^ to tie upon the veins in
phlebotomy, on the arteries in amputations, or in large
wounds ; to fecure the fplints. that arc applied to frac-
tures ; to tie up the procefFes of the peritoneum with
the fpermatic veffels in callration ; and, laflly, in taking
off warts or other excrefcences by ligature.

Ligature, is alfo ufed to fignify a kind of bandage
or fillet, tied round the neck, arm, leg, or other part
c^ the bodies of men or beafls, to divert or drive off
fome difeafe, accident, &e.

Ligature is alfo ufed for a ftate of impotency, in
refpedl to venery, pretended to be caufed by fome
charm or witchcraft.

Kaempfer tells of an uncommon kind of ligature, or
knotting, in ufe among the people of Maffacar, Java,
Malaja, Siam, &c. By this charm or fpell, a man
binds up a woman, and a woman a man, fo as to put
it out of their power to have to do with any other
perfon ; the man beiiig thereby rendered impotent to
any other woman, and all other men impotent with
refpctSl to the woman.

] . L I G

Some of their philoibphers pretend, that this liga*
turc may be effed^ed by the (hutting of a lock, the
drawing of a knot, or the flicking of a knife in the wall,
at the point of time wherein the priefl is joining a
couple together; and that a ligature, thus effeded,
may be difTolved, by the fpoufe's urining through a
ring. This piece of fuperllition is faid to obtain alfo
among the Chriilians of the Eaft.

The fame author tells us, that during the ceremony
of marriage in Ruffia, he obferved an old fellow lurking
behind the churcl\-door, and mumbling over a firing
of words ; and, at the fame time, cutting a long rod,
which he held under his arm, into pieces ; which, it.
feems, is a cenunon pradlice at the marriages of great
perfons, and done with delign to elude and counter-
work any other perfon that might pofTibly be inducing^
the ligature.

The fecret of inducing a ligature is delivered by
the fame author, as he vt-as taught it on the fpot by
one of their adepts : but it is too abfurd and obfcene
to deferve being tranfcribcd here.

M. Marfhal mentions a ridiculous form of ligature^
which he received from a bramin at Indoflan : '' If
(fays he) the little worm in the wood lukerara kara
be cut into two, and the one part flirs and the other
not, if the flirring part be bruifcd, and given with half
a beetle to a man, and the other half to a woman, the
charm will keep each from ever having to do with any
other perfon." Phil, Tranf. N^ 268.

Ligature, in the Italian mulic, fignifies a tying
or binding together of notes. Hence fyncopcs
are often called iigaturet^ becaufe they are made by
the ligature of many notes. There is another fort
of ligatures for breves, when there are manyofUiefe
on different lines, or on differcrtt fpaces, to be fung to
one fyllable.

Ligatures, among printers, are types confiding of
two letters or charadcrs joined together; as dj ^\Jft.
J^fji" The ojd editions of Greek authors arc extreme-
ly full of hgatuves ; the ligatures of Stephens are by
much the moil beautiful. ~ Some editions have been
lately printed without any ligatures at all ; and there
was a defign to explode them quite out of printing.
Had this fucceeded, the finell ancient editions woidd.
in time have grown ufclcfs ; and the reading of old-
manufcripts would have been rendered almofl impradll-
cable to the learned themfelvcs.

LIGHT, in the moft common acceptation of the
word, fignifies that invilible etherial matter which makes
objefts perceptible to our fenfe of feeing. Figurative-
ly, it is alfo ufed for whatever conveys inftruction to
our minds, and like wife for that inflruclion itfelf.

The nature of light hath been a fubjedof fpecala-Qpi ,.„.„
tion from the earlicil ages of philofophy. Some of of thcfiTft
thofe firll diflinguifhed by the appellation of pJiilofo- i»li'l''fo-
phers even doubted whether objedls became vilible by ^^^'^^ ^
means of any thing proceeding from them, . or from 1^^'u '"^
the eye of the fpedator. The fallacy of this notion
mufl very foon have been apparent, becaufe, in that-
cafe, we ought to have feen as well in the night as in
the day. , The opinion was therefore quab'fied by Em-
pedocles and Plato; v/ho maintained, that vifion was-
occafioned by particles continually flying off from the.
fm-faces of bodits, which met with others proceeding.

fro^.

r
lions

L I G

t 38 1

L I G

Of Dei

Cartet.

t^ifirht. from the eye; but Pythagoras afcribcd it folely to
the particles proceeding from the external objed^s and
entering the pupil of the eye.

Among the modern philofophers there have been
two celebrated opinions, viz. the Carteiian and New-
tonian. According to the former, light is an inviflble
fluid prefent at all times and in alt places, but which
requires to be fet in motion by an ignited or otherwife
3 properly qualified body in order to make obje^is vi-

OfSirlfaacfjyg ^Q ^^^, — The Newtonians maintain, that light is
Vewton. ^^^ ^ ^^.^ ^^ y^^ 1^^^ con fills of a vaft number of ex-
ceedingly fmall particles (haken off in all dire<^one
from the luminous body with inconceivable velocity
by a repulfive power ; and which moft probably never
return again to the body from which they were emit-
ted- Thefe particles arc alfo faid to be emitted in
right lines by the body from whence they proceed :
and this redlilinear direAion they preferve until they
are turned out of their original path by the attrad^ion
of fome other body near which they pafs, and which
is called hjlealon ; by palling through, a medium of
different denfity, which is caUed refraStotiy or by be-
ing thrown obliquely or diredlly forward by fome body
which oppofes their pafTage, and which is called iv-
Ae8lon ; or, laHly, till they are totally flopped by the
fubflance of any body into which they penetrate, and
which is called their extmBion, A ^ucceffion of thefe
particles following one another in an exa^ly flraight
line is called a ray of iight ; and this ray, in whatever
manner it hath its dire6lion changed, whether by re-
fra£lion, refledlion, or infle6lion, always preferves its
re^lilinear courfe; neither is it pofiible by any art what-
ever to make it pafs on in the fegment of a circle, el«
lipfis, or other curve — From fome ^bfervations on the
eclipfes of Jupiter's (atellites, and alfo on the aberration
of the fixed flars, it appears that the particles of light
move at the rate of little lefs than 200,000 miles in a
- fecond of time. See AsTRONOMY-/«/«f.
ObicAions To this do6lrine concerning the nature of light fe-
toineNcw-veral objections have been made; the mofl confiderable
J^?|jJ° ^^' of which is. That in this cafe, as rays of light are con-
tinually pafling in different diredlions from every vi-
fible point, they muft neceffarily interfere with and d?-
ftroy each other in fuch a manner as entirely to con-
found all diflinfl perception of objedls, if not to de-
ftroy the fcnfe of feeing altogether ; not to mention
the continual wafle of fubflance which a conflant emif-
(ion of particles mull occafion in the luminous body,
, and which fince the creation ought to have greatly di-
minifhed the fun and flars^ as well as increefed tlie bulk
of the earth and planets by the vafl quantity of par-
ticles of light abforbed by them in inch a long period
of time.
Aftfwer by In anfwer to this objeftion, Mr Melville gives fome
ingenious illuflrations concerning the extreme fubtilty
of light, or the fmallnefs of the particles of which it
confifls, and of which few perfons, even of thofe who
admit the hypothefis, have any idea. He ohferves,
that there is probably no phyfical point in the vifible
horizon that does nqt fend rays to every other point,
unlefs where opaque bodies intei-pofe. Light, in its
pafTage from one fyflem to another, often paflTes thro'
torrents of light iffuing from other funs and fyflems,
without ever interfering or being diverted in its courfe,
cither by it^ or by the particles of that elaHic medium

crioe.

Mr M«l-
viUc

which fome phenomena give us reafon to fuppofe J^* g^^

are diffufed through all the mimdane ipace. To ac- " »
count for this faS and others fimilar to it, he con-
cludes, that the particles of which light confifls mufl be
incomparably rare, even when they are the mofl denfe ;
that is, that the femidiameters of the two nearefl par-
ticles, in the fame or in different beams, foon after
their emifSon, are incomparably lefs than their diflance
from one another. This difficulty concerning the non-
interference of the particles of light is not folvedy as «
he obferves, by fuppofing with Mr Bofcovich and
others, that each particle is endued with an infuper-
abk impulfive force ; becaufe, in that cafe^ their fpheres,
of impulfion would even be more liable to interfere, and
they would on that account be more likely to diflurb
one another. ^

The difficulty, according to Mr Canton, will nearly ByMrCac-s
vanifh, if a very fmall portion of time be allowed be- ton.
tween the emiflion of every particle and the next that
follows in the fame direction. Suppofe, for inflance^
that one lucid point of the fun*s furface emits 150 par-
ticles in a fecond, which are more than fulBcient to
give continual light to the eye without the leafl ap-
pearance of intermiflibn ; yet flill the particles of
which it confifls, will on account of their great velo-
city be more than 1000 miles behind each other, and
thereby leave room enough for others to pafs in all di-
redlibns. ^

In order to determine whether light really confifls Experi-
of particles emitted from the luminous body, or only in tnent* to
the vibrations of a fubtile fluid, it has been attempted f^'*^™"^
to find out its momentum, or the force with which it nientum o£
moves. The firfl who fet about tliis matter with any light,
tolerable pretenfions to accuracy was M. Mairan. O- ^
thers indeed, particularly Hartfbcker and HombercTt ; J •
had pretended, that m certain cale& this momentum
was very perceptible ; but M. Mairan proved, that the^ .
effe^ls mentioned by them were owing to currents of
heated air produced by the buming-glaffes ufed in
their experiments, or to fome other caufes overlooked
by thefe philofophers. To decide the matter therefore,
if poflible, he begai) with trying the efle^ls of rays col-
leAed by lenfes of four and fix inches diameter, and
thrown upon the needle of a compafs; but the rcfult
was nothing more than fome tremulous motion from
whence he could draw no conclufion. After this, he
and Mr du. Fay conflruAcd a kind of mill of coppei*,
which moved with an exceeding flight impulfcf ; but
though they threw upon it the focus of a lens of feven
or eight inches diameter, they were Hill unable to draw
any conclufions frc»m the rcfult.

M. Mairan afterwards procured a horizontal wheel
of iron three inches in diameter, having fix radii, at
tlie extremity of each of which was a fmall wing fixed
obliquely. The axis of the wheel, which was alfo of
iron, was fufpended by a magnet. The wheel and the
axis together did not weigh more than 30 grains; but
though a motion was given to this wheel when tlie fo-
cus of the burning glafs was thrown upon the extre-
mities of the radii, yet it was fo irregular, that he could
not but conclude that it was occafioncd by the motion
of the heated air. He tlfen intended to have made his
experiment in vacuo^ but he concluded that it was un-
neceffary. For, befides the difficulty of making a va-
cuum, he was perfuaded that there was in our atmo-
5 fpherc

L I G

Ughe.

9
By Mr

Michell.

t 39 ]

L I G

fphere a thinner medium which freely penetrates even
glafs itfelfy the exiftence of which he imagined that he
had fufficiently proved in his treatife on the aukx)ra bo-
realis. See Aukoka jBcrralu^ q^ 5.

Mr Michell fome years ago eodeaToured to afcer-
tain the momentum of light in a manner ilill more ac-
curate. The inilrument he made ufe of for this pur-
pofe coniifled of a very thin plate of copper, a Httle
more than an inch fquare, which was faftened to one
end of a (lender harpfichord-wlre about ten inches long.
To the middle of this was fixed an agate cap, fuch as
is commonly ufed for fmall mariner' s-compafTcs, after
the manner of which it was intended to turn ; and at
the other end of the wire was a middling fized (hot-
corn, as a coujiterpoife to the copperplate. The inftru*
ment had alfo fixed to it in the middle, at right angles
to the length of the wire, and in an horizontal direc-
tion, a fmall bit of a very (lender fewing-needle, about
one-third or perhaps half an inch long, which was
made magnetical. In this (late the whole inftrument
might weigh about 10 grains. It was placed on a very
iharp-pointed needle, on which the agate cap turned
extremely freely ; and to prevent its being difturbed
by any motion of the air, it was included in a box, the
iid and front of which were of glafs. This box was
about 12 inches long, fix or feven inches deep, and
about as much in width ; the needle (Unding upright
in the middle. At the time of making the experiment,
the box was placed in fuch a manner that a line drawn
from the fun pafied at right angles to the length of it;
and the inftrument was brought to range in the fame
dire£tion with the box, by means of the magnetical bit
of needle above mentioned, and a magnet properly pla-
ced on the ou^dde, which would retaun it, though with
extremely little force, in any (ituation. The rays of
the fun were now thrown upon the copperplate above
mentioned from a concave mirror of about two feet
diameter, which, paifing through the front-glafs of the
box, were colle6led into the focus of the mirror upon
the copperplate. In confequence of this the plate be-
gan to move> with a (low motion of about an inch in a

fo much from the vertical pofition, that it began ta I-»gfc*,
a£l in the fame manner as the (ail of a windmill, being ■■ v ■'
impelled by the ftream of heated air which moved up-
warda^ with a force fufficient to drive it in oppofitioa
- to the impulfe of the rays of light.

" If we impute (fays Dr Priedley ) the motion pro- Dr prirft.
duced in the above experiment to the impulfe of the ley's am-
rays of light, and fuppofethat the inftrumcnt weighed clufiani
ten grains, and acquired a velocity of one inch in a
fecond, we (hall find that the quantity of matter con-
tained in the rays falling upon the inftrument in that
time amounted to no more than one twelve-hundi'edth-
millionth part of a grain, the velocity of light exceed-,
ing the velocity of one inch in a fecond in tlie pro-
portion of about 12,000,000,000 to I. Now the h'ght
m the above experiment was colle6led from a furface
of about three fquare feet, which reflefling only about
half what falls upon it, the quantity of matter con-
tained in the rays of the fun incident upon a fquare
foot and an half of furface in one fecond of time, ought
to be no more than the twelve-hundred -millionth part
of a grain, or, upon one fquare foot only, the eighteen-
hundred-millionth part of a grain. But the denfity of
the rays of light at the furface of the fun is greater
than at the earth in the proportion of 45,000 to i i
there ought, therefore, to iffue from one fquare foot
of the fun's furface in one fecond of time, in order to
fupply the wade by light, one forty-thoufandth part
of a grain of matter ; that is, a little more than two
grains in a day, or about 4,752,000 grains, of 670
pounds avoirdupoife nearly, in 6000 years ; a quantity
which would have (hortened the fun's femidiameter no
more than about ten feet, if it was formed of the den-
fity of water only." ^

The Newtonians, befides the anfwer juft now given ObjciSioiti
to the moft formidable objedlions of their opponents, '•ff^»n(l the
have endeavoured to prove the impoffibility of licrht be-^*'^*^*^
ing a vibration m any fluid. Sir Ifaac, in his Pnnci-sii ii^ac
pia, demonftrates, that no re<^linear motion can be Newton*
propagated among the particles of any fluid unlefs
thefe particles lie in right lines; and he hath alfo (hown*

fecond of time, till it had moved through a fpace of that all motion propagated through a fluid diverges

about two inches and a half, when it (Iruck againft the
back of the box. The mirror being removed, the in-
ftrument returned to its former fituation by means
of the little needle and nuignet ; and the rays of the
fun being then again thrown upon it, it again be-
gan to move, and ftmck againfl the back of the box
as before ; and this was repeated' three or four times
with the fame fuccefs. — The inftrument was then placed
the contrary way in the box to that in which it had
been placed before, fo that the end to which the cop-
perplate was afixed, and which had lain, in the former
experiment, towards the right hand, now lay towards
the left ; and the rays of the fun being again thro>(rn
npon it, it began to move with a (low motion, and
ftruck againft the back of the box as before ; and this
was repeated once or twice with the fame fuccefs. ' But
by this time the copperplate began to be fo much al-
tered in its form, by the extreme heat which it under-
,went in each experiment, and which brought it nearly-
into a date of fufion, that it became very much bent,
and the more fo as it had been unwarily fupported by
the middk, half of it lying above and' half below the wire
to ^^ch' it was fattened^ By this means it now varied

firom a redlilinear progrefs into the unmoved fpaces
Hence he concludes, ** a preiTure on a fluid medium
(i. e. a motion propagated by fuch a medium beyond
any obftacle, which impedes any part of its motion )»
cannot be propagated in right Imes, but will be al-
ways infleding and diffufing. itfelf every way, to the
quiefcent mediUm beyond that obfUcle. The power
of gravity tends downwards ; but the prefTure of water
rifing from it tends every way with an equable force,
and IS propagated with equal eafe, and equal ftrength,.
in curves, as in ftraight lines. Waves, on the furface
of the water, gliding by the extremes qf any very large
obftacle, infle^ and dilate themfelvcs. Hill diftufing
grradually, into the quiefcent water beyond that obi
ftacle. The waves, pulfes,* or vibrations of the air,
wherein found confifts, are manifeftly infiedied, though
not fo confiderably as the waves of water ; and founds
are propagated with equal eafe, through crooked tubes
and through (baight lines ; but light was never knovt^n
to move in any curve, nor to infle^k itfelf adumbratff***

To tliis Mr RovTTiing adds another proof. *^ The b^ Mr
Cartefian notion of light (fays he), was not that itRowningw]
is props^ted from luminous bodies by the emiffion of

fmaU

r»

L I G . [ 40 ] L I G

"Liiiht. fmall particles, but that it waa communicated to the give a white heat to glafs. The colour of the ignited Light,

organ t)f fight by their preffnre upon the materia /uA" matter, according to our author, has an effe6l upon — "v— ^

tUisf with which they fuppofcd the univerfc to be fiilL the colour of the light emitted. Thus, during the % *^ ,

But, according to this hypothefis, it could never be calcination of zinc, the calx of which is white, a ^R^^che^enited

dark ; becaufe, when a fluid fuftains any prefFure, if is produced farce inferior in beauty to that of the tim matter fnp-

that fluid £118 all the fpace it takes up, abfolutely,
without leaving any pores, which is the cafe of the
fuppofed materia fubtth's^ then that preflure muft ne-
cefiarily be communicated equally and inflantaneoujly
to evciy part. And therefore, whether the fun were
above or below the horizon, the preflure communica-
•ted, and confequently the light, would be the fame.
And farther, as the preflure woidd be inftantaneous, fo
would tlie light, which is contrary to wliat is coUe^ed
from the eclipfcs of Jupiter's fatellites,"

It ia obvious, however, that whatever fide we take

concerning the nature of light, many, indeed almoft

all the circumfl^ances concerning it, are incomprehcn-

13 fible, and beyond the reach of human underflandlng.

ITntccoanv Moft of the difcous flowers, by fome power unknown

mble pro-
perties of
Slight.

to us, follow the fun in his courfe. They attend him
to his evening retreat, and meet his rifing luflre in the
inorning with the fame unerring law. If a plant s^fo
18 fliut up in a dark room, and a fmall hole is aiterwards
opened by which the light of the fun may enter, the
plant will turn towards that hole, and even alter its
own fliape in order to get near it ; fo that though it
was flraight before, it will in time become crooked,
that it may get near the light. It is not the beat^ but
the light of the fun, which it thus covets ; for, though
a fire be kept in the room, capable of giving a much
(Ironger heat than the fun, the plant will turn away
from the fire in order to enjoy the fun's light. — The
green colour of plants alfo depends on the fun's light
being allowed to fliine upon them ; for without this
they are always white.— From this laft circumflance.

himfelf. A beautiful green is communicated by the oofed co

green calx of copper to the flame of a fire into which ^'^^^*". ™-

it is thrown; and the yellow empyrcumatic oil into,,"^"^ ""
, . , „ ' ^ .,.'•' , . . . the coiour

which tallow or any common oil is converted m burning, .>f the

communicates a part of its own colour to the flame, flame,
which very much alters the appearance of bodies feen by
candle-light from what it is by day-light. It does not,
however, appear that this always holds good ; for the
flame of burning iron is intenfely white ; and yet
neither the metal itfelf nor any of its calces are of that
colour. J-

Light produced by the decompofition of bodies by Lipl.t pro-
inflammation without ignition is always blue, and pro-<}uced in
duces very little heat. Thus phofphorus of urine is de-*®"!^ "^"^
compofed by mere expofure to the air, and gives but ^^y^ }if^t,
very little heat, though a confiderable light is emitted.
The following proof is adduced by our author that this
emiflion of light is a true inflammation. '^ Take a re*
ceiver of white glafs, capable of holding fix or eight
gallons ; put into it a drachm of phofphorus finely
powdered, and half an ounce of water ; cork the mouth
of the receiver, and tie it over with a bladder, fo as
to exclude the external air : incline the receiver to all
fides gently, and afterwards fet it to refl ; the powder
will adhere to the fides, and the ^ater will drain from
it. As foon as the water is fufliciently drained off",
the particles of the phofphorus will become luminous,
and emit a thick fmoke : this will continue for fome
days ; but at laft no more light or vapour will appear.
Open the receiver, and you will find that the air will
have con traded, as it does from the inflanunation of a

and likewife the property which the folar light has of eandle in Van Helmont's experiment ; that is, about a

• See Chi^ blackening precipitates of filver from the nitrous acid*,

rniftryt it has been thought that light either contains the

n 756' phlogtfton in very confiderable quantity, or is itfelf a

'4 modification of that unknown fubftance. But that

odfi*- ^^^* cannot be the cafe, we have now a proof little

twentieth part. It is become unfit for inflammation ;
for if a lighted candle be immerfed in it, it will beex-
tin^uiflied as well as the phofphorus, and an animal will
be luffocated by it. The air then has fuflered the fame
change as that which has ferved for the inflammation of
tion of the A^ort of demonftration, from the laft experiments of other bodies ; and the phofph9rus is partly decompofed.

phlogiflon. Dr Prieftley concerning the produdion of pure de-

phlogifticated air from pump-water, by means of the

^ J folar light f. If light either were the phlogifton it-

Xpy ^n^Tr ^^^» ^^ contained it in very confiderable quantity, it is

tg/eq. ' impoffible the air produced by its means could be pure

and dephlogifticated. — For the properties of light a£l-

the water in the receiver bein? impregnated with its
acid, and the air faturated with its phlogifton. Blow
frefli air into the receiver, and the light and fmoke will
immediately re-appear. In like manner it is known that
fulphur will bum and give light without heat fuflicient
for ignition. Take a piece of iron heated nearly red
ing as the medium of our perceptions by the fenfe of hot, and throw a little gun-powder upon it. If the

»5

Dr For-

fight, fee the article Optics

, In the Philofophical Tranfadions for 1776, Dr
dycc'i ex- Fordyce gives an account of fome experiments upon
feriments the light produced by Inflanunation. They were nude
on the light ^q determine, whether there was any light produced by
^'^^^M - ^^^ inflammation itfelf, independent of ignition. Sub-
inwtion. " fiances, he obferves, begin to be luminous in the dark
when heated to between 6 and 700 degrees of Fahren-
heit's thermometer. If the fubftances be colourlefs,
they firft emit a red light ; then a red mixed with
yellow ; and laftly, with a great degree of heat, a pure
white. This whitenefs, however, feems to depend
. greatly upon the d^nfity of the body j for the vapour
at the end of the flame urged by a blow-pipe is not
vifibly luminous, though its heal be fufficiently great to
N°i8i.

heat be of a proper degree, the fulphur will bum off
with a blue flame, without heat fufficient for ignition $
for if fuch heat had been produced, the gfun-powder
would certainly have taken fire. It is the inflammation
and decompofition of the fulphur, and not its evapora-
tion, which produces the light ; for if we fublime fulphur
in veflels of the moft tranfparent glafs, no light will be
vifible except at the very beginning, when a fmall
portion of it bums till the air in the veflel be faturated,
and rendered unfit for inflammation." ^ g

Our author is of opinion, that the light produced by Lirht from
inflammation is of a blue colour, from whatever body it ^1 ^ap^n**-
is derived. This he endeavours to prove from an oh- 1^^"^^,^^^^°"
fervation on the flame of a candle, the lower part of always
which, where .the inflammation is, always appears of blue.
I

L I -6

r Jghtt a \kat colonr. ^ Or (fitys he) take i candle which hat
burned for feme time } eztinguifh it by applying talloW
to the vnckf and let it ftand to cool ; aften^ords fet
if on fire by the flame of another camlle ; at firfl no
more vapour will arife than can be a^cd upon by the
air at once ; inflammationy therefore, will go on in the
whole fmall flame, and it will be blue. When a candle
bums, the following proccfs takes place. The tallow
boils in the wick ; and is converted into empyreumatic
SVir^d^^^^ rifing from it in the form of vapour. As it rifes
' from every part of the wick, the volume is increafed

t 41 1

I t O

Obfcrva

tions on

By increafing the heat, we flidl mix the txoIa with ^}^

the indigo : by iiicrealui|; it ftill more, we fhaS add ^'■■■V'**^

the blue and the^feen to the mixture, tiU at length we

reach that intennty of heat vrhich wiM caufe aU the rays

to efcape at the lame inftant, and make the flame of

a combuilible perfe^y white. By examining tlie flame Rcmatlet

of a common candle, we may obferve, that its loweft ex-» on theflam*

tremities, or the part in which the black colour of the ®f * candle*

wick terminates, difcharges the leall heat ; and that, aa

the vertex of the flame is approached,/a fucceflive order

of parts is palTed through, in whidi the loweft i^ eonti-*

till it comes to the top, and gives to the lower part of nually adding to the heat of that which is juft above it<

the flame the form of the fruftum of an inverted cone.
The air is applied to the outer furface of the column
of vapour; and there decompoflngthe empyreumatic oil,
produces heat and blue light : the ftratum of vapour,
within the outer burning furface, is heated white-hot ;
the heat diminiflies towards the centre, which, if
the flame be large, is fcarcely red hot ; as the column
rifes, decompofition takin? place conftantly on

its

till we come to the top of the flame, ftear which aU
the heat is collefled intd a focus. At the loweft ex<*
tremity, however, where, the heat is inconflderable, a
blue colour may always be obferved ; and from this ap-
pearance, amongft others, I think it may be concluded j
that the blue rays are fome of thofe which efcape from
combuftibles in an early period of their decompofltion}'
and that if tbe decompofition could be examined in a

furface, it neceflarily diminifties, and the upper part of period ftill more early, the colour of the flame wouM bd

the flame is conical. That the tallow boils in the vnck,
can be feen: that it is converted into empyreumatic
oil, is proved by drawing the vapour, rifing in the middle
of the flame, where it does noL-bum, into a glafe-
tube : the empyreumatic oil condenfes ; this alfo mows
that the flame ^does not bum in the middle. That
the heat is produced on the outer furface, appears, if we
take a fmall rod of glafs, and put the end of it in the
blue flame on the furface ; it will be heated white hot,
and melt. Immerfe the rod into the flame, fo that the
point (hall be in the centre : it. will melt and bend

violet. By an d pn'ori dedix&ion of this kind, I was led
to obferve, that to the external boundary of the flame of
a common candle is annexed a filament of light ; which
if proper care be taken to prevent the efcape of
too much fmoke, will appear moft beautifully coloured
with the violet and indigo rays. If fulphur or ether be
burned, or any other combuftible whofe vapour li
kindled in a fmall degree of heat, a blue flame will ap^
pear ; whjch, if examined by the prifm, will be found
to confift of the violet, the indigo, the blue, and fome-

Mr Mor-
Ban*8 ob-

times a fmall quantity of the green rays. The beft

where it is in the blue flame on the furface } whereas, if mode, however, of fliowing the efcape of fome rays by

the flame be large, the point which is in the centre will that degree of heat which will not feparatc others tiU ^^

hardly be heated red-hot. That the empyreumatic oil increafed, is the foDowing. Give a piece of browrt Curiout t^
is decomp(
very fmall
empyreumatic

In the 75th volume of the TfanfaAions, Mr Morgan begin to take Ate. In this caft a beautiful bloe flame per."

treats the fubjeft of light at fofne length. As a founda- may be feen hanging, as it were, by the paper till a hole

fervations tion for his reafoning he aflumes the following data. , is made in it; when the flame, owing to the increafed

upon light. ^ That light is a body, and, like all others, fubjed to
the laws of attraction. 2. That light is an heterogeneous
body ; and that the fame attractive power operates
with different degrees of force on its difierent parts,
.3. That the light which efcapes from combuftibles when
decompofed by heat, or by any other means, was, pre-
vious to its efcape, a component part of thefe fubftances.
Hence he concludes, that when the attractive force by
which the feveral rays of light are attached to a body
is weakened, fome of thofe rays will efcape fooner
than others ; it being evident that thofe which are de-
tained by the fmalleft power will fooneft go off when
the general attraClive force Is weakened. This he

a^ion of the air upon all parts of it, becomes white,
though the edges ftill continue of a blue or violet colour.
As a confirmation of this, it may be obferved, that the
very flame, which when expofed toa certain degree of heat
emits only the moft refirangible rays, will, if expofed to
one confiderably greater, emit dfo thofe which are
lefs fo. The flames of fulphur and fpirit of wine, if
fuddcnly expofed to the heat of a reverberatory, will
change their blue colour for onfe that is perfeCUy
white." ^

To obtain a more perfeA knowledge of this matter, Eipen-

illuftratep by the example of a mixture of fpirit ol oarKenca tne room, ne mterpoiea oetwixt tne ^^tadkuA.

wine, water, and other more fixed fubftances; The and oombuftible a (heet of pafteboard, in which Was a

application of a gentle heat will carry off the fpirit of very fmall hole for tranfmitting the light. Viewing the

wine only ; a heat not much greater will evaporate the li^ht which paffed through this hole with a prifm^

fyirits and watermixedtogether; and a ftiU greater degree he obferved, that the blue and violet rays were in

will carry off a mixture of all the particles togeUier. greater abundance than any of the reft, though all the

.** In like manner (fays he), when the furface of a com- different kinds paffed through it when ^irit of wine

fcuftible ia in a ftate of decompofition, thofe parts of it only was made ufe of. When the combuftion of the fpirit

which are the leaft fixed,' or which are united with the of wine was checked by throwing in fal ammoniac, the

leaft force, will be fcparated firft. Amongft thefe the red rays difappeared, but made their appearance again

indigo rays of Hght will fhake the earlieft appeaxance. as foon as the fait became heated to fudi a degree as to
Vol. X* Part L JF mcreafe

L<sht.4

L I G (42

iocreafie rather than diminiih the combuftton of the.
fpirits. On examining the different parts of the flame
feparatdy, it was always found that the colours varied
according to the degree of heat. At the bafe of the
flame, or where the heat was leaft, the indigo, violet,
and blue always appeared in gceateft quantity $ but as
the vertex was approached, the other rays appeared,
and at the very top they were all vifible through a
prjfm.
Conciufions From thefe h&z Mr Morgan concludes, i . That %ht,
fromthefe as an heterogeneous body, is gradually decompofed
*"**"" during combuilion ; that the Tndigo rays efcape with
the leaft heat, and the red with the greateft ; and from
this again he explains the reafon why flames afFume
differe^it colours* ** If a piece of paper ((ays he), im-
pregnated with a folution of copper ip nitrous acid, be
fet on fire, the bottom and fides of the flame are always
pinged green. Now this flame is evidently in that weak
fiate of decompofition in which the moil refrangible ray a.

)

L I O

czperi'
meniA

pearances fimilar lo the preceding mar be obferved m
a common kitchen ^va. When it is ^nteft, its colour '
is moil red, the other >ays having been emitted, and
the combuflion at a. ftana;^^t by blowing upon it in
this ^te,,its.brigbtnefs will be encrealed, and more and
more of the rays wliich are yielded by the internal parts
of the body will come to the eye, till at length, by con-
tinuing to blow, the combuftion wDl be made fo com^
pkte as to ^ield aU the rays, or to make it appear
perfidy white."

Our author concludes the fubje£i with a criticifin Sir I^

l€

V1Z»

upon Sir Ifaac Newton's, detinitioa of flame,
that it is a. vapour heated red hot. In his opinion, flame ^°^'
I inflance of combuilion whofe colour will be^rZCi^r-

dr'ficBL'tS

18 an

criticzl:

determined by the degree of decompofition which takes A^r M^-
place. When very imperfe6l, only the moil refrangible IT-^*
rays will appear. If it be very perfeft, all the rays wiU
appear, and its flame will be brilliant in proportion.
But there are flames which confifl of burning particles.

efcape in the greateil abundance; but. of thefe the. theraysof which have partly efcaped before they afcend-

green rays.efcape mofl plentifully through the unignited ed in form ofvapour. ** Such ( &yshe) would be the flame

vapour and tluit portion of the atmo^here which is of a red hot coal, if expofed to fuch a heat as would

ioterpofed betwixt the eye and the flame. This pe- graduaUy convert it into vapour. When the fire is very

culiarity may be; obferved in greateil perfe6lion in biafs low under the furnace of an iron ^undery, at the

foundertes. Hire the heat, though very flrong, is upperorificeof the chimney a red flame of this kind may

fcarcely fufficient to decompoie the metallic vapour
which efcapes firom the melted brafs ; whence the flame
has a very Angular appearance, the edges being green,
and the body of fuch an appearance, as togive fubilaqces

be feen, which is different from the flame that appears
immediately after fri^ni coals have been thrown upon the
fire ; for in confequence of adding fuch a fupply to
the biurning fuel, a vail column of fmoke afcends, and

^ewed by it a paUid and ghafUy appearance, owing to. forma a medium fo thick as to abforb mofl of the
the want of a fufficient quantity of red rays to make tays^excepting the red.''

a-perfe6k white.**

2. Mr Moigas explains the red appearance of bodies.
in their taft fbte of ignition, from the previous *efcape
oCthe more refrangible rays, fo that only the red ones re«

Thus we have a mofl elaborate theory for the |^^ ^^
Iblving of phenomena which •feem not eafily to admit |raD*8 the*,
of any folution. It is obvious, however, that the data nr not

lUAap-

ftcaranoeof

tlwirlaft o£ the more refrangible rays, fo that only the red ones re- upon which he builds his fyfiem are altogether un-^^*"*°^
Ibfewfig^ main. '< Again, (uyshe^, we may confider the external founded and hypothetical. That light is fubjed to^ '
nitioQ ex* fur&ce of the coanbufUble body as annexed to an inner idie laws of attra6lion, cannot be proved unlefs we

furface, which may be partly, but not fb pcrfe6lly de-
compofed as itfelf : for the violence of the heat will
be found to leflen in its effet^s the nearer it approaches
to the centre of the fubflance which is expofed to it.
Hence we are to confider the parts which are jufl

could examine it independent of any*other fubflance
whatever; that is to fay, in a perfefl vaciium ; and even
in the mofl perfe£l vacuum that can be formed, we
are far from bein? certain that no other matter is prer
fent. Light is mfledled and turned out of its courfe

covered by the external furface as having lofl lefs of in many different ways when adling in the common atr

their component light than the external furface itfelf;
or the former may retain the g^en rays when the
latter has lofl: bodi indigo^ violet, blue, and green.

3. ^* Thofe parts which are nearer the centre of the
body than any of the preceding, mufU as they are far*
ther from the greateil violence of the heat, have loft

mofphere, but we have no reafon to fuppofe that it
wodd be the fame in a perfedl vacuum; at leafl we
have not a right to lay it down as a principle to argue
from, unlefs it were verified by experience. Even the
heterogeneous nature of light feems hx from being abr
folutely eftablifhed. The refradion into different co-

proportionably fewer of their rays ; or while the ex- lours by the prifin feems infufficient to do fo ; for

temal jparts may have loft all but the red, thefe may
have loft only the indigo and violet;

4.<< The moft central parts may be unaffeAed by the
heat ; and whenever the fire does reach thefjc parts, they
wiU immediately difcharge their indigo rays, and be
decompofed in the gradual manner already mentioned.
A piece of rotten wood, while burning, wi|I exemplify
and confirm the preceding iUuftration. When in-
fluenced by the external air only, if examined through
a prifm, no rays will be found to efcape but the orange
and the red. By blowing upon the burning wood
with a pair of beUows, the combuftion being increafed,
wiD: zSkBi thofe internal parts of the body which were
not a&d upon before. Thefe parts therefore will

though, by a quick revolution of thefe colours when
painted upon any fiibftance, we may produce a kind
of white colour, it is by no means perfedl, but looks as
if fome black had got amongft it. The opinion of thofe
who maintain that the prifmatic colours ajre no other
than different mixtures of light and fhade, feems there-
fore equally probable with the other. His third pofir
tion, that the light emitted by combuflible bodies form-
ed part, of their fubflance before, combuftion, feems ftiU
worfe founded; for inftead of being fixed in folid
fubft.ance8, all die light and heat proceeding from comr
buflion feem entirely to come firom the air. dj means df
heat originally apphed^ the fubflance, or part of it, is rar
refi^ into vapour ; and this vapour, we have every rear

begin to lofe their light, and a prifm will fhow the green* ' Ion to fuppofe, cqnfifts of elementary fire united with
Utt^y violeti and iodigO) all appearing in ijKxefllon. Ap- the folidiubftance. It ia thia fire, heat, or light, which

^19 obfcr-
'ations on

L I G t 43 1 L I G

^^IgKt. h aften^rds thrown out frotn tlic vaipour in combuf- appears from difcharging a vial tbrbugh rarefied air, V\ g\vt
■^ tlon ; and new fuppHes of it perpetually come from the vapour of ether, fpint of wine, or water. • '

tlie atmofphere, as is abundantly tti&vtn tinder- the ar- In the profecution of his experiments upon this
ticlea Combustion, Fire, Flame, ahd many others fubjed^, our author cemented a ball of iron into the
throughout this work. We camiot .therefore think orificeof a tube 48 inches- long,«nd two thirds of an inch
ft either inconfiftent, or rery improbable, that in the diameter, fo that it could bear the weight of the quick-
beginning of combuftion, when the white light is iUver with which the tube was filled all to a fmall
clouded with a gre^t quantity of vApour, it fhould ap* fpace at the open end» which contained a few drops
pear of a blue or violet colour | and that in propor- of water. Having inverted the tube, and plun^d
tion as this vapouris difiipatedy it (hould appear green, the open end of it into a bafon of mercury, that in
yellow, red, or perfe6tly white : for it is obfervable, the tube ftood nearly half an inch lower than in a ba-
that in dephlogiilicatecl air, even thofe flames which rometer with which it was compared at the fame time,
in the commpn atmofphere always appear blue; fuch owin^ to the vapour which was formed by the wi|-
as fulphur and fpirit of wine, are then changed to a ter ; but the fpark pafled as brilliant through the ra^
dazzling ^hite. The pure light of the fun alfo feen refied water as it does through rarefied air. If
through fmoke, or even through a great quantity of fpirit of wine be employed inftead of water in this ex-
aqueous vapour, appears red i and there is not the periment, the fpark vnll not be ib luminous. In th^
leail doubt, that if we were to view the fun while he vapour of ether a great force is requifite to make the
thus appears rd through any blue medium, he would fpark luminous, but good ether will prefs the mercury
appear purple ; and in like manner, were we to view down as far as 16 or 17 inches. By rarefying the va-
a blue flame through a yellow medium, it would ap- pour, Jbowever, the fpark will pafs through it with
pear of a green colour. ^ more eafe.

^^ In the fame paper Mr Morgan has fome curious ob- On examining the mineral acids m vacuo, Mr Mor»

•^,om o ^'■^*^o"8 "pon the eleftric light. There is neither gan could not find that any vapour efcaped firom
leartc fluid hor folid, he &ys, through which the elednc them. To give them the requifite degree of tenuity^
ight. fluid tn its ydffkge wiU not appear luminous, if we do therefore, he traced a line upon glafs about an eighth

not radkc 'the quantity, through which it has to pafs, part of an inch broad, with a camel's hair pencil dip*
to« great. In his experiments on fluids, he puts them ped in the acids : the line extended fometimes to the
into a tube about three quarters of an inch diameter length of 27 inches ; in which cafe, the eledtric fpark
and fout inches long. The orifices are then flopped would pafs over the whole with great brilliancy. If
up with two corks, through which two pointed wires by widening the line, however, or putting on a drop
are thruil, fo that the points may approach within one of acid in <iny particular part, the quantity waa in*
eighth part of an inch of each other ; and in this creafed, the fpark never appeared in that part.
<^afe the ele6^ric matter which paf&s through the fluid The brightnefs of the ^e^c light is always in pro- of the
h always luminous, provided a fufficient force be ufed. portion to its condenfation. Thus, if a fpark taken brightoefr
The experiment, however,, is dangerous, . unlefs great from a powerful electrical machine divides itfelf into}'/ 5**^'*^
care be taken ; and the tube, unlets it be very flrong, brufhes, or thro^ out fparks from the fides, by which '^
will be broken by a very (light difeharge. With acidsr the light is diffiifed over a larger furfiice, it thus be-
the experiment fucceeds more difficultly ; they moil be comes lefs brilliant ; and in all cafes in which any dif-
put jnto capillary tubes, and the wires placed very fiifion of light, whether deCbric or not, takes place,
near to each other. A ilripe of gold leaf one eighth of the cafe will be the fame.

an inch diameter, and a yard long, becomes quite lu- In fome cafes, Mr Moi^gan is of opinion, that, even o^^^^^-
minous by difcharging . a battery over it ; and our au- with the eledlric fluid, only the more refrangible rays the more
thor cannot afcertain the length to which it might be of light make their efcape. Thus, the ele^ncal brufhrefrsngible
made luminous. The experiment will alfo fucceed with is always of a purpliih or bluifli colour ; and i£ yoa*^)'* ^T
Dutch metal or filver leaf. If the gold or filver leaf convey a fpark through a Torricellian vacuum not very *^^^£^
be put upon a glafs, and that laid in water, the whole perfedly made, it wm be of an indigo colour. This, fli^
will appear moil beautifully luminous on difcharging -iiowever, does not feem to arife from any other caufe
a battery through it. than the mere weaknefs of the light, which, in paf-

The better a conduftor that any fubilance is, the fing through the vapours of the atmofphere, or per-
greater is the difficulty of making thf eleftric fpark haps through the humojirs of the eye itfelf, zffc&s
vifible in it. Hence it requires a much greater power oiir organs of fight in that manner.

of eleAricity to make a fpark vifible in boiling than Our author next proceeds to examine the influence Inflaence of
in cold water ; the former being a much better con- of media upon eledlric light; which, he fays, is fimilar media upon
du6lor than the latter. In like manner, the mineral to their influence upon folar light, and ferves to ex-'.^*^^'^
acids are much better condudlors than common water ; plain feveral phenomena. *> U^^

and, oT confequence, the fpark is made to appear in << Let a pointed wiie (fays he), having a metallic

them with much more difficulty than in water. This ball fixed to one of its extremities, be*fofx:ed obliquely
appears from what has been already mentioned; and into a piece of wood, fo-as to make a fmall angle with
eur aulJior likcwife obferves, that if a few drops of its furface ; aqd to make the point lie about one eighth
acid be poured into the tube contaimng the water em- of an inch below it. Let another pointed wire, which
ployed for this purpol'e, it will fcarcely be poffible to communicates with the ground, be forced in the fame
make the fpark luminpus in it by any force. manner into tlie fame wood, fo. that its point toiay in

The rarity of any body greatly increafes the eafe ^ like manner be about one eighth of an inch below the
with vv'hich the eledric fpark is made vifible in it ; as furface, and about two inches diflant from the peine

F2 of

L I G [44

Light, of the firft wire. Let the wood be infulated, aad a
^" ' - ftrong fparky which ibikes on the metallic ball, will
^ .3^ force its way through the interval of wood which lies
perimenrof between the points, and appear as red as blood. To
iendmg die proTe that this appearancedepends on the wood's abforp-
dedric ^ tion of all the rays but the rcd> I would obferve, that
2^ *^' the grater the depth of the points is below the fur&ce,
the lefs mixed are the rays. When they are deepeft be-
low the furface* only the red come to the ey< through
9 prifm I when raifed a little nearer the furface, the
red and orange appeared s when nearer iUll» the yeU
low I and fo on, till, by making the fpark pafs through
the wood very near its furface, adl the rays were
at length able to reach the eye^ If the points be
4Mily pne eighth of an inch below the furface of foft
deal wood, the red, the orange, and the yeUow rays
will appear as the fpark paiTea through it. But when
the points are at an equal depth in a piece of harder
wood, box for inftance, the yellow^ and perhaps the
orange, will dtbppear. As a farther proof of this ab^
ibrption of the rays, it may be obferved, when the fpark
ftrikes very bright upon one fide of the piece of deal, it
win appear quite red on the other. In like manner, a
red appearance may be given to a fpark which ftrikes
b>right over the infide of a tube, merely by fpreading
fome pitch very thinly over the outfide of tbt iame
j^ tube."
JPiffercot . Mr Morgan now proceeds to mention fome experi-
appesrance mejDts which feem to militate againft the do&rine he

1 L I G

On phofphoric light Mr Moi^n makes fome curious I^ci
obferyations ; but ftill argues on the feme principles «-■

we have already mentioned. " Some (hells (fays hc),^, ^^5
prepared according to Mr Wilfon's dire^ons*, after jj^^^^oe'
being expofed to the fun, or to the flafh of a battery, phofynp.
emit a purple, others a green, and others a reddifh light, ^h^^
If, with Mr Wilfon, we fuppofe that thefe (hells arc *j^^^"^
in a itate of flow combuftion, may we not conclude
that fome are juil beginning to bum, and therefore e->
mitting the mofl refranc'ible rays ; while others are in
a more advanced fiate of combuilion, sind therefore e«
mitting the leail refrangible I If this condufion be rights
the (hells which are emitting the purple or the green»
muft fUU retain the yellow, the orange, ^nd the red»
which will alfo make their appearance as fbon as the
combuftion is fufiBciently increafed.^' In confirmation
of this, Mr Morgan adduces the following experiment^
viz. that if a (heU, while emitting its green rays, be
placed upon a warm (hovel, the colour will foon be
changed into a yeUow mixed with red. -^ To the theory
of (low combuftion Mr Morgan makes the following
objedlions.

If phofphoric (heUs owe their light to this caufc»

*''•*/ a^k" ^^ ^*** endeavouring to eftabliih, rather than to fup-

at di^erenr P^^ ^^ ' ^^^* ^' ^ ^^^^ ^ Torricellian vacuum of of heat, without lofmg the power of becoming ^^£-

trie

we muft confider the word combuftion, when applied to
them, as implying all thofe circumftanc^s which ufuall/
attend a body when on fire. On this fuppofition there
ought to be an iacreafe of the heat as wdUasof the de*
compofition of the combuftible. But neither of thefe
are found to take place in faft; for a phofphmc body
never fails to lofe its hght entirely in a certain degree

dtfUDces«: any length a few drops of ether are conveyed, and both
ends of the vacuum ftopped up with metsJIic conduc-*
tors, fo that a fpark may pafa through it, the fpark in
lis paiTage wiU make the following appearances* When
the eye is placed clofe to the tube, the fpark will ap-
pear perfedly white j if the eye is removed to the di-
ftance of two yards, it will appear ^reen ; but at'the
diftance of En or fcven yards, it will appear reddilh.
** Thefe changes evidently depend (fays our a\ithor)
en the quantity of medium through which the light
vafies ) and the red light more particularly, which we
fee at the greateft diftance from the tubet is accounted
{or on the fame principle as the red light of the be-
4;loudfd fui2» or a lighted candle."

phoric again when it has been fufficiently cooled*
While very hot« the charge of the ftrongeft bisittery
conveyed over it has no effe^^.

a. When bodies are wafted by combuftion, theycaa
never be made to reaffume the appearances which thej
previoudy difplayed. . ** No power (fays our author)
can give to afhes the phenomena of a burning coal. But
pho^horic bodies are very different in this refpe£l ; fon
a phofphoric fhell may $e made to lofe all its light bf
expofure to heat, and again may be made as luminous
as ever by expofure to the fun*"

3* It is remarkable that feme bodies which are moft
beautifully phofphoric, are at the fame time the molt
obftinate in refifting fire. ^* Let us now fee (fays

2. I>r Frieft^y long ago obferved the red appear-^ Mt Morgan) the confequence of admitting the com

ance of the ele£kric fpark* when palling through fn-
Aammable air. But this appearance is very much di-
verfi&ed according to the quantity of medium through
which tlie fpark is beheld. At a very confiderable di*
ftance the red comes unmixed to the eye ; but if the
eye be placed clofe to the tube, the fpark appears white
and brilliant. By increafing, however, the quantity
of fluid conveyed through any portion of inflam-
mable air, or by jcondenfing that air, the fpark may
be made perfc£ily white. It may further be obferved,
that all weak cxplofions and fparks, when viewed at a di-
ftance, make a reddifh appearance. The reafon of thefe
appearances feems to be, that the weaker the fpark or
explofion IS, the more it is dtfpofed to aiTume a red co-
lour when viewed at a diftance. This feems to con*
firm what has already been mentioned as a probable hy-
p9thefis, that the difterent colours of light are en«
lircly owin^ to the medium through which they are
wwedis

mon hypothefis, that the detention of thofe rays which
fall upon phofphori is o.wing to fome force which pre-
vents their immediate refledtion, but is not adequate to
their entire abforption. This force, whatever it be,
cannot well be fuppofed to operate with equal power
on all thefe rays. If this be not the cafe^ we cannot
well avoid concluding, that phofphoric (hells will aflume
different colours, owing to the earlier and later efcape
of the .different rays of light. This conclufion is jufti*
fied by an experiment dready mentioned; vis. that
when the force is fuch as to admit the efcape of tho
purple, blue, and ?recn, we have only to leffea that
force, by warming the body, and the yellow, the orange^
and red efcape. Beccaria has proved, that there is fcarce->
ly any body which is not phofphoric, or may not be*
come fa by heat. But as the phofphoric force is mo(k
powerful when the purple rays only efcape, fo we are
to conclude, that it is weakeft when it is able to retain
the red rays only. This is a^preeable to feveral feds*.
i Chalkj,

L I G

[ 45 ]

L I G

^^igbt. Qialkt oyfter-iheUsy together with'thofc phofpboric
bodies whofe goodnefs has been very much impaired by
long keeping, when finely powdered, and placed with-
in the circuit of an ele^bical battery, will exhibit, by
their fcattered particles, a fhower of light ; hut thefe
particles wiU appear reddifh, or their phofphoric pow-
er will be fufficient only to detain the yellow, orange,
and red rays* When fpirit of wine is in a fimila^man-'
aer brought within the circuit of a battery, a (imilar
cffe6^ may be difcovered 9 its particles diverge in feve-
ral dirediions, difplaying a moil beautiful golden ap-
pearance* The metaUic Calces are rendered phoi^ho-
ric with the greateft difficulty ; but even thefe may be
fcattered into a (hower of red luminous particles by the
cledbic ftroke."

In a poftfcript to this paper, by Dr Price, it is ob*
ferved, that by phofphoric forctt Mr Morean feems to
mean, not the force with which a phofphonc body cm//x,
but that with which it abfirls and retaiast the £ght.
This laft force is proportioned to the degree of attrac-
tion between the phofphoric body and light ; and there-
fore muft, according to Mr Morgan's theory, be weak*
efl when it fo freely emits the light it has imbibed aa
not to retain thofe rays which adhere to it mofl ftrong-
ly« According to Mr Morgan's theory, thefe are the
rays which are the leaft refrangible. '' It if, how-
ever (fays Dr Price), an objection to it, that the kfs
refrangibility of rays lieems to imply a Icfs force of at-
traction between them and the fnU^ances which refra^
them ; but it fhonld be eoniidered, that, poilibly, the
force of cohefion, which unites die lays of li^ht to
bodies, may be a different power from that which re-
frafts them**'

Light iudeptndint of He^U In general, a very con-
siderable degree of heat is requifite to the emiffion of
light from any body; but there are federal excep-
tions to this» efpecially in light proceeding from pu-
trefcent fubftances ^nd phofphorus, together with that
of luminous animals, and other fimilar appearances*
Light proceeding firom putrefcent animal and vege-
table fubftances, as well as from glow-worms, is men-
tioned by Arifkotle* Thomas Bartholin mentions four
kinds of luminous infefis, two with wings> and two
without ; but in hot climates travellers fay they are
found in much greater numbers, and of different fye-
cies. Columma, an indufitriousnaturaliflyobftrves, that
their light ia not extinguUhed imnediately upon the
death of the animaL

Th^ firft diftinft account that we meet with of light
proceeding from putrefcent aninial-flefh is that which
IS given by Fabricius ab Aquapendente ; who fays,,
that when three Roman youths, refiding at Padua,,
had bought a lamb, and had eaten part of it on £a-
fter day 1592, feveral pieces of the remainder, whicb
they kq>t till the day following, (hone like fo many
candles when they were cafuaDy viewed in the dark..
Part of this lomisons flefh was immediately fent to A-
quapendente, who was profeifor of anatomy in that
city* He obferved, that both the lean and the &t of
this meat fhone with a whitifh kind of light ^ and alfo
took notice, that fome pieces of kid's fieih, which had
hs^pened to have laii\ in conta^ with it, was luminous,
as well as the fingers and other parts of the bodies of
tbofe peribns ^o touched it* Thoie parts, he
obierveo, (hone the moil which were foft to Uie touch,
nd fccmed to be tranf^arent in casdk li^'; but

l^e !uti etU'
malt p. 183.

ao6.

$4
Light from

putrid flcih.

where the flefh was thick and foUd, or where a bone Lighe
was near the outfide, it did not (hine, * '-^^'

After this appearance, we find no account of any
other fimilar to it, before that 'which was obferved by
Bartholin, -and of which he gives a very pompous de-
fcription in his ingenious treatife already quoted*
This happened at MontpeUer in i64i<, when a poor .
old woman had bought a piece of flefh in the market^ ^
intending to make ufe of it the day following. But
happening not to be able to ileep well that night, and
her bed and pantry being in the fame room, ihe obfer^f
ved fo much light come from the fleih, as to illuminate
all the place where it hung. A part of this luminous
fleih was carried as a curiofity to Henry Bourbon,
duke of Cond^, the governor of the place, who viewed
It forifeveral hours with the greateft aftoniihment.

This light wau obferved to be whitifli ; and not to
cover the whole furface of the flefli, but certain parta
only, as if gems of unequal fplendor had been fcattered
over it. . This flefh was kept till it began to putrify,
when the light vanifhed ; which, as fome religious
people fancied, it did in the form of a crois.

It is natural to expe6^, that the almoft univerial ex- ^^ .
perimenal philofopher Mr Boyle fhouU try the cSt&^J^i^
of his air-pump upon thefe luminous fubftances. Ao-p. 15^
Gordingly we find that he did not fiiil to do it | wheA
he prefently found that the light of rotten wood was
extinguifbed m vacuo t and revived again on the ad*
mifTion of the air, even after a long continuance m
vacuo ; but the extinguiOuag of this light was not fo
complete immediately upon exhaufUng the receiver, as
fome little time afterwards. He could not perceive^
however, that the L'ght of rotten wood was increafed
in condenfed air ; but this, he finagined,. might arife
from his not being able to judge very well of t^e de-
gree of light, through fo thick and cloudy a 'glafs^
veffel as he then made ufe of; but we find that th^Btrti** ijf)
light of a ihining fiih, which was put into a conden*"*^^^'
fing engine before the Royal Society, in l668, was
rendered more vivid by that means. The principal of
Mr Boyle's experiments were made in O^ober 1667.

This philofopher attended to a great variety of -cir-
cnmfUnces relating ta this ourious phenomenon* A-
mong other things, he ob&rved, that change of aix
was not neceffary to the- maintenance of this light |.
for it continued a long time when a piece of the wood
was put into a very iinall g]a& hermetically Cealed«.
and It made no difference when this tube which con»-
tained the wood was put into an exhaufted receiver*
This he aUb obferved with refpe6t to a luminous fifti,.
which he put inta watery and placed in the fame cir---
cumftaoces. He alfo found,, that the light of fhi-
nin^ fiHies had other properties in common with that,
of mining wood ;. but the latter, he (ays^ was prefent-^
ly quenched with water, fpirit of wine, a great va-
riety of ialiae mixtures,, and other fluids^ Water,,
however, did not quench all the light of fome fhining;
veal on which he tried it,, though fpirit of wine de--
ftroyed its virtue prefently.

Mr Boyle's obfiervation o£ lieht proceeding fromi
fielh-meat was quite cafuaL On the 15th of^Feb-^
ruary 1662, one of his fetvants was greatly alarmed^
with the ftiining of fome veal, whioh had been kept-
a few days, but had no bad fimell, and was in a fhte*
very proper for uie* The fiervant immediately made-
ki9 n^t^ iK^quaintcd with this estraoidinary appeaiv-

^ ' V ■
£irchf ii.

L I G [ 46 ] L I G

ancc ; and^ though he was then in bed, he ordered it it was immerfcd luminoits^ \ifhen they* were agitatetL
to be immediattrly bf'ought to him, and he examined Galeatiusand Montius found, that wine or vinegar ex-
it with the grcateft attention, ' Sufpe^ing that the tinguifhed this light : that in common oil it contiirti-
ilate of the atmofphcre had fome fhare in the produc- ed fome days ; but in red^ified fpirit of wine or urine»
tion of this phenomenon, he takes notice, after de- hardly a minute,
fcribing the appearance, that the wind was fouth-wefl In order to obferve in what manner this Ught w^
and bluilering, the air hot for the feafon, the moon afTedled by different degrees of heat, they made ufe.
was paft it« lafl quarter, and the mercury in the baro- of a Reaumur's thermometer, and found that water
^ meter was at 29 tV inches. rendered luminous by thefe fiflies increafed in light

TJcht from Mr Boyle was often difappointed In his experiments till the heat arrived to 45 degrees ; but that it then

fiflxcj.

on (hining fifhes ; -finding that they did not silways
Ihine in the ^very fame circumftances, as far as he could
judge, with othei:9 which had ihined before. At one
time ^that they failed to fhine, according to his expec-
tations, "he obferved ihat the weather was variable,
and not without fome days t)f froft and fnow. ki
general he made ufe of whitings,' finding .them the
fitteil for his pur^ofe. In a difcourfe, however, up-
pon this fubjed at the Royal Society in 1 681, it was
afferted, that, of all fifhy fubilances, the eggs-of lob-
fters, after they had been boiled, {hone the hrighteft.

became fuddenly cxtindt, and could not be revived.

In the experiments of Beccarius, a folution of fea«
fait increafed the light of the luminous water, a folu-
tion of nitre did not increafc it quite fo much. Sal
animoniac dimini(hed it a little^ oil of tartar fer deli*
guium nearly extinguifhed it, and the acids entirely.
This water pdured upon frefh calcined gypfum, rock
cryfbd, cerufs, or fugar, became more luminous. He
alio tried the effedis of it when poured upon various
other fubflances, but there was nothing very remark-
able in them. Afterwards, ufing luminous milk, he

vol, V.

Olig. Jacoboeus obferves, that, upon opening a fea- found that oil of vitriol extinguifhed the light, but
polypus, it was fo luminous, as to ftartle feveral per- ^at oil of tartar increafed it.

fons who (aw it ; and he fays, that the more putrid the
fifli was, the more luminous it grew. The nails alfo^
and the fingeraof the perfons who touched it, became
luminous ; and the black h'quor which iifued from the
animal, and* which- is its bile, (hone alfo, but with a ve-
ry faint light.

Mr Boyle draws a minute comparifon between the
light of burning coals and that of (hining wood or fifh,
(bowing in what particulars they agree, and in what
they differ. Among other things he obferves, that ex-
treme cold extinguiihes the light of (hining wood, as
appeaved ^wh<en a piece of it was put into a glafs tube,
and held in a frigorific mixture. He alfo found that
rotten wood did not wafle itfelf by (hining, and that

This gentleman had the curloiity to try how dif-
ferently coloured ftibftances were affedted by this i^ind
of light ; and having, for this purpofe, dipped feveral
ribbons in it, the white came oCit the brighteil, next
to this was the yellow, and then the green ; the other
colours could hardly be perceived. It was not, how-
ever, any particular colour, but only h'ght that was
perceived in thi» cafe. He then dipped boards painted
with the different colours, and alfo g^afs tubes, fUled
with fubflances of different colours, in water rendered
luminous by the fifhes. In both thefe cafes the red
was hardly vifible, the yellow was the brightefl, and
the violet the dullefl. But on the boards the blue was
nearly equal to the yellow, and the green more lan-

the application of a thermometer to it did not difco- guid; whereas in the glaffes, the blue was inferior to

j5 f er the Icaft degree of heat.
Of the pho- There is a remarkable (hell-^fh called p hol a s, which
lu, % re- forms for itfelf "holes in various kinds of llone| &c.
u!^!^^,!J That this fifh is luminous, was noticed by Pliny ; who
obferves, that it fhines in the mouth of the perfon who

kiminotts
filb.

the green.

Of all the liquors into which he put the pholades^
milk was rend«red the mofl luminous. A (ingle pho->
las made feven ounces of milk fo luminous, that the
faces of perfons might be diftinguidied by it, and it

cats it, and, if it tow;h his hands or cloaths, makes looked as if it was tranfparent.

them luminous. He alfo fays that the light depends
upon its moifture. The light of this fifh has f umifhed
matter for various obfervations and experiments to
M. Reaumur, and the Bolognian academicians, efpeci-
ally Beccarius, who took fo much pains with the fub-
je^ of phofphoreal hght.

M. Reaumur obferves, ^that, whereas other fifhes
give light when they tend to putrefcence, this is more
luminous in proportion to its being frefh ; that when
they are dried, their light will revive if they be moiften-

Air appeared to be neceffary to this light ; for
when Beccarius put the luminous milk into glafs tubes,
no agitation would make it fhine, unlefs bubbles of
air were mixed with it. Alfo Montius and Galeatius
found, that, in an exhauded receiver, the phol^s loft
its light, but the water was fometimes made mote lu-
minous ; which they afcribed tp^he rifing of bubbleB
of air through it.

Beccarius, as well as Reaumur, had many (chemes
to render the light of thefe phokdes permanent. For

film, Sonon.

. cd either with frefh or fait water, but that brandy im- this purpofe he kneaded the Juice into a kind of pafle,
mediately extinguifhes it. He endeavoured to make with flour, and found that it would give light when
this light permanent, but none of his fchemes fucceeded. '"' " ^^ ' """ *"' " - i- 11*1

The attention of the Bolognian academicians was
engaged to this fubjeA by M. f . Marfilius, in 1724,
who brought a nunlber of thefe fifhes, and the ftones
in which they were inclofed, to Bologna, on purpofe
for their examination,

Beccarius obferved, that though this fifh ceafed to

i^ight*

^«L ii. i3». ^1"® when it became putrid ; yet that in its moft pu-
trid ftate, it would fhi^ie^ and make the water in which

It was immerfcd in warm water } but it anfwered beft ,
to prefcrve the fifh in honey. li> any other method of
prcfervation, the property of becoming luminous would
not continue longer than fix months, but in honey it
had lafled above a year; and then it would, when
plunged in warm water, *give as much light as ever it
had done. ^5, c^fr

Similar, in fome refpe^s, to thofe* obfervations on^^'^i
the lifi^t of the phdlas. was that which was obferved ^"^ J'

h I o

I 47 1

L I G

L%hti to proceed from wood* whicL was moift, but 0ot in a
^» \t * putrid ftate, which was very confpicuous in the dark.
That the fca h fomctimes luminous, cfpecially when
it is put in. motion by the dafhing of oars or the
beating of it againfl a {hip, has been obfervcd with
37 ^ admiration by a great number of perfons. Mr Boyle,
^ight frwn'j^fter reciting all the circumftances of this appearance,
ic»-watcr. ^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^^^^ coUeA them from the accounts of na-
vigators; as its being extended as £ar as the eye could
ccach, and at other times being vifible only wljen the
water was daflied againfl fomc other body j that, in
fome feas, this phenomenon is accompanied by fome
particular winds, but not in others ; and that fome-
times one part of the fea will be luminous,, when an-
other part, not far from it, will not be fo; concludes
with faying, that he could not help fufpeding that
thefe odd phenomena, belonging to great mafles of wa-
ter, were in fome meafure owing to fome cofmical law
or cullom of the terreftrial gjobe,. or at Icaft of the
- * planetary vortex.
X)r Beat's ^^"^^ curious obfcrvations on the ftiining of fomc
cipcri- fiflies, and the pickle in which they were immerfed,
ments on were made by Dr Beal, m May 1 665 ; and had they
^^^ been properly attended to and purfued, might have
led to the difcovery of the caufe of this appearance.
^ Having put fome boiled mackerel into water, together

▼ol. Ux. ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ » ^^^° ^^^ ^^^ ^"' ^°"^*
p. 450. time after, ftirring it, in order to take out fome of the

fifhes, fhe obferved, diat, at the firft motion, the water

was very luminous ; and that the fiih fhining through

the water added much to the light which the water

yielded. The water was of itfelf thick and blackiHiy

rather than of any other colour ; and yet it (hined on

being ilirred, and at the {ame time the fifhes appeared

more luminous than the water. Wherever the drops

of this water, after it had been ftirred,fell to the ground,

they fliined ; and the children in the family diverted

themfelves with takincr the drops, which were as broad

as a penny, and runnmg with them about the houfe.

The. cook obferved, that, when (he turned up that fide

of the fiih that was loweft, no light came from it; and

that, when the water had fettled for fome time, it did

not (hine at all. The day following, the water ^ave

but little light, and only after a briik agitationt

though the fi(hes continued to fhine as weD from the

infide aa the outfide, and efpecially about the throat,

and fuch places as feemed to have been a little broken

in the boiling*.

When, in the light of the fun, he examined, with a
microfcope, a fmall piece of a iifh which had fliined very
much the night before^ he found nothing remarkable
.on its furface, except that he thought he perceived
what he calls zjifomf rather dark than luminous, ariiing
like a very fmall dufl from the£{h^ and here and there
a very fmaJl and almoft imperceptible fparkle. Of the
fparkles he. had no doubt ; but he thought it poffible
^at the fteam might be a deception of the fight, or
fome dull in the air.

Finding the fifh to be quite dry, he moiilened it
with his ^ittle t and then obferved that it gave a little
fight, though but for a (hort time. The fi/h at that
time was not fetid^ noryet.infipid to the heft difcem-
tng palate. Two of the filhes he kept two or three
days longer for farther trial ; but, the weather being
leigr hot| they became fetid ; and| contrary tq^his ex-

pe^tions, there was no more light produced either by Lig^u
the agitation of the water or in the fifh. '^- '

Father Bourzes, in his voyage to the Indies in p^^her
1 704, took particular notice of the luminous appear- BoursetV
ance of the fea, . The light was fometimes fo great, accoant o£
that he could eafilyrcad the title of a book by it,}!*",j^^
though he was nine or ten feet from the furface of the **"
water. Sometimes he could eafily diflinguifh, in the^
wake of the (hip, the particles that were luminous from « *

thofe that were not ; and they appeared not to be all
of the fame figure. Some of them were like points of
ligjit, and others fuch as flars appear to the naked eye.
Some of them were like globes,, of a line or two inr
diameter; and others as big as one's head. Sometimes
they formed themfelve» into fquares of three or four
inches long, and one or two broad. Sometimes all
thefe different figures were vifible at the fame time ;
and fometimes there were what he calls vortices of light,
which at one particular time appeared and difappeared
immediately like flaihes of lightning.

Nor did onl}c the Wake of the fiiip produce this
light„but fiflwB aUb, in fwimming,. left fo luminous a
track, behind them, that both their fize and fpecics^
inight be diiUnguifhed by it. When he took fome of
the water out of the fea, and ilirred it ever fo little
with his hand, in the dark, he always faw in it an in^
finite^iiumber of bright particles ; and he had the fame
apj>earance "whenever he dipped a piece^f linen in the
fea, and wrung it in a dark place, even though it was
half dry; and he obferved, that when the fparkles fell
upon any thing that was foUd, it would continue fliining
for fome hours together.

Aflcr mentionmg feveral circumftances which did His conjee-
not contribute to this appearance, this Father obftrves^aret con-
that it depends very roucti upon iht quoRty of the fuaier;^^^^% the*
and he was pretty furc that this light is the greatcfl*^*^^*
when the water is fatteft, and fuUeft <^foam. For in
the main fca, he fays, the water it not everywhere
equally pure ; and that fometimes, if Hnen be dipped
in the fea, it is clammy when it is drawn up again :
and he often obferved, that when the wake of the (hip
was the brigbteft, the water was the moft fat and
glutinous, and that linen moiftened with it produced a.

feat deal of light, if it was ftirred or moved brilkly.
efides, in fome parts ^ the fea, he faw a fubilance
like faw-duft, fometimes red and fometimes yellow;,
and when he drew up the water in thofe pbces, it'
was always vifcous and glutinous. The failors toId»
him, that it was the fpawn of whales ; . that there are
great quantities of it in the north ; and that fome-
times, in the night, they, appeared all over of a bright-
light, without being put. in motion by any veflTd or fife*
palling by them.

As a confirmation of.this conjedure, that the more
glutinous the fea-water is, the more it is^ifpofed to-
become luminous, he obferves, that one day they tookr
a fifh which was called a honite^ the infide of the mouth
of which was fo luminous, that,witliout any other light,
he could read the fame chara^era which he had before,
read by the light in the wake of the fhip ; and the.
mouth of. this* filh was full of a vifcous matter, which,
when it was rubbed upon a piece of wood, made it iixi-
mediately all over luminous ; though, when the molf-
ture'was dried up, the h'ght was extinguifhed.

The abbe'Nollet was mu^h ilruck witb the lumu

ncuihcfii'.

L r G

Abbe Nol-
Uet'iebeory

t 48 1

t I G

4»

OWcrva-

tioos of M<
le&oL

MiMMrei
vol. iiu 144

Experi*

nienta by

M.ADt.

Martiik

fiouTners of the fea when he was at Venice in 1749;
and, after taking a great deal of pains to afcertain the
circumftances of it, concluded that it was occafioned
. by a niinin? iufe6l ; and having examined the water
very often, he at length did find a fmall infe£^, which
he particularly defcribes, and to which he attributes the
light. The fame h3rpothefia had alfo occurred to
M. Vianclb', profeflbr of medicine in Chioggia near Ve-
nice ; and both he and M. Grizellint, a phyfician in
Venice, have given drawings ot the infe^b from which
they imagined this light to proceed.

The abbe was the more confirmed in his hypothefis,
by obfenring, fome time after, the motion of fome lumi-
nous particles in the fea. For, going into the water,
and keeping his head juft above the furface, he faw
them dart from the bottom, which was covered with
weeds, to the- top, in a manner which he thought
very much refembled the motions of infefts ; though,
when he endeavoured to catch them, he only found
fome luminous fpots upon his hankerchief, which were
enlaxged when he preffed them with his finger.

M. lo Roi, making a voyage on the Mediterranean,
prefentiy after the abb6 NoUet made his obfervations
at Venice, took notice, that in the day-time, the prow
of the {hip in motion threw up many fmall particles,
which, falling upon the water, rolled upon the furface
of the fea for a few feconds before they mixed with
it ; and in the night the fame particles, as he con-
cluded, had the sq;>pearance of fire. Taking a quan-
tity of the water, the fame fmall fparks appeared
whenever it was agitated 5 but, as was obferved with
refpe£l to Dr Beal's experiments, every fuccelEve agi-
tation produced a lefs efieA than the preceding, except
after being fuffered to reft a while ; for then a frefh
agitation would make it almoft as luminous as the firft.
This water, he obferved, would j^tain its property of
fhining by agitation a day or two ; but it difappeared
immediately on being fet on the fire, though it was
aot made to boil.

This gentleman, after giving much attention to this
phenomenon, concludes, that it is not occafioned by
any fhining infe6ls, as the abbe NoUet imagined; efpe-
cially as, after careftilly examining fome of the lumi-
nous points, which he caught upon an handkerchief,
he found them to be round like large pins heads, but
with nothing of the appearance of any animal, though
he viewed them with a microfcope. He alfo found,
that the mixture of a little fpirit of wine with water
juft drawn from the fea, would give the appearance of
a great number of little fparks, which .would continue
vifible longer than thofe in the ocean. All the acids,
and various other liquors, produced the fame eiFedi,
though not quite fo confpicuoufly ; but no firefh agi-
tation would make them luminous again. M. le Roi
is far from afierting that there are no luminous infedls
in the fea. He even fuppofes that the abbe Nollet
and M. Vianelli had found them. But he was fatif-
fied that the fea is luminous chiefly on fome other ac-
count, though he does not fo much as advance a con-
je^ure about what it is.

M. Ant. Martin made many experiments on the
Kght of fifhes, with a view to difcover the caufe of the
light of the fea. He thought that he had reafon to
conclude, firom a great variety of experiments, that all
. N°i8a.

fea-fifiies have this property; bat that it it not to he Ligftt
found in any that are produced in frcfli water. No- ''""v-«
thing depended upon the colour of the fifhes, except ^*^*
that he thought that the white ones, and efpccially ^^^,
thofe that had white fcales, were a little more lumi-p,**i2j!^'
nous than others. This light, he found, was increafed
by a fmall quantity of fait; and alfo by a finall degree
of warmth, though a greater degree extinguifiied it.
This agrees with another obfervation of his, that it de-
pends entirely upon a kind of moifture which they
had about them, and which a fmall degree of heat
would expel, when an oilinefs remsuned which did not
give this fight, but would bum in the fire. Light from
the flefh of birds or beafts is not fo bright, he fays, as
that which proceeds ftx)m fi(h. Human bodies, he fays,
have fometimes emitted hght about the time that they
began to putrefy, and the walls and poof of a place
in which dead bodies bad often been expofed, had a
kind of dew or clamminefs upon it, which was fome-
times luminous; and he imagined that the lights which
are faid to be feen in burying-grounds may be owing
to this caufe.

From fome experiments made by Mr Canton, he By Mr
concludes, that the luminoufnefs of fea-water is owing <^*tM*
to the flimy and other putrefcent fubftances it con-
tains. On the evening of the 1 4th of June 1 768, he
put a fmall frefti whiting into a gallon of fea-water, in
a pan which was about 14 inches in diameter, and
took notice that neither the whiting nor the water, -
when^gitated, gave any light. A Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer, in the cellar where the pan was placed, ftood
at J4^ The 15th, at night, that part of the fifli
which was even with the furface of the water was lu-
minous, but the water itfelf was dark. He drew the
end of a ftick through it, from one fide of the pan to
the other; and the water appeared luminous behind
the ftick all the way, but gave light only where it
was difturbed. When all the water was ftirred, the
whole became luminous, and appeared like milk, 'gi*
ving a confiderable degree of light to the fides of the
pan ; and it continued to do fo for fome time after it
was at reft. The water was moft luminous when the
fifh had been in it about 28 hours; but would not give
any light by bemg ftihrd, after it had been in it three
days.

He then put a gallon of frefli water into one pan,
and an equal quantity of fea-water into another, and
into each pan' he put a frefh herring of about three
ounces. The next ni?ht the whole fiirface of the fea-
water was luminous,, without being ftirred ; but it tyas
much more fo when it was put m motion ; and the
upper part of the herring, which was confiderably be-
low the furface of the water, was alfo very bright ;
while at the fame time, the frcfli n^ter, and the fifli
that was in it, were quite dark. There were fcveral
very bright luminous fpots on different parts of the
furfiice of the fea-water; and the whole, y^en viewed-
by the light of a candle, fcemed covered with a greafy
fcum. The third night, the light of the fea-water,
while at reft, was very little, if at all, lefs than before j
but when ftirred, its light was fo great as to difcover
the time by a watch, and the fifli in it appeared as a
dark fubftance. After this, its light viras evidently
dccreafing, but was not quite gone before the 7th night.

The

L I G

C 49 ]

L r G

. I

%:^^U fTie fefll .water and the fifh in it were pcrfcfily dark
• during the whole time. The thermometer was generally
above 60°. v^

The preceding experiments were made with fea-
water: but he now made ufc of other water, Into which
he put common or fea-falt, till he found, by an hydro-
meter, that it was of the fame fpeciflc gravity with the

pufes of about a quarter of a line In diameter* Other
learned men, who acknowledge the exiilcnce of thefe
luminous animak, cannot, however, be pcrfuaded to
confider them as the caufe of all that light and fdntil^
ktion that appear on the furface of the ocean : they
think that fome fubftance of the phofphorus kind, avi-
fing from putrefa^ion, muft be admitted as one of the

fea*water ; and, at the fame time> in another gallon of caufcs of this phenomenon. M. Godehoue hat pub'^

The ocean
luminous
from in*

water, he diifolved two pounds of fait ; and into each
0f thefe waters he put a fmall freih herring. The next
evening the whole furface of the artificial fea-water
was luminous without being ftirred ^ but gave mucK
more light when it'Was diilurbed. It appeared exadly
like the real fea-water in the preceding experiment ;
•its light lafted about the fame time, and went off in
the fame manner : while the other water, which was
almoft as fait as it could be made, never gave any
light. Tlie herring which was taken out of it the
feveitEh night, and wafhed from its fait, was found firm
and fweet \ but the other herring wa? very foft and
putrid, much more fo than that which had been kept
as long in frefh water. If a herring, in warm weather,
be put into 10 gallons of artificial fea-water, inftead
of one, the water, h(> fays, wfll Hill become luminous,
but its light will not be fo ftrong.

It appeared by fome of the firft obferVations on
this fubje6^, that heat extinguifhes the light of putref-
cent fubflances. Mr Canton alfo attended to thiscir-
cumftance; and obferves, that though the greateft
fummer heat is well known to promote putrefadlion,
yet 20 degrees more than that of the human blood
feems to hinder it. For putting a fmaU piece of a
luminous fxfh into a thin glafs ball, he found, that
water of the heat of 1 18 degrees would extinguifh its
light in lefs than half a minute ; but that, on taking
it out of the water, it would begin to recover its light
in about 10 feconds ; but it was never afterwards fo
Wight as before.

Mr Canton made the fame obfervation that Mr
Ant. Martin had done, w«. that feveral kinds of river
fifh could not be made to give light, in the fame cir-
eum (lances in which any fea-fi(h became luminous.
He fays, however, that a piece of carp made the water
very luminous, tliough the outfide, or fcaly part of it,
^id not fhine at alk

For the fake of thofe perfons who may choofe to
repeat his experiments, he obferves, that artificial fea-
water may be made without the ufe of an hydrometer,
i>y the proportion-'of four ounces avoirdupois of fait
to feven pints of water, wine-meafure.

From. undoubted obfervations, however, It appears*
■that in many places of the ocean it is covered with lumi-
nous infed^s to a very confiderable extent. Mr Dagelet,
u French aflronomer who returned from the Terra Au-
ftralis in the year 1774, brought with him feveral kinds
of worms which fhihe in water when It is fet in motion \
andM. Rigaud, in a paper itiferted (tf we are not mif-

lifhed cunout obfervations on a kind of fifh called in
French boniie^ already mentioned ; and though he ha9
obferved, and accurately defcribed, (ieveral of the lumi-
nous infedls that are found in fea-water, he is, never-
thelefs, of opinion, that the fcintillation and flaming
light of the fea proceed from the oily and greafy fub-
fUnces with which it is impregnated.

The abb^ Nollet was long of opinion, that the light
of the fea proceeded from eleftricity (a);, though he
afterwards feemed inch'ned to think, that this pheno-
menon was caafed by fmall animals, either by their lii-
mhious afpe6^, or at leaft by fome liquor or efHuyia
which they emitted. He did not, however, exclude
other caufes ; among thefe, the fpawn or firy of fifh de-
fenses to be noticed. M. Dagelet, faOing into the bay
of Antongil, in the ifland of Madaga(car, obferved 9'
prodigious quantity of fry, which covered the furface
of the fea above a mile in length, and which he at firil
took for banks of fand on account of their colour; they
exhaled a difagreeable odour, and the fea had appear-
ed with uncommon fplendor fome days before. The
fame accurate obferver, perceiving the fea remarkably
luminous in the road of the Cape of Good Hope du-
ring a perfe6^ calm, remarked, that the oars of the ca-
noes produced a whitifh and pearly kind pf luflre %
when he took in his hand the water which contained this
phofphorus, he difcerned in it, for fome minutes, glo-
bules of light as large as the heads of pins. When he
preffed thefe globules, they appeared to his touch like
a foft and thm pulp ; and fome days after the fea was
covered near the coalls with whole banks of thefe little
fifh in innumerable multitudes.

To putrefaction, alfo, fome are willing to attribute TgniT/aiuui^
that luminous appearance which goes by the name of
ignis fatuusy to which the credulous vulgar afcribe very
extraordinary and efpecially mifchievous powers. It
is moft frequently obferved in boggy places and near
rivers, though fometimes alfo in dry places. By ita
appearance benighted travellers are faid to, have been
fometimes mifled into marfhy places, taking the light
which they faw 'before them for a candle at a diftance ;
from which feemin^^ly mifchievous property it has been
thought by the vulgar to be a fpirit of a malignant,
nature, and been named accordingly Pf^iil wi/h a 'wifp^,
or Jack nmth a lanthorn; for the fame rcafon alfo. it;
probably had its Latin name ignis fatuut*

This kind of light is faid to be frequent about bury-
ing places and dung-hills. Some coimtries are alfo'
remarkable for it, as about Bologna in Italy, and fome

taken) in the Journal dcs S^avans for the month of parts of Spain and Ethiopia. Its form* are fo un*

•March 1770, aflSrms, that the luminous furface of the certain and variable that they can fcarce be defcribed,

fea, firiMn the port of Brefl to the Antilles, contains efpecially as few philofophical obferv^rs ever had the

an immenfe quantity of little, round, Jhining poly- good fortune to meet with it. Dr Derham, however.

Vol. X. Part I. G happened

(a) This hypothefis was alfo maintained ill a trcatife publifhed at Venice in 1746, by an ofiiccr in tke
Auftrian fervice, under the tit!c, Ddf Ektrsc^fnuh

L I G [ 50 ] h \ G

kappned one Bif^ to pcrcdve one of them, and ^ot of ■ the mer Rioverde^ It feened' to .be dboiit tmo Ij^

h near that he coiU haire a very advantageous Tiew feet above the ftones* and not far from the water. Ii^^'^'v^

of it* This it by no ineant cafy to be obtained ; fbr» iize and figure it had the appearance of a paraBdopipedv

among other fin^nkritiei of the igms faiuut^ tt it- ibmewhat more than a foot ia length, and half a foot

obferved to avoid the approach oi any perfon» and high, the longeft fide being pandld to the hort»Mu
#y from phice to place as if it was animated. That Ito light was lb 'ftvong, that he could platniy dtfcem

vi^ich Dr Derham obfervcci was in fome boggy ground by it part of a neighbouring hedge and the water of

betwiit two rodcy hills ; and the night was dartL and thje river ;. only in the eail corner of ii the %ht was

trim ; by which means, probably, he was enabled to^ rather faint, and the fquare figure leis perfed, as if it

advance within two or three yards of it. It appeared was cut off or darketttd by the figment of a circle.

Eke a complete body of light without any divifion, fo On examining it a little nearer, he was furprifed to

that he was fure it could not be o6cafioned by infeds find that it changed graduidly firora a bright red, firft

as fome have fnppofed 1 the fcparate lights of which to a yeUowifii, and then to a pale oolonr, in proportion

&e could not huve failed to diftinguifli^ had it been as he drew nearer ; and when he came to the place

occafioned by them. The light kept dancing about itfelf, it quite vanifiied*- l/poa this he ftepped

a dead thiftle, tiB a very flight motion-of the air, *oc* back, and not only &w ir again, but found that the

cafioned, as he fuppofed, by his near approach to it, farther he went from it, the itronger and brighter it

made it jump to another place •$ after which it kept grew* When he examined the place of this luminous

Hying before him as he advanced. M. Beccari en* appearance, he could perceive no {xnell nor any other

d^avoured to procure all the intelligence he could amrkoffire." This account was isonfirmcd by another

coi^ceming this phenomenon, by inquiring of all his gentleman, who informed M. fteccari, that he had feeo

acquaintance who might have had an opportunity of the fiune light ivft or fix different times in^iring and in

obferving it. Thus he obtained information ihat autumn; and that it always appeared of the fame (hape,

two of thefc lights appeared in the plains about and in the very fame place. Ont night in particularg

Bologna, ' the one to the north, and the other to the he obferved it conoe out of a neighbouring field to

Ibuth, of that city, and were to be fcen alraoft every fettle in the nfual place.

dark night, efpecially that to tfhe eaf^ward, giving a A very remarkable account of an tput fatmu is
light equal to an otdinary fikggot. The ktter ap« given by Dr Shaw in his Travels to the Holy Land»
peared to a gentleman of his acouaintance as he ^ was It appeared in the valleys of mount Ephiaim, and at*
travelling ; moved conftantly before him for about a tended him and his company for more than an hpur» '
mile \ and gave a better li^t than a torch \';^ch was Sometimes it would appear globukr, or in the fliape of,
carried before him. Both thefe appearances gave a theflameofacandle;atothersit wouldfpread tofucha
very ilrong light, and were conftantly in motion, though degree as to involve the whole compnny in a pale inof*
this was various and uncertain. Sometimes they fenfive Ught, then contra^ itfelf, and fuddenly diiap
would rife, fometimes fink ; but commonly they would pear ; but In lefs than a minute would appear again ;
hover about fix feet firom the ground ; they would fometimes running fwiftly along, it virould expand itfelf
dfo frequently difaj^ear on a fadden, and appear again at certain btennds over more than two or three acres of
in fome other place. They diffiered aHb in fize and the adiaeent mountains. The atmofpfacre from the
figure, fometimes fpreadin^ P^^^^ wide, and then con- beginnmg of the evening had been -remarkably thick
trading thcmfelves; fomctmies breaking into two, and and hazy \ and the dew, as they fdt it on the bridles
then joining again. Sometimes they would appear of their horfes, was very clammy and unduous.
like waves, at others they would feem to drop fparks Lights refcmbling the^ igmt fahm are fometime»
of fire : they were but little affefled by the vrind; and obferved at fiea, Skipping about the nafts and rigging
HI wet and rainy weather were frequently obferved of (hips ; and Dr Shaw informs us, that he has feen
to caft a flrongcr light than in dry weather : they thefe in fuch weather as that juft mentioned when he
•vnert alfo obferved more irequently when fnow lay bw the ^w fatmu in. Paleiline. Similar appearances
upon the ground, than in idit hottcft fuamer 1 but have been obferved in various other fituations \ and we
he was aflured that there was not a dark night are told of one which appeared about the bed of a
throti^rhout the whole year in which they were not woman in Milan, furrounding it as well as her body
to be feen. The gronnd to the eaftward of Bologna, entirely. This Ught fled from the hand which ap-
vhere the largeft of thefe appearances was oblerrcd, proacfaed it % but was at length entirely difperfed by the
is a hard chi&y foil mixed with day, which will re- motion of the air. Of the fame kiad aHb, mofl pro^
tain the moifture for a long time, but breaks and Inbly, are thofe fmall luminous appearances which fomo-
craeks in hot weather. On die mountains, where the times appear in houfes or near them, called in Soot-
foil is of a loofer texture, and lefs capaUe of retaining land Elf<audiis^ and which are fuppofed to portend
moifture, the igtut^Mtid were leis. ^ the death of fome pcrfbo about the houfe* la geneiJ
From' the hA mformation which M.r Beccari was thefe lights are haxmkfs, though not always ; for we
nble to procure, he found that thefe lights were very have accounts of fome luminous vapours whtdi would
frequent about rivers and brooks. He condndtt encompafs ftadis of hay and com, and fet them 00
his narrative vrith the foUowang fin|pibr accounts fire; u> that they became objeds^of great terror and
<« An intelligent gentleman traveling m the evening^, oonoera to the country pcopk. Of thefe it was
between eight and nine, in a mountainous road about ten obferved^ that they would avoid a dnuiMi fwoid, or
miles fouth of Bologna, perceived a light which (hone fharp-pointed iron inflrument, and that they would
very ftiangely upon fome itones whkh lay on the banks be drives away by a great noife ; bodi which methods

L I G Is

^MKt. i/nnt miAt ofo i^t» difipirtc them i iad U W9» like*
Wift obfigrvffd^ that they came from iotat diftaocet a^ it
v^cre on pmpofe to do mifdue£

Several philofopbers lutve endeavoured to account
for thefe appeasaacet, but hitherto with no great
Cuceefii ; nor indeed doca there fecm to be fufficient
data for folving all tkeir phcnamena* WxUoughby,
JRjif, and otkersr iu^e imagined that the light was
occafioned by « Atmiber of fluning infieds ; but thia
opinioa waa ncrer fupported in fuch a manner as.
to gain much ground* The ^u fahuu {ten by
X)r I)crham above mcntiotted» ai wdl at all the other
inftaocet tac have related* feem to demonftrate the
contrary. Sir iiaac Newton calli it a vapour fliin*'
ing without heat $ and fuppofea that there is the iame
idiSereoce betwaen the vapour of ^fnis faitau and
4ame« that there is between the (hining of rotten
wood and burning coals. But though this feems ffcnc* .
irally to be the cafe, therd are ftiU fome exceptions,
as has b^en inftanced in the vapours which fet fire to
the ftacks of com. Dr PrieiUey fuppofcs that the light
is of the fame nature with that produced by putref*
cent fubftances ; and others, are of opinion, that the
eledrical fluid is principally concerned ; but • none
"have attempted to give any particular ibiution of the
phenomena.

From the frequent appearance of the. tgmt fahmt
in marfliesy moift nround, burying places, and dung*
hills, we are naturauy led to conclude, that putidadion
is concerned in the produ^ioa of it« This procefs,
we know, is attended with the emiffion of an aqueous
fteam, toffethnr with a quantity of fixed, inflaas*
mable, phlogiilicated, and alkaline airs, all blended to-
gether in one common vapour. It. is lifcewiie attend-
ed with fome degree of heat \ and we know that there
are fome vapours, that of fulphur particularly, which
become luminous, with a degree of heat much leis than
that fufficient to (tt fire to combuftible bodies. There
is no inconfifteocy, therefore, in fuppofing that the
putrid vapour may be capable of ihmmg vrith a ftill
fmaOer degree of neat than that of iulphur, and coofe-
^uently become luminous by that wfench putreftidton
idone -aiFords. This would account for the ignU
ftamuf were it only a fteady lumin6us vapour arifing
from places where putrid matters are contained; but
its extreme mobility, and flying from one place to an-
other on the approach of any perfon, cannot be account*
ed for on this principle. If one quantity of the putrid
irapour become^ luminous by means <^ heat, aU the
reft ought -to do fo hkewife : fo that though wc may
allow heat and putrefadion to be concerned, yet of
neceility we muft have recourfe to fome other ^gent,
which cannot be any other than eledricity. Without
this it is impofflUe to conceive how any body of move-
able vapour fliould not be carried "away by the wind | but,
ib far is this from being the cafe, that the ignesfaim
defcribed by M. Beccari were but little afieded by
the wind. It is befides proved by undoubted^ experi'*
meat, that eledhicity always is attended with fome
degree of heat ; and this, however fmall, may be
fu£cient to give a luminoua property to any vajpour
on which it ads ftrongly ; not to mention, that the
'eledric flnid itfelf is no other than that of light, and
may therefore by its a£kion eaiily produce a luminous
appeanmce independent of any vapour.

L I O

We have a ftrong proof that ekdricity ta oaih
cemed, ^or indeed the piiactpal agent, in producing
t|he ^(Hufatuus from an experiment related by.Df
Pricftley of a flame of this kind being artificiatty pro*
duced. A gentlenoan, who had been making many
eledrical experiments for a <rhole afternoon in a fmaA
room, on going out of it, obferved a flame following
him at fome little diftance. This, we have no reafoa
todonbt, vna 9.trMt igt$it fatmUf and the circumftances
occeflary to produce it were then prelent, vir.. an
atmofphere impr^natcd virith animal vapour, and
likewife ibrongly ele6bi£ied« Both thefe circumftances
undoubtedly muft have taken place in the prcfent cafe ;
for the quantity of perfpiration emitted by a hiunan
body is by no 'means inconfiderable ; and it as well at
the eled^ricity would be colleded by reafon of the
fmallnefa of the room. In this cafe, however, there
feems to haj^e been a confiderable diflerence between
tiie- artificial ignis fatuus and thofe commonly met witl^
for tliis flame fiUotvtd the gentleman as he went
out of the room ; but the natural ones commonly fly
from thofe who approach them. This may be ac»
counted for, from a di£Ference between the eleftricity
of the atmofphere in the one ropm and the othef ; ta
which cafe the flame would naturally be attraded towards
that place where the dedricity was either difflerent in
quaHty or in quantity } but in the natural way, where
id] bodies may be fuppofed equally eleSrified for a
great way round, a repulfton wiU as naturally take
plabe. StiD, however, t^is does not feem to be always
tho cafe. In thofe inftances where travellers have been
tfttended by an igth fatwuy we cannot fuppofe {t
to have been influenced by any other power than what
we call attraSioitt and which eledtricity is very ca*
pable of producing. Its keeping at fome diilanoe is
likewife eafily accounted for ; as we know that bodies
pofl*efled of diflcrent quantities of ek^lrikity may be
made to attrad one another for a certain fpace, and
then repel without having ever come into conta£^«
On this principle we may account for the light which
furrounded the woman at Milan, but fled from tht
hand of any other perfon. On the fame principle may
we account for thefe mifchievous vapoiu-s which fet
fire to the hay and com ftacks, but were driven away
by prefenting to them a painted icon inftrument, or
by making a noife. Both thefe are known to have a
great effe^ upon the eledric matter ; and by means of
either, even lightning tnsPf oCcafionally be made to fell
Upon or to avoid particular places, according to the
citfcumftaaces by which the general mafs happens to be
affeded at that time.

On the whole, therefore, it feems nwft probable, that
the ignis fatuut is a coUe^on • of vapour of the pu«
trefcent kind, very much aifedied by eled^ricicy ; ac»
cording to the degree of which, it will either give a
weak or ftrong light, or even fet fii-e to certain fub*
ftances difpofed to receive its operation. I'his opinion
iieems greatly to be confirmed from fome luminous
a;ppearance8 obferved in privies, where the putrid
vapours have even coUe^d themfelves into balls, and
exploded violently on the approach of a candle. This
lalt effed, however, we cannot fo well afcribe to the
electricity, as to the accenfion of the inflammable
air wliich frequently abounds in fuch places^,

In the appendix to Dr Prieftlc7's third volume of

G 2 experiments

L I G

^'s^t* experiments and obfeirations on a;V, Mr Waritire ffives
an account of fome very remarkable igtutfMtui^ which
he obferved on the road to Bromfgrove, about five
miles from Birmingham. The time of obfervation was
the 1 2th of December 1776, before day-light. A
great many of thefe lights were playing in an*adjacent
field, in different direfbiona ; from fome of which there
fuddenly- fpnmg up bright branches of light, fome«
thing refembHng the explofion of a rocket that con-
tained many brUliant itars, if the difcharge was up<

C 5i ]

L I G

^ A light In fome refpe&s fimilar to thofe aiove men* Xighte-
tioned has been found to proceed from that celebrated ^

chemical production called phojphonts^ which always
tends to decompofe it&lf, fb as totake fire by the accefs phofphori^
of air only. Phofphorus, therefore, when it emits light,
light, is properly a body ignited; though when a very
fmall quantity of it is ufed, as what is left after .draw-
ing it over paper, or what 'may be diiTolyed lu eflential
oil, the heat is not fenfible. But perhaps the matter
which emits the light in what we call putrefceni fub*

wards, inftead of the ufual dire^ion, and the hedge fiances may be fimilar to it, though it be generated by

and trees on each fide of the hedge were illuminated.
This appearance continued but a few feconds, and
then the jack-a-lanterns played as before. Mr Warl*
tire w^s not near enough to obferve if the apparent
explofions were attended with any report.

Cronftedt gives it as his opinion, that Ignis fatuuSf
as well as the meteors cdHed falling Jiars^ are owing to
colledHons of infiammable atr raifed to a great height
in the atmofphere. But, with regard to the latter,
the vaft height at which they move evidently fhows
that they cannot be the effe^ of znj gravt'tating vapour
whatever ; for the Hghteft inflammable air is one-twelfth
ef that of the conm^on atmofphere : and we have no
reafbn to beUeve, that at the difbmce of 40 or 50 miles
from the earth, the latter has near -rr of its weight at
the furJEftce. From the account given by Mr Waritire, we
ihould be apt to conclude, that there is afbrong affinity
betwixt the ignes fatut and fire-balls, infomuch that the
one might be very eafily converted into the other.
From this then we mufk afcribe an eledirical origin to
the one as well as the other. Ele^city, we know,
can aiTume both thefe appearances, as is evident in the
cafe of points ; or even when the atmofphere is vio-
lently ele£lrified, as around the ftring of an eleCbrical
kite, which always wDl appear to be furrounded with a
Uue flame in the night, if the ele6bricity be very ilrong.

On the whole, it appears, that ele6bicity acting up-
on a fmall quantity of atmofpherical air, with a certain
degree of vigour, will produce an appearance refem-
bling an ignis fatutu y with a fuperior force it wiU pro-
duce a fire-ball ; and a fudden increafe of ele^cal
power' might produce thofe fparks and apparent ex-
jdofions obferved by Mr Waritire. The only diffi*
cultyr therefore is, Why does ele6bicity exert its
power upon one portion of the atmofphere rather than
another, feeing it has an opportunity of diffufing^ it-
felf equally through the whole ? To this it feems im-
poifible to give any other reafon than that we fee the
isJBt is fo ; and that in all cafes where there is a quan-
tity of cle<ftrified air or vapour, there will be an accu-
mulation in one part rather than another. Thus* in
the experiment alreadv related, where the gentle*
man perceived a blue name following him> the whole
air of the room was ele6lrified, but die greateft power
•f the fluid was exerted on that which gave the lumi-
&OUS appearance. ' ^

With regard to the ufes of the ignesfatm in the
fyftem of nature, we can only fay, that they fecm to

a different procefs, and bum with a lefs degree of heat.
Putrefcence does not feem to be neceflary to the light
of glow-worms, or of the pholades; and yet their light
is fufficiently fimilar to that of fiiining wood or fieffi..
£le£bic light is unqueilionably fimilar to that of phof*
phorus, though the fource of it is apparently very, dif-
ferent.

Kunckel formed his phdfphorus into a. kind of pills,
about the fize of peas, which being moiilened a little,
and fcraped in the dark, yielded a very confiderablc
light, but not without fmoke. The light was much
more pleaiing when eight or ten of thefe pills iwere put
into a glafs of water ; for being (haken in the dark,
the whole glafs feemed to be filled with hght. Kunc-
kel alfo reduced his phofphorns into tlie form of lar-
ger ftoaes ; which being warmed by a perfon's hand/
and rubbed, upon paper, would defcribe letters that
were very legible in the dark.

The greatefi variety of experiments with the light
of phofphorus was made by Dr Slare; who fays,, that
the liquid phofphorus (which is nothing more than the
fc^id phofphorus diffolved in any of the eflential oils)
would not hurt even a lady^s hand ; or that, when the
hands or face were waflied with it, it would not only-
make them vifible to other perfons in the dark, but
that the light was fo confiderable as to make other
neighbouring objects vifible. - *

When the folid phofphorus is quite. inunerfed in wa.-
ter, he obferves that it ceafes to fliine ; out that if any
part of it chance to emerge* or get into the air, it will
fhine though the glafs be hermetically fealed. In a
large glafs he kept it without water for feveral days |
and yet it continued fliining, with very little diminu-
tion of its light or weight. If the letters that were
written ynth this phofphorus were warmed by the ^c,
they prefently became dark lines, which continued upr
on the paper, like ink. To try how much light was
given by a fmall quantity of this phofphorus, he obfer-
ved that it continued to flame in the open air for feven
or eight days $ the h'ght being vifible whenever he fliiit
his window.

As air was generally thought to contain thefiaiu>-
him of flame, Dr Slare was determinedto try this ^-ith
refpe^i to phofphorus ; and for this purpofe he placed
a large .piece of it in a receiver ;but upon exhaufling it»
be perceived that it became more luminous, and that,
imon admitting the air, it returned to its former ftate.
This property of the light of phofphorus, which is

be accidental appearances refulting from the motion. of the very reverfe of that of fliiaing wood and fiihes» was

the eledric fluid, and are, no doubt, like, other meteors, alfo afcertained by feveral very accuratie experimenU

fubfervient to the prefervation of its equilibrium, and of Mr Haukfbee's.

thus are ufeful in preventing thofe dreadful commo- Endeavouring to blow the phofphorus into a flame

tions which enfue when a proper medium for fo doing with a pair of bellows, Dr Skre found that it was pre-s

is deficient* ^ iently blown outy and that it wa^ a confiderable tiwe

before

L I G

Li^Kt.

bcrore tlic light revived again. All liquors would ex-
tinguift this light when the phofphorua was put into
them f nor wouJd it fhine or bum, though it was even
boiled in the moft inflammable liquors, as oil of olivesy
fpirit of turpentine, or even fpirit of wine.

In order to keep his pholphorus from confuming,
he uiied to p.ut it in | glafs of water ; and fometimes he
has feen it, when thus immerfed in water, make fuch
bright and vigorous corufcations in the air, as, he faysy
would furprile and frighten thofe who are not ufed to
the phenomenon. This fiery meteor, he fays, is con-
tra6ied in its paifage through the water, but expands
as foon as it gets above it. If any perfon would make
this experiment to advantage, he informs them that the
glafs muft be deep and cylindrical, and not above three
quarters filled with water. This efFed^ he perceived in
warm weather only, and never in cold.

The phofphorus of which we have been treating is
prepared from urine ; but in fome cafes the fweat, which

[ 53 ]

L I G

brought into the dark room, it muft be expofed to tlie
fun-(hine» or at leaft to the open day-light, to imbibe
a fuffi^ient quantity of ravs ; and this is done in one
minute, or even lefs ; eight or ten feconds having
been found to furnifh as much light as a ilone is ca<
pable of receiving ; and when brought into the dark,
its light continues about twelve or thirteen minutci,
weakening all • the while by infcnfible degrees. It is
very remarkable, that in bodies fo extremely fimilarAo
each other as diamonds arc, fome ihould have this pro-
perty of imbibing tlie fun*s rays, and (hining in the
dark, and that others fhould not ; yet fo it is found-
to be by experiment, and the moft nearly refcmbling
ftones (hall be found one to have this property, and
another to be deftttute of it ; while many of the mod.
diifimilar have the property in common. There feems
to be no rule, nor even the leaft traces of any impcr-
fodl rule of judging, which diamonds have, and which
have not this property ; their natural bnghtnefs, their

is fimilar to urine, has been obferved to be phofphora- purity, their fize, or their (hape, contribute nothing to

voi. V.
»• 334*

ceous, without any preparation. This once happened
to a perfon who ufed to eat great quantities of fait, and
who was a little fubjedl to the gout, after fweating
with violent exercife. Stripping himfelf in the dark,
his fhirt feemed to be aU on fire, which furprifed him
very much. Upon examination, red fpots were found
upon his (hirt ; and the phyfician who was prefent per-

it ; and all that has been yet difcovered of the leail re-
gularity among them,, is, that all the yellow diamonds
have this property. This may probably arife from
their having more fulphur in their compofition, and
therefore illununating more readily,. or emitting a more,
vifible flame. >

The burning of diamonds is a term ufed among the

cetvedan unnous fmell^ though it had nothing in it of jewellers, for putting them into a fierce "fire, as they
volatile alkali, but of the muriatic acid $ the fame, he frequently do^ when they are fouled with brown, or
fays, that ifllies from cabbage much falted, and ftrong- yellow, or the like \ this always divefts them of their

f: i^ity*

ly fermented.

4^- The eafieft method of accounting for all thefe kinds

I^htf^c! ?f lights, perhaps, is from eledricity. If light confifts
counted for ^° ^ certain vibration of the ek6tric fluid f» then it fol-.
from elecp lows, that in whatever fubftances fuch a vibration takes
I'i^J^^iv^ place, there light muft appear, whether in putrefcent
* * *« ^^' animal fubftances, fea-water, phofphorus, or any thing
elfe. We know that the ekdric 'matter pervades all
terreftrial fubftanqes, -and is very liable to be fet in mo»
tion from caufes of which we are ignorant. The ac-
tion of the air by which putreiadion is.produc;^ may
be one of thefe caufes ; and it can by no means appear
furprifing that the eledric matter ihould ad in the bo-
dies of Uvinf animals in fuch a manner as to produce a
permanent Tight, when we certainly know it ads in
fome of them fo powerfully as to produce a (hock fimi^

W to that of a charged vial. On this fubjed we

fhall only obferve fardier, that when this vibration be-

aolour, without doing them^ the leaft fenfible injury.
M. du Fay, having been informed of this common prac-
tice, formed a conjedure, that the difference of dia-
monds in their (hining, or not (Inning in the dark, was .
owing to it; and that either all thofe which had been
burn^ or all thofe which had not, were thof« which
alone fhone in the dark* But this was found an erro-
neous conjecture ; for two diamonds, one lucid in the
dark, the other not, were both burnt, and afterwards
both were found to retain the fame properties tliey.
had before. It is not only the open fun(hine, or open
day-light, which gives to thefe diamonds the power of
(hining in the dark ; they, receive it in the fame manner,,
even li laid under a glafs, or plunged in water or in
milk.

M. du.Fay tvied whether it was poiTible to make the
diamond retain, for any longer tyne, the light it natu-
rally parts with fo foon ; and found, that if the dia?

comes fo powerful as to penetrate the folid fubftance of mond, after being expofed to the light, be covered

the body i^felf, the luminous body then becomes tranf- with black wax, it will (hine in the dark, as well fix

parent, as in the milk mentioned in the former part of hours afterwards as at the time it was iirft impreg-

this article ; but, when it is only fuperficial, the body, nated with the light.

though it emits light, it itfclf opaque.

ItjGHT from Diamonds, Among luminous bodies the
diamond is to be reckoned ; as fome diamonds are known
to ftime m the dark. But on account of the feeblenefs
of their fplendor, it is neceifary for the perfon who is
to obferve them, previoudy to ftay in the dark at leaft
a quarter of an hour ; that the pupil of the eye may

The imbibing light, in this manner, being fo nice,
a property as not to be found in feveral diamonds, it
waa not to be fuppofed that it would be found in any
other ftones : accordingly, on tiial, the ruby, the fap>
phire, and the topaz, were found wholly deftitute of.
it ; and among a large number of rough emeralds, one .
only was found to poiFefs it. Such is the ftrange uo*

be dilated and enhrged, and fo rendered capable of certainty of thefe accidents,

receiving a larger quantity of the rays of light. M. du All the other lefs precious ftones were triedy and:

Fay has alfo obferved, that the eyes ought to be (hut found not to poflfefs this property of imbibing light.

£or this time, or atleaft one of them ;. aiid that^ in that from the day-light or-fun-fhine, but they all became

cafe, the light of the diamond is afterwards only feen by luminous by the different means of heating or fridlion i^

that eye which has been (hut. £eforo>tbe diamond is with this difference, that fome acquired it by one of.

thefcv

L•'i^^

X I G

Xight. .£},efe methods, and otKert by the otht?r ; each being
unafTe^ed by that which gave the property to the
other. The dian\ond becomes luminous by all thefe
ways.

Beccarius alfo difcovered, that dianionds have the
property of the Bolognian phofpliorus> about the fame
time that it occurred to M. du Fay. Com, Boaon.
vol. li. p. 376. M. du Fay likewife obfcrved» that the
common topaz, when calcined, had aU the^properties of
thia phofphorus; and purfuingthe difcovery, he found
the fame property, in a great degree, in the bclemni-
tes, gypfum, lime-ftone, and marble i though he was
obliged to diffolve fome very hard fubftances of this
kind in acids, before calcination could produce this
change in them ; and with fome fubftances he could
not fucceed even thus ; efpecially with flint-ftones, ri-
veNfand, jafpers, agates^ and rock-cryftal.

Light from Plants, In Sweden a very curious phe«
nomenon has been obferved on certain flowers by M.
Haggcm, lc6lurcr in natural hiftory. One evening
he perceived a faint flaih of light repeatedly dart from
a mangold. Surprifed at fuch an uncommon appeal^
ance, he refolved to examine it with attention ; and,
to be afTiired it was no deception of the eye, he placed
a man near him, with orders to make a iignal at the
moment -when he obferved the light. Th^ both faw
it conilantly at the fame moment.

The light was moil: brilliant on marigolds of an
orange or fiame colour ; but fcarcely vi^le on pale
ones. •

The flafh was frequently feen on the fame flower twa
or three times in quick fucceflion ; but more common-
ly at intervals of feveral minutes : an<h when feveral
flowers in the fame place emitted their light together^
It could be obferved at a confidei^ble dif^ance.

[ 54 3

L I G

by which the piece it fuppofed to be cnU^htened 1 an<i<
which» for this rcafbn, ve painted in bright vivid co«
lours.

In this fenfe^ light is oppofed to (hadow.

Different lights have very different efie6k8 on a pic-
ture, and occaikon a difference in the -management of
every part. A great deal thevefore dq>ends on the
painter's choofing a proper light for his piece to be
illuminated by » and 'a great desd more, in the condu^
of the lights and (hadows, when ^e luminary is pitched
upon.

The ilrength and Teh'evo of a figure^ as well as its
gracefulnefs, depend entirely on the mana^eknent of
the lights, and the joining of thofe to the (hadows.

The light a figure teceives is either dire^ or reflec*
ted ; to each of which ^cial regard muft be had. The
do^rine of lights mnd ihadows makes that part of
paintiqg called chair ohJcure4

LiGHT-Hor/ef an ancient tenn in our EBgliih cuf-
ioms, iignifying. an prdinary cavalier or horfemaii
lightly armed, and fo au to enter a corps or regiment;
in oppofition to the men at aniis» who were heavily^u>
coutred, and armed at all points. See Ligbi^Ho^tsM.

LiouT'-'Hoyfe^ m buildine ereded upon a cape or pro-
montory on the fea-coan, or upon fome rock in the
fea^ and havix^- on its top in the night-time a great
ifire, or light formed by candles, which is conftantly
attended by ibme careful perfon, fo as to be feen at a
great diilance from the land. It is oied to dire6l the
jKipping on. the coaft* that might otherwife run afhorc*
or fleer an improper courfe when the darknefs of the
night and the uncertainty of currents, &c. might ren-
der their fituation with regard to the ftorc extreme^
doubtful. Lamp-lights are, on many accounts, pre*
ferahle to coalffires or candles ; and the efle^ of thefe
This phenomenon was reraaifked in the months of may beincreafed by placing them either behind glais*

Ligktfoot*

July and Aug^fi at fun-fet, and for half an hour, when
the atmofphere was clear ; but «fter a rainy day, or
^hen the air was loaded with vapours, nothing of it
-was feen.

The following flowere emitted flafhes, move or left
i^fvid, in this order:

1. The mangold, galenMa officmatiu

2. Morik's-hood, trop^lum nuyw*

3. The orange-lily, lliium hdhiferum*
.4. The Indian pink, tagetet fatula Cff ere8a

hemifpheres, or before properly difpofed glafs or me-
tal rcfle6b)rs, which laft method is now very generally
adopted. See Beacons.

LiGMT'Room, a fmall apartment, inclofed with ^if&*
windows, neac the magazine of a fhip of war. it is
ufed to contain the lights by which the^nner and his
af&ibints are enabled to fill cartridges with powder to
be ready for a^ion.

LIGHTER, a hrge, open, ftat-bottomcd veffeT,
generally managed with oars, and employed to carry

To difcover whether fome little infects or phofpho- goods to or from a fhip when fhe ja to be laden or de-
•ric worms might not be the caufe of it, the flowers iLvered*— -There are jdfo fome lighters furniihed witk
were carefully examined, even with a microfcopc, with*' a deck throughout their whole length, in order to con*

t>ut any fuch being Found.

*From fhe rapidity of -the flaih, and other circiimflan«»
CCS, it may be conj enured that there is fomething of
cleftricity in this phenomenon. Xt is well kno\a'n, that
when the pifHl of a flower is impregnated, the pollen
burils away by its elafticky, with which eledkricity may
be combined. But M. Haggem, -after having obferved
the flafh from the oranfFc lily, the anthers of which are
a confidcrable fpace dillant from the petals, found that
the light proceeded from the petals only ; whence he
concludes, that this eledric light is caufed by the poi-
len, which, in flying off, is i'cattered on the petaU,
Whatever be the caufe, the cffctl is lingular and higlJy

curious.

Lights, in painting, are thofe parts of a piece
which art illuminated, or tliat lie opco to the luminary,

tain thofe merchandifes which would be damaged by
rainy weather : thefe are ufually calkd cJofi lighters.

, LIGHTFOOT (John), a moft learned Englifti
divine, was the fon of a. drvine, and bom in Marcil
2602^ at Stoke upon. Trent in Staffordfhire. After
having finifhed his fludiesat afchool.on Morton-green
near Cangleton in Chcfhire, he was removed in 1617
to Cambridge, where he applied himfelf to eloquence,
and fucceeded fo well in it as to be thought the beii
orator of the under-graduates in the univerfity. He
alfo made an extraordinary proficiency in the Latid
and Greek ; but neglef^ed the Hebiew, and even loft
that knowledge he bj-ought of it from fchool. His
lalte for the orie^ntal languages was not .yet excited ;
and as for logic, the iludy of it, as managed at that
tfme anoBg the academics, was too quaiteKbme and

fierce

L I G

L X G

^ S5 1 ^ ^ ^

Xilght£ont« fierce for hts qniet and meek difpofitioia. As fooa as fatisfied himtelf In clearing up many of the abilrufeft Ligh tft>oto
▼ he had taken the degree of B. A, he left the univer- - pafiagcs in the Bibk, and therein had provided the chief . »
fityy and became afliftant to a fchool at Repton in matt rials, as well as formed the plan, of hie " Harmo*
Derbyfhirc, After he had fupp)ied this place a year »y ;" and an opportunity of infpc6Ung it at the prefa
w twot he entered into orders, and became curate of was, no doubt, an additional motive foirhis going to
Norton under Hales in Shropfhire. This curacy gave an the capital ; where he had not been long before he

•ccafioB of awakening his genius for the Hebrew
tongue. Norton lies near Bellaport, then the feat of
Sir Rjowland Cotton ; who was his conftant hearer,
made him his chaplain, and took him into his houfe*
This gentleman being a perfeA mafter of the Hebrew
kngt^e, engaged Lightfoot in that ftudy ; who, by
converfing with his patron, foon became fenfible that
without that knowledge it was impofiible to attain an
accurate underftanding of the fcriptures. He there-
fore applied htmfelf tb it with extnordinary ' vigour,
and in a little time made a great progreis in it : and
bis patron removing with his family to refide in Lon«
don, set the requeii of' Sir Afland Cotton his uncle,
who was lord-mayor of that city, he followed his pre-
ceptor thither. But he did not ilay long there : for,
having a mitid to improve himfelf by ttavcUing abroad,
he went down into StafTordfhire to take leave of his
£ither and mother. Faffing through Stone in that <
county, he fqund the place deftitute of a mtnifter : and
the pneiTmg inftances of the parifhioners prevailed up^
on him to undertake that cure. Hereupon, laying
afide his defign of travelling abroad, he began to turn
kis thoughts upon, fettling at home. Dunng his refi**

was chofen minifter of St Bartholomew's, behind the
Royal Exchange. The afTembly of divines meeting ia
1645, our author gave his attendance diligently there,
and made a diflinguifhcd figure in their debates ; where
he ufed great freedom, and gave fignal proofs of hia*
courage as well as learning, in oppofing many of thofe
tenets which the divines were endeavouring to eflablifh*
His learning recommended him to the parliament,
whofe viiitors, having cjeAed Dr William Spurilow
from the mafterfhip of Catharine-hall in Cambridge,,
put Lightfoot in his room, this year 1653 ; and he
was alfo prefented to the living of Much-Munden in-
Hertfordihire, void by the death of Dr Samuel Ward,.
Margaret-profeiTor of divinity in that univeHity, before
the expiration of this year. Meanwhile he had his tun)
with other favoumes in preaching before the houfe of
commons, moil of which fermons were printed ; and in
them we fee him warmly prefiing the fpeedy fettlement
of the church in the Prefbyterian form, which he cor*
dially believed to be according to the pattern in the
Mount. He was all the while employed in prepaiing .
and publifhing the feveral branches of hia Harmony | aU
which wevc lo many excellent fpeciment of the ufeful*

dence at Bellaport, he had fallen into the acquaintance of nefs of human learning to true religion : aud he met

a gentlewoman who was daughter of WiUiam Cromp*
ton of Stonepark, £fq; and now, being in pofTefiion
of that living, he married her in 1628. But not-
withftanding this fettlement, his unquenchable thirft
jifter rabbinical learning would not fuffer him to con*
tinue there. Sion-coUege library at London, he knew,
was well Ikocked with books of that kind* H^ there-
fore quitted his charge at Stone, and removed with his.
fiimily to Hornfer, near the city ; where he gave the
public « m>table fpecimen of his advancement in thofe
ftttdies, by his ** Erubhim, or Mifcelknies Chriftian
and Judaical,*' in 1629. He was at this time only
37 years of age ; -apd appears to have been well ac-
quainted with the. Latin and the Geeek fathers, ais well
as the ancient heathen wHters. Thefe firft fruits of his
ftudies were, dedicated' to^ Sir Rowland Cotton ; who.

with great difficulties and difcouragements in that work^
chiefiy from that antieruditional fpirit which prevailed^
and even threatened the defbru<^'oa of the univerfities.
In 1655 he entered upon die office of vice-chancellof
of Cambridge, to which he was chofen^ that year, ha*
ving taken the degree of do^or of divinity in 1652.
He performed all the regular exercifes for his degrea
with great applaufe, and executed thr vice«chancellor*t
office with exemplary dih'gence and fidelity ; and, par^
ticnkrly at the commencement, fupplied the place of
profefibr of divinity,, then undifpofed of, as an a£^ which
was kept fof a do^or*a degree in that profelfion. At
the fame time he was engi^ed with others in perfecting*
the Polyi^tt Bible, then m the pre£i. At the Refto*
ration he ofiered to refign the raafterfliip of Catharine- -
hall : But, as what he had done had been rather in.

in 163 1, prefented him to the rcsdorj of Afhley iir compliance with the neceifity of the times, than from

StafFordfliire.

He feemed now to: be fixed for. lifie : Accordinglyir
he built ^ ftudyin the garden, to be out of the noife
of the hbufe^ and applied himfelf with indefatigiible
diHgence in. fiearching the fcriptures. Thus employ
«d, the days pafiTed very aereeably ;- and he continued
quiet and- umnolefted, tdl the great change which
happened in the public af&irs brought &im into a (hare

any zeal or fpirit of oppoiition to the king and govern*-
ment, ^confirmation was granted him from the crown^.
both of the place and of his living. Soon after this he
was appointed one of the affiftants at. the conference
iqK)n the litttrgy, which was held in the beginning of
s66if. but attended only once or twice ; probably dii^
gufted at the heat with which that confinrence was ma-
naged. However, he fluek dofe te his defign of per-

•f ' the admsnifbration relatmg to tfie church ; for he fe&ng his Hannony : and being of a ftrong and healr
was nominated, a member of. the memorable aflembly thy conftttution, which waa affiiled by an exa£k tern;*
of divines fer<fettling a new form of ecdefiaflical po* perance, he profeciited hia. fbudles with unabated vi-

Kty. This appointment was purely the effe£l of hit
diftinguifiied merit ; and he accepted it purely with a
view to ferve his country, as. far as lay in his power.
The noD-refidence, which this would ncoeflarily occs*
fion, apparent induced him to refign his rtSiorjz
and having obtained the prefentatioa for a younger
kr^eri ItffetOtttforLoadoAis 164.2*. Hehadamr

gour to the lafl, and continued to publiih, notwith-
Sandiof the many diftcnkies he met with from the ex-
pence of It. Howeyer, not loi^ before he died, fomc
bookfellers got apromife from. him to -colled and me-
thodize his works, in order to print them ; bat the ex-
ecution was prevented by his death, which happcnedi
Dec & 1675. '^^ dodoff vmt twice married : hifr*

firfti

t I O Is

Irt)i].t!Lr p, finl Wife, aire ail y mentioned^ brought him four fons
» and two daughters. His fecond wife was likewife
a widow, and rellA of Mr Auftin Brograve, uncle of
Sir Thomas Brograve, Bart, of Hertfordihire, a gentle-
man well VLtfed in rabbinical learning, and^ a parti-
cular acquaintance of our author. He had no ilTue by
her. She alfo died before him, and was buried in
I^Iundcn church ; where the do£lor was himfelf like-
wife interred near both his wives. Dr Lightfoot's
works were collected and publifh^d firft in 1684, in
two volumes folio. The fecond edition \iras printed at
Amfterdam, 1686, in two volumes folio, containing all
bis Latin writings, with a Latin tranHation of thofe
which he \5T0te m Englifli, At the end of both thefc
editions there is a lift of fuch pieces as he left uniinifh-
cd. It is the chief of thefe, in Latin ^ which make
up the tliird volume, added to the former two, in a
third edition of his worka, by John Leufden, at Utrecht,
in 1699, fol. They were communicated by Mr
8trype, who, in 1 700, publiflied another coUeAion of
thefe papers, under the title of- " Some genuine re-
mains of the late pious ai^d learned Dr John Light-
foot.

LIGHTNING, a bright and vivid ilarti of fire,
fuddenly appearing in the atmofphere, and commonly
difappcaring in an inftant, fometimes attended with
cloiids and thunder, and fometimes not.
I The phenomena of lightning are always furprifing»

t)ifiPcrent and fometimes very terrible ; neither is there any kind
*PP5V*°*^" of natural appearance in which there is more diverlityi,
aiii^ ' ^^^ ^^'^ flafhes being ever obfcrved exactly Amilar to
one another* In a ferene fky, the iightning, in this
country at leaft, almoil always bath a kind of jndi-
itin6l appearance without any deteiminate form) like
the fudden illumination of the atmofphere occafioned
by firing a quantity of k)ofe gunpowder; but when
accompanied with thunder, it is well defined, and hath
very often a zig-zag form. Sometimes it makes only
one angle, like the letter V, fometimes it hath fe*
veral branches, and fomletimes it appears like the arch
of a circle. But the mod formidable and deilrudlivG
form which lightning is ever kno^^^ to affume is that
• t)f balls of fire. The motion sof thefe is very often
-eafily perceptible to the eye; hot wherever they
•fall, much mifchief is occafioned by their burfting,
»which they always do with' a fudden explofion like
ihat of fire-arms. Sometimes tht^y will quietly run
along, or reft for a little .upon any thing, and then
hveak into feveral pieces, each of which will explode ;
t)r the whole ball will buril at once, and produce its
•mifchievous eifodls only in one place. The next to
this in its dcftruftive efFe^b ia the zig-zag kind ; for
tiiat which appears like indiflind^ flafhes, whofe form
•cannot be readily obferved, is feldom or never known
•to do hurt. — The colour of the lightning alib iodi-
•cntes in fome mcnfure its power to do mifchief; the
-jpiilclland bright ell. flalhes being mofl deftniiSlive; fuch
as are red, or of a darker colour, commonly doing lefs
•damage.
^ . A very furprifing property of lightning, th« zig-
<.ranU^rc-°^'^^5 kind efpecially when near, U its feeming omni-

i-iiKt, pre fence. If two pcribns are ftanding in a room look-
ing different wap, and a loud clap of tlmnder accom-
panied with zig-zag lightning happens, they will
•both difiindly fee the tiiiih, not onl^ by that indi-

N'' 182.

6 ] L I G

fUn6^ illumination of the atmofphere which is occa- *»*t^*«^-

fioned by fire of any kind ; but the very foun of tlic "'•'"'

lightning itfelf, and every angle it makes in its courir^

will be as diftin£Uy perceptible, as though they had

looked diredly at tbe cloud from whence it proceeded.

If a perfon happened at that time to be looking on a

book, or other objeA which he held in his hand, he

would diftindly fee the form of the^lightning between

him and the object at which he looked. This pro^'

perty feenu peculiar to lightnings and to belong to no

other kind of fire whatever.

The effcfts of lightning' ire generally confined with- R^iarkk
in a fmall fpace; and are feldom fimilar to thofe which aUe eflcds
accompany explofions ot, gun-powder, or of inflam-of ii^hc-
mable air in mines. Inftances of this kind, hbwevery"''^*
have occurred ; the following is one of the moft re-
markable of which we have any diftinSk account.
*^ Augufl 2. 1763, about Hx in the evening, there
arofe at Anderlight, about a league from Brufiels, a
conflidi of feveral winds borne iipon a tliick fog. This
confii6^ lafted four or five minates, and was attended
with a frightful biffing lioife, which coidd be compared
to nothing but the yellings of an infinite number of
wild beafts. The -^oud then opening, difcovered a
kind of very Inight lightning, and in an inflant the
roofs of one iide of the houfes were carried off and
difperfed at a -di (lance) above 1006 large trees were
broke off, fome near the ground, others near the top,
fome torn up . by the roots { and many both of the
branches and tops carried to the diilance of 60, 100^
or 120 paces ; "^^hole coppices were laid on oncfide^
as com is by ordinary winds. The glafs of the win-
dows which were moil expofed was ihivered to pieces*
A tent in a gentleman's garden was carried to the
diftance of 4000 paces | and a branch torn from a large
tree, flruck a girl in the forehead as (he was coming
into town, at the diflance of 40 paces from the trunk
4>f the tree, and killed her on the fpct."

Thefe terrible efFcdls fecm to have -been owing to
the prodigious agitation in the air, occafioned 43y the
eroiflion of fuch a vail quantity of lightning at once ;
or perhaps to the agitation of the eledlric fluid itfelf»
which is IHll tnoTc dangerous than any concuffion of
the atmofphere ; for thunder-ilorms will fometimes
produce moll violent whirlwinds, fuch as are by the
beil philofophers attributed to ele<lilricity, nay, icven
occafion an agitation of the waters of the ocean itfelf ;
and all this too after the thunder and lightning had
ccafedJ— Of this we have the following inilanccs.
;* Great Malvern, Odlober 16. 1761. On Wed*
iiefday lafV,- we had the moH violent thunder ever
known in the memory of inan. At a quarter pall
four in the afternoon I was furprifed with a mofl
{hocking and difmal noife; 100 forges (the nearefl
refemblance I can think of), were they all at work at
once^ could fcarce equal it* I ran to the fore-door,
and calling my eye upon the fide of the hiU about
400 yards to the fouth-wcft of my houfe, there ap-
peared a prodigious fmoke, attended with the fame
violent noife. I ran back into the houfe, and cried
out, a volcano (for fo I thought) had burfl out of
the hill ; but I had no (boner got back again, than I
found it had defcended, and. was paffing on within
about 100 yards of the fouth end of my houfe. It
feemed to nfe again in the meadow juft bebw it ; and
6 con- .

L I O C 57 ] . L I G

LiibtntDg. continued its progreft to the eafty rifing in tbe &me the hair if taken off from the fides of thefaeo, from Light ofagt^

^* V manner for four different times, attended trith the the flat part of the jaw-bones, and from the front of ~ ' '

fame difmal noife as at firfl i the air being filled with the face in ftripes. There are a few white marks on the

a nanfeous and fulphureous fmelL I law it gradually fide and neck» which are furrounded with red ; and

decreafe till quite extinguifhed in a turnip-field about the hair is taken off from them, leaving half an inch

a quarter of a mile :below my houfe* The turnip of white adjoining to the red* The fiirmer anointed

leaves, with leaves of 'trees, dirt, fticks, &c. filled the the ox wiih oil lor a fortnight; the animal purged

air, and flew higher than any of thefe hilb. The very much at firft, and was greatly reduced in flefh, but
thunder ceafed before this happened, and the air fooo . is now recovering.''

afterwards became calm and ferene." — The vaft co« In another account of this accident, the author fup*

Itimn of fmoke mentioned in the above letter was fo pofes that the bullock had been lying down at the time

. large, that a phyfician of eminence at Worcefter faw it he was ftruck ; which (hows the reafon that the under

in Its progrefs down the hill, about a mile from Fec< parts were not touched. ** The lightning, condudted

kenham, which is above 20 miles from Malvern.— In by the white hair, from the top of the back down the

Auguft 1 763, a mofl violent ftorm of thunder, rain, fides, came to the gpround at the place where the

and hail, happened at .London, which did damage in white hair was left entire."

the adjacent country, to the amount of 50,000 L The author of this account &ys, that he inquired of

Haililones fell of an.immenfe fize, from two to ten a Mr Tooth a farrier, whether he ever knew of a fimi-

inches circumference $ but the moft furprifing circum- lar accident ; and that he told him <' the circumflance

fiance was the fuddctn . flnx and reflux of the tide in was not new to him ; that he had feen a great many

Plymouth pool, exa^ly correfponding with the like pyed bullocks flnick by lightning in the fame manner

agitation in the fame place, at the time of the gretft as this ; that the texture of the (kin under the whtte

earthquake at Lifbon. . « hair was always deflroyed, though looking fair at firft;

Inilances are alfo to be found, where lightning, by but after a while it became fore, throwing out a pu*

it» own proper force, without any afliftance from thofe trid matter in puftiiles, like the fmall-pox with us,

lefs common agitations of the atmofphere or eledbic wliich in time falls off, when the hair grows again, and

fluid, hath thrown ftones of immenfe weight to con* the bullocks receive no farther injury ',** which was the

fiderable diftances ; torn up trees by the root, and broke cafe with the bullock in queflion. In a fubfequent

them in pieces ; fliattered rocks ; beat down houfes, letter, however, the very fame author informs us, that

and fet them on fire^ &c. he had inquired of Mr Tooth " whether he ever faw a

£ztraordi- A very fingukr effe£l of lightning is mentioned in flroke of hehtning adually fall upon a pyed bullock,

nary cficdis the 66th volume of the Philofbphical Tranfadions, fo as to deftroy the white hair, and (how evident marks

oflighinu.p yp^jj jj py^^ bullock. It happened in the county of of burning, Ijcaving the red hair uninjured? He faid

bullockT Suffcx about the end of Augufl 17 74* The bullock he never did ; nor did he recoiled any one that had.

was white and red ; and the lightning fhripped off the He gave an account, however, of a pyed horfe^ ^"On a pvcd
white hair leaving the red untouched. The following longing to himfelf, which Had been flruck dead byhorfe.
is a particular account of the matter. ** In the evening lightning in the night-time." The explofion was fo
of Sunday, the 2dth of Augruft, there was an ap- violent, that Mr Tooth imagined his houfe had been
pearance of a thunder-ftorm, but we heard no report* ftnick, and therefore immediately got up. On going
A gentleman who was riding near the marihes not i$r into the ftable he found the horfe almoft dead to ap-
^iflant frorn this town (Lewes) faw two ftrong flaflies pearance, though it kept on its legs near half an hour
of lightning, feemingly running along the ground of before it expired. The horfe was pyed white on the
the marih, at about nine o'ciodk in the evening. On flioulder and grcateft part of the head ; wz. the fore-
Monday mornings when the fervants of Mr Roger, a head and nofe, where the greateft force, of the ftrokc '
farmer at Swanborough, in the pariih of Iford, went came. ** The hair was not burnt nor difcoloured,
into the marfh to fetch the oxen to their work, they only fo loofened at the root, that it came off with the
found one of them, a four-year* old fleer, ftanding up leaft touch. And this is the cafe, according to Mr
to appearance much burnt, and fo weak as to be fcarce I'ooth's obfervation, with all that he has feen or heard
able to "walk* The animal feemed to have been ftruck of; vf». the hair is never burnt, but the Ikin always
by lightning in a very extraordinary manner. He is affe£led as above mentioned. In the horfe, all the
of a white and red colour ; the white in large marks. Wood in the veins under the white parts of the head
beginning at the rump bone, and running m various ^as quite ftagnated, though Tie could perceive it to
diredlions along both the fides; the belly is all white, flow in other parts as ufual ; and the flrin, together
and the whole head and horns white likewife. The with one fide of the tongue, was parched and dried up .
lightning, with which he muft have been undoubtedly to a greater degree than he had ever feen before."
ftruck, fell upon the rump bone, which is white, and Another inftance is mentioned of this extraordinary
^diflributed itfelf along the fides in fuch a manner as cjledt of lightning upon a bullock, in which even the
to take off all the hair frum the white marks as low (maU red fpots on the fides were unaffected ; and in
•as the bottom of the ribs, but fo as to leave a lift of this, as we'll as the former, the white hair on the un-
white hair, about half an inch broad, all round where der part of the belly, and on the legs, was left un-
it joined to the red, and not a fingle hair of the red touched.

Appears to be touched. The whole belly is unhurt, All thefe, however, are to be confidered as the

but the end of the flieath of the penis has the hair more unufual phenomena of lightning ; its common

taken off ; it is alfo taken off from the dewlap: the horns mode of aftion being entirely fimilar to that of a char-

ttnd the curled hair on the forehead are uninjured; but gcd Leyden vial, where the eleftric matter difcharges
Vol. X, Part !• H itfelf

6
Similarity
between
* detftric

L I G [58

toing* itfelf from a fubftance pofitively cleArificd to one that
is negatively fo. The indentity of elcAric matter and
lightning feems now, indeed, fo well eftablifhed, that
there is not the leaft foundation for feeking any other
folution of the phenomena of lightning, than what
may be obtained by comparing- them with thofe of
our ele6lrical experiments. The difiFerent forms of the
flaihes are aU exemplified in thofe of ele6lrical fparks.
Where the quantity of clcdlricity is fmall, and confe-
fpark* and quently incapable of ftriking at any confiderable di-
ligbtmng. ftance, the fpark appears ftraight, without any cur-
vature or angular appearance : but where ihe eleAri-
city is very ftroog, and of confequence capable of ftri-
kiqg an obje6t at a pretty conliderable diilance, it af-
fumes a crooked or zig-zag form. This is always the
cafe with Mr Nairn's very powerful machines, the con-
dudlors of which are fix feet in length and one foot
in diameter. Sparks may be taken from them at the
diitance of 16, 17, or even 20 inches ; and all of thefe
Why It af- P*^^ ^" '^^ angular zig-zag form of Ughtning. ^ The
fumes a zi>;- reafon of this appearance, both in thefe fparks and in
sag form, the lightning, is, that the more fluid ele£tric matter
hath to pa?8 through the denfer and lefs fluid at-
liiofphere with great rapidity ; and in fa<^, this is the
way in which all the more fluid fubilances pafs through
thofe that are lefs fo, at leaft when their velocity be-
comes confiderable. If bubbles of air or ileam pafs
very gently up through water, their courfe from the
bottom to the top of the vefTel will differ very little»
if at all, from a ftraight line ; but when they are im-
pelled by a confiderable force, as in air blown from a
bellows, or the bubbles of ileam which arife in boiling
water, their courfe is then marked by waved and
crooked lines, and the deflc£lion of the bubbles to the
right or left will be precifely in proportion to their
^ afcending velocity, and to the weight of the water by
vrhichthey are refifled.

In the cafe of air blown through water, however,
or fleam afcending from the bottom of a veffel of
boiling water, though the courfe of the bubbles is
waved and crooked, we never obferve it to be angular
as in lightning. The reafon of this is, that there is
no proportion between the capacity of the air for
yielding to the impetus of lightning, and the velocity
with which the latt^ is moved. From Mr Robins's
experiments in gunnery, it appears, that the air can-
not yield with a velocity much greater than 1 200 feet
in a fecond, and that all proje6kiles moving with a
greater degree of velocity meet with a violent refifl-
ance. But if we fuppofe lightning to move only
with one half 4he velocity of light, that is, near
100,000 miles in a fecond, or even with that of 1000
* See Fir9- miles in a minute, which mofl probably is the cafe*,
its motion in the fluid atmofphere will meet with a re-
fiflance very little inferior to what air would meet with
in paifing through the mofl folid bodies. The fmallefl
difference of the refiflance of the atmofphere on either
fide, mufl determine the lightning to that fide; and in its
paffage to that new place where the refiflance is leafl,
it miifl pafs on in a ftraight line, making an angle with
its former courfe, becaufe the atmofphere is altogether
incapable of yielding with fuch rapidity as the eledlric
matter requires, and therefore reMs like a folid rock.
The cafe is otherwife in the former examples : for tho*
a fooall difference in the reiifUace forces the bubbles of

halL

] L I G

air or fleam to deviate from fide to, fide, yet there L'gh^ ning.
is always a confiderable proportion between the ca- ^
pacity of water for yielding, and that force by which
the bubbles urge it to yield; fo that though it does
make a refiflance fuflicient to prevent the bubbles
from moving in a ftraight line^ yet it alfo percep-
tibly yields at aU times, and therefore the tra6l of
the bubbles is formed by a number of curves and
not angles. 9

Hence we may underftand the reafon why the zig-why fnch
zag kind of lightning is fo dangerous, namely, be- kind of
caufe it muft overcome a very violent refiftance of theJ^^'^JS**
atmofphere ; and wherever that refiftance is in the '^^^
fmaDeft degree leffened, there it will undoubtedly ftrike,
and at a very confiderable diftance too. It is other-
wife with that kind which appears in flafhes of no de-
terminate form. The eleAric matter of which thefe
arc compofed, is evidently diffipated in the airbyfome
condu6ling fubftances which are prefent tliere ; and
of confequence, though a man, or other condu£ling
body, happened to be very near fuch a flafh, he would
not be flruck or materially injured by it, though a zig-
zag flafh, in fuch circumftances, would have probably
difcharged its whole force upon him. ^

' The moft deflrudive kind of lightning, however, as why Hght-
we have already obferved, is that which affumes theningaf-
form of balls. Thefe are produced by an exceeding j^'^^^^J*^
great power of eledricity gradually accumulated till^ij^
the refiflance of the atmofphere is no longer able to
confine it. In general, the lightning breaks out from
the ele£lrified doud by means of the approach of fome
condudling fubflanee ; either a cloud, or fome terre-
flrial fubftance : but the fire-balls feem to be formed,
not becaufe there is any fubftance at hand to attraft
±he elcAric matter from the doud, but becaufe the
ele6lricity is accumidated in fuch quantity that the
doud itfelf can no longer contain it. Hence fuch balls
fly off flowly, and have no particular deftination. Their
appearance indicates a prodigious commotion and ac-
cumulation of cle^bicity in the atmofphere, without a
proportionable difpofition in the earth to receive it*
This difpofition, however, we know, is perpetually aJ^
tered by a thoufand circumftances, and the place which
firft becomes moft capable of admitting eledricity v(dll
certainly receive a fire-ball. Hence this kind of light-
ning has been known to move flowly backwards and
forwards in the air for a confiderable fpac^of time, and
then fuddenly to £dl on one or more houfes, accord-
ing to their being more or lefs affe6ked with an ele6bri-
city oppofite to that of the ball at the time. It will
alfo run along the ground, break into feveral parts* and
produce fevend explofions at the fame time.

It is very difficult to imitate lightning of this kind
in ourele6^rical experiments. The only cafes in which
it hath been done in any degree are thofe in which Dr
Prieftley made the explofion of a battery pafs for a con-
fiderable way over the furface of raw flefti, water^
&c. and in Mr Arden's experiment, when a fire-ball'
afcended to the top of an eledlrified jar, and burft it
with a violent explofion. See Electricity n^'Sp, &c.
In thefe cafes, lif, while the ele^ric flafh paffed over
the furface of the flefti, it had been poffible to inter-
rupt the metallic circuit by taking away the chain,
the eleAric matter difcharged from the battery would
have been precifely in tlie fituatiion of one of the fire-^

bftlk

L I G

[ 59 J

L I G

Lightning, bails aboTe-mcntioned ; /• e. it would Have been at a
*" >t lofs for a condudor. The negative fide of the battery
was the place of its deftination ; but to that it would
not have eaiily got» becaufe of the great quantity of
atmofphere which hy in its way* and the incapacity
of the neighbouring bodies to receive it. But, while
the ele6kric matter was thus ftationary for want of a
€ondu6lory if any perfon (landing near, or touching
the negative fide of the battery, prefented a finger to
that feemingly inoffenfive luminous body^ he would in*
ftantly be ftruck very violently ; becaufe a free com-
munication bdng now made by means of his body, the
powers. by which the electric fluid is impelled from
one place to another would inftantly urge it upon
him. But if we fuppofe a perfon, wh6 hath no com-
munication with the battery, to prefent his finger to the
fame body, he may perhaps receive a flight fpark from
it ; but not a 'fhock of any confequence, becaufe
there is not a perfect communication by means of
his body with the place to which the eledbric fire is
defiined.
^^ Hence we may account for the feemingly capricious

^i^^^^^Q^g nature of lightning of all kinds, but efpecxally of that
in general kind which appears in the form of balls. Sometimes
aecottsted it will ftrike trees, high houfes, fteeples, and towers,
^* without touching cottages, men, or other animals,

who ire in the neighbourhood. In fuch cafes, people
would be apt to fay that the neighbourhood of thefe
higher objects preftrved the others from the firoke ; but
with little reafon, fince low houfes, men walking in
the fields, cattle, nay the furface of the earth itielf,
kave all been ilruck, while high trees and fteeples in
the neighbourhood have not been touched. In like
manner, fire-balls have paffed very near certain per^
fons without hurting them, while they have, as it
were, gone confidei*ably out of their way to kill others.
The reafon of all this is, that in thunder-florms there is
conftantly a certain 2one of earth confiderably under the
furface, which the lightning defires (if we may ufethe
expreilion) to flrike, becaufe it hath an eledricity oppo-
fite to that of the lightning itfelf. Thofe obje^s, there-
fore, which form the mou peirfed conductors between
the ele6bified clouds and that zone of earth, will be
ftruck by the lightning, whether they are high or low ; ^
and becaufe we know not the conducting quality of
the. different terrefbrial fubilances, the fuperftitious are
i^t to afcribe flrokes of ^ghtning to the divine ven-
geance againit particular perfons, whereas it is cer-
tain that this fluid, as well as others, a£ts according to
invariable rules from which it is never known to de-
part.

Lightning, in the time of fevarc thunder-ilorms, «is
fuppofed to proceed from the earth, as well as from
the clouds : but this fa^ hath never been well aCcer-
tained, and indeed from the nature of the thing it
feems very difficult to be afcertained ; for the motion
of the eleCtric fluid is fo very quick, that it is altoge-
ther impoifible to deteimine, by means of our fenfes,
whether it goes from the earth or comes to it* In
fii6t, there are in this country many thunder florms in
which it doth not appear . that the lightning touches
any part of the earth, and confequently can neitber go
to it nor come out from it. In thefe cafes, it flafhes
cither from an eleCbrified cloud ^to one endowed with

an oppofite ek^city, or merely into thofe parts of Lightnipy*
the atmofpherc which arc ready to receive it. But if '
not only the douds, but the atmofphere all the way be-
tmtt them and the earth, and likewife for a confider*
able fpace above the clouds, are eledrified one way,
the earth muft then be fbuck. The reafon of this will
appear from a confideration of the principles laid down
under the article Elbctkicity, fe6t. vi. It there ap<
pears, that the ele£briif fluid is altogether incapable ei-
ther of accumulation or dimnution in quantity in any
particular part of fpace. What wt call eleSricUy is only
the motion of this fluid made perceptible to our fenfes.
Pofitive electricity is when the current of ele^ic mat-
ter is direCted from the eledrified body. Negative
electricity is wheir the current is direCted towards it.
Let us now fuppofe, that a pofitively ekCtrified cloud
is formed over a certain part of the earth's furface.
The eleCtric matter flows out from it firft into tj^e at-
mofphere aU round ; and while it is doing fo, the at-
mofphere is negatively eleCtrified. In proportion,
however, as the eledric current pervades greater and
greater portions of the atmofpherical fpace, the great-
er is the refiftance to its motion, till at laft the air be-
comes pofitively eleCtrified as well as the cloud, and
then both a& together as one body. The furface of
the earth then begins to be affeCted, and it filently
receives the eleCtric matter by means of the trees, grafs,
&c. till at laft it becomes pofitively ele^ified alfo,
and begins to fend off a current of ele^ricity from
the furface downwards. The caufes which at firft
produced the eleCtricity of the clouds (and which are
treated of under the article Thunder), ftill continu-
ing to aCt, the power of the eleCtric current becomes
inconceivid>ly great. The danger of the thunder-ftorm
LOW begins ; tor as the force <^ the h'gfhtning is di-
rected to fome place below the furface of the earth,
it will certainly dart towards that place, and fliattcr
every thing to pieces which reftfts its paffage. The ii
benefit of conduCting-rods will now alfo be evident: Uf« pfcon*.
for we are fure that the eleCtric matter will in all cafes ^^^^
take the way where it meets with the leaft refiftance ; ^
and this is through the fubftance, or rather over the
furface, of metals/ In fuch a cafe, therefore, if there
happen to be a houfe fufnifhed with a condudor di-
reCtly below the cloud, and at the fame time a zone of
negatively eleCtrified earth not very far below the
foundation of the houfe, the conductor will almoft
certainly be ftruck, but the building will be unhurt.
If the houfe wants a condftCtor, the lightning will
neverthelefs ftrike in the fame^pkce, in order to get at
the negatively eleCtrified zone above mentioned ; but
the building will now be damAgcd, becaufe the materials
of it cannot readily conduCt the eleCtric fluid. j^

We will now be able to enter into the difpute, Whe- Whether
ther the preference is due to knobbed or pointed con- ^np*>*>«* w
duCtors for prefervlag buildinfirs from ftrokes of liffht- J^* j'^J ^
ningf tver fince the difcovery of the identity ofgrcprefcj^
eleSricity and lightning, it hath been allowed by allrable.
parties, that conduCtof s of fome kind are in a manner
effentially neceflary for the fafety of buildings in thofe
countries where thunder-ftorms are very frequent. The
principle on which they aCt hath been already ex-
plained ; namely, that the eleCtric fluid, when im-
pelled by any power, always goe» to that plaoe where

H« it

L I G [ 60 1 L I G

l4;Htidiig. it meets with the kaft reManoe, «• dl other Aiidi bail haagitig between the two belh. The author ^fuUgttidng,
alfo do. A« metaisy therefbie, ase foimfl to give one night waked far loud crackB^ proceeding fnmi his
the kaft refiftanoe to iti {iailage« k will always choofe apparatus itk the oair-cafe. He perceived, dat the
to run along a metalline rod, ia preference to a paf- brafs baM, inilead of vibFating as ufual between the bdk>
fage of any other kind. We muft, however, care- was rep^d and kept at a diilance from both ; while
fuUy confider a ctrcomftance which feems to have been the fire fometimes paiTed in very laige quick cracks di^
too much overlooked by eledricians in their reafon- re^y from beU to bell ; and fometimes in a continued
ings concerning the effie6b of thunder-rods ; namely, denfSe white (bream, feemingly as latge as his finger )
That lightning, or elcdricity, never ftrikes a body, by means of which the whole iiair-cafe was enlightened,
merely for the fake of the body idelf, but only be- as with fun4hine, (b that he could fee to pick up a
caufe by means of that body it can readily arrive at pin«^ - From the i^parent quantity of ele£lric matter
the place of its deftination. When a quantity of eke- of which the cloud was thus evidently robbed, by
tricity is collected from tlie earth, by means of an means of the pointed rod (and of whidi a blunt con*
ele£lric machine, a body communicating with the du^or would not have deprived it), ttie author con-
earth will receive a itrong fpark from the prime con- ceives, that a number of fuch condu<Elor8 muft conii-
du6ior. The body receives this fpark, not becaufe it derably lefien the quantity of ele^ric fluid contained
is itfelf capaUe of containing ail the ek<^city of in any approaching doud, before it comes fo near as
the condudor and cylinder, but becaufe the natural to deliver its contents in a general ftroke."
fituation of the fluid being difturbed by the motion of For this very reafon, Mr Benjamin Wilfon and his
the machine, a dream of it is fent off from the earth, followers, who conftitute-the oppoflte party, have de*
The natural powers, therefore, make an effort to fup- termined that the ufe of pointed condu(^ors is utterly
ply what is thus drained off from the earth ; and as unfafe. They fay, that in violent thunder florms the
the individual quantity which comes out is moft pro- whole atmofji^iere is fall of eledricity ; and that at-
per for fupplying the deficiency, as not being employed tempts to «xhaufl the vail quantity there colk^ed, are
in any natural purpofe, there is always an effort made like attempting to dear away an inundation with ft: -
for returning it to the earth. No fooner, then^ is fliovd, or to exhauft the atmofphere with a pair of
a condudling body, communicating with the earth, bellows. They maintain, that though pointed bodiea
prefented to the ele^rical machine, than the whole will effedoally prevent the accumulation of ele^lricit^
eflbrt of the ele^h-icity is dire6^ed againft that body, ia any fubftance ; yet if a non-ek^fied body is in-
not merely becaufe it is a condu£):or, but becaufe it terpofed between a point and the condu^or at' aft
kads to the place where the fluid is dired^d by the ele^rical machine, the point will be (buck at the hmt
natural powers by which it is governed, and at which moment with the non-ele6lrified body, and at a muck
it would find other means to arrive, though that body greater diflance than that at which a knob would be
were not to be prefented. That this is the cafe, we ftruck. They affirm alfo, that, by means of this filent
may very eafily fatisfy ourfelves, by prefenting the very folicitation of the lightning, inflammable bodies, fuch
fame conducing fubftance in an infulated ftate tO' the as gun-powder, tinder, and Kunckel's phofphorus» .
prime condu^or of the machine ; for then we fliall may be fet on fire ; and forthefe kft fa^s they brinflr
find, that only a very fni^ fpark 'will be produced, decifive experiments. From all this, fay they, it it
In like manner, when lightning ilrikes a tree, a houfe, evident that the ufe of pointed conduffors is unfafe.
or a thunder-rod, it is not becaufe thefe objedls are They folicit a difcharge to the place where they are 9
high, or in the ndghbourhood of the cloud ; but be- and as they axe unable to condu^ the whole ek^ricity
caufe they communicate with fome, place below fhe in the atmofphere, it is impoflible for us to know
furface of the ground, againfb which the impetus of whether the difcharge they folicit nuiy not be too
the lightning is dire£led ; and at that place the light- great for our conduAor to bear ; and confequently all
sing would certainly arrive, though none of the above- the mifchiefs arifing from thunder-ftorms may btf
mentioned obje^ had been interpofed. expend, with this additional and mortifying cir-
The falkcy of that kind of reafoning genenJly em- cumllance, that this very condnflor hath pn^bly
ployed concerning the ufe of thunder-rods, will now folicitcd the fatal ilroke, when without it the cloud
be fuflidently appareift. Becaufe a point prefented to mi?ht have pafied harmkfs over our heads without
an ele6irified body in our experiments, always draws ftnking at aU.

off the ele^ricity in a fiknt manner; therefore Dr Herethereafoningofboth parties feems equally wrong*.

Franklin and his followers have conduded, that a They both proceed on this erroneous principle, That

pointed condudlor will do the fame thing to a thunder- in thunder-ftorms the condu^^or will always folicit a-

doud, and thus efle£hially prevent any kind of danger difcharge, or that at fuch times aU the elevated obje^s

from a flroke of lightning. Thdr reafoning on this fub- on the furface of the earth are drawing off the ek^bri*

je£k, they think, is confirmed by the following fa£^ city of the atmofphere. But this cannot be the cafe,

among many others. ** Dr Franklin's houfe at rhikh unlefs the ek£lricity of the earth and of the atmo-'

delphia was fumifhed with, a rod extending nine feet iphttt is of a different kind. Now, it is demonftraUe,

above the top of the chimney. To this r«)d was con^ ^at until this difference between the ek^city of the

ne6ked a wire q£ the thicknefs of a goofe-quiO, which atmofphere and of the furface of the earth ceafes, there

defcended through the wall of the fiair-<afe ; where cannot be a thunder-ftorm^ When the atmofphere

an interruption was made,-fo that the ends of the wire, begins to be ekdlrified dther pofitivdy or negativdy*

to each of which a little bell was fixed, were diflant the earth, by means of the inequalities and nK>iflure of

from each other about fix lAohes ; wa. infiibted biafa ila fur&oe> but efpeciaUy by the vegetables which

grow

L I G [

l.iRfit nfng; ^wvip<m it> abfoH)8 that cle6lricity, and quickly be-
comes ele6lrifi«d iq the ftunc manner with the atmo-
fphcrc. This abforptton, however, ceafes in a very fliort
time) becaufe it cannot be continued without fetting in
motion the whole of the ele^ric matter contained in
the earth itfelf. Alternate zones of pofitive and negative
ele^ricity will then begin to take place belowthe furface
of the earth> for the reafons mentioned under the article
Electricity, fed. vi. p 9. Between the atmofphere
and one of thefe zones, the flroke of the lightning always
win be. Thus fuppofing the atmofphere is pofitivcly
electrified, the fuHace of the earth will, by means of
trees, &c. quickly become pofitivcly electrified alfo $
we fhall fuppofe to the depth of 10 feet. The ele6fai-
city cannot penetrate farther on account of the refi-
nance of the eleftric matter in the bowels of the earth.
At the depth of 10 feet from the furface, therefore, a
zone of negatively eledtrified earth begins, and to this
zone the eleAricity of the atmofphere is attraftcd ;
but to this it cannot get, without breaking through
the pofitively electrified zone which lies uppermoft,
and (battering to pieces every bad conductor which
comes in its way. We arc very fure, therefore, that
in whatever places the outei^zone of pofitively electri-
fied earth' is thinneft, there the lightning will ftrike,
whether a conductor happens to be prefent or not. If
there is a condudtor, either knobbed or (harp-pointed,
the lightning will indeed infallibly ftrike it ; but it
would alfo have ftruck a houfe fituated on that fpot,
.without any conductor ;. and though the houfe had not
been there, it would have ftruck the furface of the
groimd itfelf. — Again, if we fuppofe the houfe with
its conductor to ftand on a part oiF the ground where
the pofitively eleCtrificd zone is very thick, the con-
du(^or will neither filently draw off the eleCtricity,
nor will the Hghtning ftrike it, though perhaps it may
ftrike a much lower objeCt, or even the furface of the

61 ] L I G

fevour of his majefty, he was enabled to conftniA aLightniiifh
more magnificent eleCtrical apparatus than any private
perfon could be fuppofed to ereCt at his own expence,
and of which fome account is given under the article
Elbctricitt, n^ 83. The only new experiihentSy
however, which this apparatus produced, were the
firing of gunpowder by the eleCtric aura, as it is called ;
and a particularly violent (hock which a perfon re-
ceived when he held a fmall pointed wire in his hand,,
upon which the conductor was difcharged. We muft
obferve, that the eleCtrified furface of the conductor
was 620 feet ; and we can have but little idea of the
ftrength of fparks from a conduCtor of this magnitude,
fuppofing it properly eleCtriiied. Six turns of the
wheel made the difcharge felt through the whole body
like the ftrong (hock of a Leyden vial ; and nobody
chofc to make the experiment when the condu^or had
received a higher charge. A very ftrong (hock was
felt, as already obferved, when this condi^Ctor was dif-
charged upon a pointed wire held in a pcrfon's hand».
even though the wire communicated with the earth ;.
which was not felt, or bnt very little, when a knobbed
wire was made ufe of. To account for this difference
may, perhaps, puzzle eleCtricians ; but with regard to
the ufe of blunt or pointed thunder-rods, both experi-
ments feem quite inconclufive. Though a very great
quantity of eleCtric matter filently drawn off will fire
gunpowder, this only proves that a pointed conductor
ought not to pafs through a barrel of gunpowder ;
and if a perfon holding a pointed wire in his hand re-
ceived a ftrong (hock from Mr Wilfon's great conduc-
tor, it can thence only be inferred, that in the time of
thunder nobody ought to hold the conduCtor in their
hands ; both which precautions common fenfe would dic-
tate without any experiment. From the accident at
Purfleet, however, the difputants on both fides ought
to have feen, that, with regard to lightning, neither

ground itfelf, at no great, diftance ; the reafon of points nor knobs can attraff, Mr Wilfon furely had

which undoubtedly is, that there the zone of pofi-
tively electrified earth is thinner than where the con-
ductor was.

We muft alfo obferve, that the Frankllnians make
their pointed conductors to be of too great confe-
quence. To the houfes on which they are fixed, no
doubt, their importance is very great : but in exhauft-
ing a thtfnder-cloud of its eleCtricity, their ufe muft
arppear trifling ; and to infift on it, ridiculous. Innu-
merable objeSs, as trees, grafs, &c. are all confpiring
to draw off the eleCtricity, as well as the conduAor, if
it could be drawn off; but of effeCting this there is ah
impoflibility, becaufe they have the fame kind of eleCtri-
city with the clouds'themfelves. The conduftor hath not
even the power of attraBhg the lightning a few feet

no reafon to condemn the pointed conduCtor {or fo/i^
citing the fia(h of hghtning, feeing it did not ftrike the
point of the conduCtor, but a blunt cramp of iron ;
neither ^ve the Franklinians any reafon to boaft of
its effect in filently dranv'wg ojff^tht eleCtric matter, fince
all its powers were neither able to prevent the fiadi,
nor -to turn it 46 feet out of its way. The matter of
faCt is, the lightning was determined to enter the earth
at the plaee where the board-houfe ftands, or near it.
The conductor fixed on the houfe offered the eafieft
communication : but 46 feet of air intervening be-
tween the point of the conduCtor and the place of
explofion, the refiftance was lefs through the blunt
cramp of iron„ and a few bricks moiftened with rain-
water, to the fide of the metalline conduCtor, thaa

t)ut of the direction which it would choofe of itfelf. Of through the 46 feet of air to its point; for the former

this we have a moft remarkable and deoifive inftance in was the way in which the lightning aCtually paffed.
what happened to the magazine at Purfieet in Effex, Mr Wilfon and his followers feem^fo miftaken in?

on May 15. 1777. That houfe was fumifhed with a fitppofing that a pointed conduCtor can folicit a greater

pointed conduCtor, raifed above the higheft part of difcharge than what would othcrwife happen. Allow- -

the building ; neverthelefs, about fix in the evenincp of ing the quantity of eleCbicity in the atmofphere du- •

the abovementioned day, a fla(h of lightning ftruck an ring the time of a thunder-ftorm to be as great as they

iron cramp in the corner of the wall confiderably
lower than the top of the conduCtor, and- only 46 feet
in a (loping line diftant from the point. — This pro-
duced a long difpute with Mr Wilfon concerning t]ie
propriety of ufing pointed conductors; aisd, by the

pleafe to fuppofe ; neverthelefs, it is impoffible that
the air can part with all its eleCtricity at once, on ac--
count of the difficulty with which the fluid moves in.
it. A pointed conduCtor, therefore, if it does any.
thing at aB,. can only foUcit the partial difcharge:

which*

LIG [6z] LIG

Light ning. ^Kich is to4>e made at any rate : and if none were to is evidentlf occafioned by the fudden re entrasue of the l^ighnin^.

' be made thoTigh the condadtor was abfent> its prefence eled^rrc fire naturaHy belonging to his body and to the

will not be able to effect any. fecond condu6ior, which had before been expelled from

An obje6^ion to the- ufe of condu£ior8t whether them by the a6tion of the. charged prime condu6tor

blunt or pointed, may be drawn from the accident upon them; and which returns to its former place

which happened to the poor-houfe at Heckineham,
which was ftruck by lightning though fumifhed with
eight pointed conduftors ; but from an accurate con-
fideration of the manner in which the condudlors were

the inflant that adUon or elaftic preflure ceafes. The
author (hows^ that there can be no reafon to fuppofe
that the electrical difcharge from the prime conduftor
(hould in this experiment (^*oide ttfelf at the inflant of

fituated, it appears, that there was not a pofiibility of the explofion, and go different ways, fo as to flrike the
their preventing any ilroke. See Philofophical Tran- fecond condu6tor and infulated perfon in this manner.

13^ factions, Vol. I^XXII. p. 361.
Lord Ma- In a late publication on the fubjeft of eleClricity by
hon*8 thco- Lord Mahon, we find a new kind of lightning made
^ ^ ' mention of, which he is of opinion may give a fatal
ilroke, even though the main explofion be at a con-
fiderable diHance ; a mile, for inflance, or more. This
he calls the eledrical reiuming Jlroke ; and exemplifies it

ry ot light
aiog.

and at fuch a diftance from it.

When the fecond condu^or and the infulated per-
fon are placed in the dm/eft part of the eled^rical atmo--
fphere of the prime condudlor, or jufi beyond the (Iri-
king diilance, the effeds are (UU more confiderable;
the returning Jiroke being extremely feverc and pungent,
and appearing confiderably fharper than even the mam.

in the following manner, from fome experiments made Jiroke itfelf, received direAly from the prime conduflor.

with a very powerful eledlrical machine, the prime This circumftance the author alleges as an imanfwer-

condudlor of which (fix feet long, by one foot diame- able proof tliat the effedl which he calls the returning

ter) would generally, when the weather was favourable, Jirokey was not produced by the main Jiroke being any

flrike into a brafs ball conne£led with the earth, to the wife divided at the /time of the explofion* finceno effeS

diilance of 1 8 inches or more. In the following ac-
count, this brafs ball, which we (hall call yf, is fuppofed
to be conHantly placed at the Jlriking di/lance ; fo that
the prime con^udlor, the iuflant that it becomes fully
charged, explodes into it.

Another large conductor, which we (hall call the
fecond conduBor^ is fufpended, in a perfe^ly infulated

can ever be greater than the caufe by which it is imme"
diately produced. — Having taken the returning Jiroke
eight or tea times one morning, he felt a confiderable
degree of pain acrofs his cheft during the whole even-
ing, and a difagreeable fenfation in his arms and wrifU
all the next day.
We come now to the application of this experiment,

ilate, farther from the pri«ie conductor than the Jhri- and of the dodlrine deduced from it, to what paffes

iing d'Jlancey but witliin its eleSrical atmojphere ; at the

di fiance of ^jc feet^ for inftance. A perfon fi:anding

on an infulating ilool touches this fecond conduBor very

lightly with a finger of his right hand ; while, with a

£nger of his left hand, he communicates with the

«arth, by touching very lightly a fecond brafs ball fixed

at the top of a metallic fi;and, 'on the floor, and which

we fiiall call B.

While the prime condu6lor is receiving its ele Aricity,
fparks pafs (at leail if the difiance between the two
conductors is not too great ) from the fecond «ondu6tor
to the infulated perfon's right hand ; while fimilar and
llmultaneous fparks pafs out from the finger of his left
hand into the fecond metadlic ball B^ communicating

in natural eledrtcityy or during a thimder-ftorm ;
which there is reafon to expert fimilar eife^s, but on
a larger fcale : ~a fcale fo large indeed, according to
the author's reprefentation, that perfons and animaU
may be deflroyed, and particular parts of buildings
may be confiderably damaged, by an eledtrical return^
ing Jiroke^ occafioned even by fome very difiant explo*
Jion from a thunder-cloud :— polfibly at the diilance of
a mile or more.

It is certainly eafy to conceive, that a charged ex-
tenfive thunder-cloud muft be produdlive of effedls fi-
milar to thofe produced by the author's prime conduc-^
tor. Like it, while it continues charged, it will, by
the fuperinduced elaflic eleBrkal preffure of its atmofphere,

with the earth, Thefe fparks are part of the natural * to ufe the author's own expreflion, drive into the

quantity of ele^iric matter belonging to the fecond
<x>ndu6^or, and to the infulated perfon ; driven from
them into the earth, through the ball B^ and its fland,
by the elaflic prefiure or adion of the eledlrical atmo-
fphere of tlie prime condu6lor. The fecond cpnduAor
and the infulated perfon are hereby reduced to a ne-
gathe ilate.

At length, however, the prime conductor, having
acquired its full charge^ fuddenly (Irikes into the ball
j^y of the firfi: .metallic fland, placed for that purpofe
at the Jlriking di/lance of 1 7 or 18 inches. The ex-

earth a part of the eledric fluid naturally belonging to
the bodies which are within the reach of its 'widely
extended atmofphere ; and which will therefore become
negatively ele6lricaL This portion too of their ele(Elric
fire, as in the artificial experiments, will, on the ex-
plofion of the cloud, at a di/lance^ and the ceffation of
its a6lion upon them, fuddenly return to them ; fo as
to produce an equilibrium, and reflore them to their

natural flate. - i^

To this theory, the authors of the Monthly Review Anfwercd
have given the following anfwer: "We cannot, how-by thcRc-
plofion being made, and the prime condu^lor fuddenly ever, ag^ree with the ingenious author, with refpe6l to^**^*'^
robbed of its eledric atmofphere, its preffure or a6lion the greatnefi of the effedls, or of the danger to be ap-
on the fecond condu6lor, and on the infulated perfon, prehended from the returning Jiroke in this cafe; as we
^ fuddenly ceafes ; and the latter inflantly feels a fmart think his eftimate is grounded on an erroneous founda-
returmngjlrokcy though he has no dire6l or vifible com- tion. — * Since (fays he) the denfity of the eledlrical at-
mofphere of a thundercloud is fo immenfcy when compa-
red to the ele6lrical denfity of the ele^rical atmofphere
of dLVLj primf amduSoTf charged by meiRs of any eledri*

cal

munication (except by the floor) either with the Jin-
king Qxjlruck body, and is placed at the diflance <nfive
fx Jim feet from, both of them. This retujning (b[)ke

L I G [63

IJghtning. cal apparatus whatfocvcr ; and fincc a niummg^roiej
when produced by xhtfuddeH removal of even the weak
elaftic eled^rical prefTure of the ele6krical atmofphere of
a cliarged/rvW conduSor^ may be extremely Jlnrng^ as
we have feen above ; it is mathimaticaUy evident^ that^
when a reiuming Jiroke comes to be produced by the

fudden removal of the very ilrong elailic ele^rical pref-
fure of the electrical atmofphere of a thunder-cloud
powerfully charged ; the flrength of fuch a returning

Jlroke muft be enormous.'

** If indeed the quantity of eledkric fluid naturally
contained in the body of a man, for inilance, were im-
menfe, or indefinite, the author's eftimate between the
effeds producible by a cloud, and thofe caufed by a
prime conductor, might be admitted. But furely an
ele6lrified cloud,— how great foever may be its ex-
tent, and the height of its charge when compared
with the extent and charge of a prime condud^or —
cannot expel from a man's body (or any other body)
more than the natural quantity of eledlricity which it
contains. On the fudden removal, therefore, of the
preffure by which this natural quantity had been ex-
pelled, in confequence of the explofion of the cloud
into the earth; no more (at the utmofl) than his whole
natural Jlock of ele6tricity can re-enter his body (c).
But we have no reafon to fupppfe that this quantity is
fo great, as that its fudden re-entrance into his body
fhould deftroy or even injure him.

** In the experiment above defcribed, the infulated
perfon receives into his body, at the inflant of the re^
turning Jlroke^ not only ' all that portion of his own
natural eled^ric fire which had been expelled from it \
but like wife tranfmits through it, at the fame inftant,
in confequence of his peculiar jttuaiion^ all the eleflric fire
of which the large fecond condu<5lor had been robbed j
and which mull neceflarily rr-pafa through his body,
to arrive at that condudlor. To render the cafe
fomewhat parallel, in natural eUSricityy the man's body
muil be fo pecidiarly circumflanced, fuppofing him to
be in a houfe, that the elc£lric matter which has been
expelled from the houfe into the earth, by the preffure
of an extenfive thunder-cloud, could not return back
into the building, on the explofion of the cloud at adi-
ftance, without paffing through his body : a cafe not
likely to happen, unlefs the houfe were infulated (like
the fecond conduftor in the preceding experiment),
and his body became the channel through which alone

3 L I G

'' In the eafe of a man who is abroad, and in an Ligh^iftg^*
open field, during the time of an explofion : — as he is
unconne£led with other maffes of matter aho'oe him^
no more than the precife quantity of elc6lric fire, which
had been before expelled from liis body, vrill fuddenly
return into it at the inftant of a diflant explofion : and
that this quantity is not ufually very large, may be in-
ferred from mafiy confiderations,

" WTien a perfon ftanding on the ground holds »
pair of Mr Canton's balls in his hand, while a highly
charged thunder-cloud is fufpended over his head; the
angle made by the balls indicates the eledrical flate of
that perfon, or the quantity of natural eleAricity of
which his body is at that time deprived, by the a6lioii
of the (pofitively) charged cloud hanging over him.
But we have never feen the repulfion of the balls fo
confiderable, as to fumifh any juil apprehenfions that
the return of his natural electric matter, however fud-
den, could be attended with injury to him : nor would
he be fenfible of any commotion on the balls fuddenly
coming together ; though a fpark might undoubtedly
be perceived, .at that inilant, were he infulated, and
placed in the fame manner with the author when ke
tried the above-related experiment.

" The author neverthelefs obfennes, that * there have
been- inflances of perfons who have been killed by na*
/tfrfl/deftricity, having been found with their fboer torn^
and with thtir feet damaged by the eledlrical fire ; but
who have not had, over their whole body, any other
apparent marks of having been ilruck with lightning.'
He adds, ' if a man walking out of doors were to be
killed by a returning Jlroke^ the eledlrical fire would
ru(h into that man's body through hhfeet^ and his feet
only ; which would not be the cafe, were he to be
killed by any mainflroke of explofion, either pofitive or
negative.'

" It would be no difficult tafk, we think, to account
for thefe appearances in a different manner ; were all
the circumilances attending the cafe minutely afcer-
tained; but without interrogating the dead on this
fubjedl, we may more fatisfaftorily appeal to the ex-
perience of the living (d), to fhow, that though the
returning flrohe muft take place, in all thunder-ftorms^
infome degree or other; yet it Is not of that alarming
magnitude which the author afcribes to it. If, in any
particular thundtr-ftorm, a man in the open fields could
be killed, at the inftant of a diftant explofion, merely;

the houfe could have its eleftric matter rcftored to it ; by the return of his own eledlric fire, which had before

it appears much more probable tliat the eledric mat- been driven out of his body ; furely numerous obfer-

tcr returns to the houfe through the fame channels by vations of perfons who liad experienced the returning

which it before infenfibly paffed out, and with equal flrohe ^ mflighter degrees, would be familiar ; and fcarce

fUence^ though more fuddenly. * a great thunder-ftorm muft have occurred, In which

one

(c) " We fuppofe the perfon not to be fo fituated, that the returning fire of other bodies muft neceffarily
pafs through his body."

(d) "The author does indeed produce a rt^Ang evidence, in the cafe of a perfon at Vienna, who, he has
been credibly informed, received an electrical fhock, by having held one hand accidentally in conta<^ with an
interrupted metallic conducing rod, at the inftant that a thunder-cloud exploded at the diftance, as was con-
je6tured, of above half an EngUfh mile. He likewife obferves, that a * very ftrong, bright, and fudden^roie*
(or fpark) of eledlrical fire has been feen, by feveral elcftricians, to pafs in the interval, or interruption, pur-
pofely left in the conducing rod of a houfe at the inftant of a diftant explofion ; and * when it was fully,
proved, by the fharp point of the conduAor not being melted, or even tinged,* that the conduftor itfelf hadl
■ot been ftruck. — Thefe obfervatlons, however, do not by any means prove the magnitudt or danger of die re-
turning ftroke,. but merely its exi/ience; which we jfo not,co«teft%"

L I G

c 64 a

L I G

laghtiiing. one pcrTon or another muft not, at the inftant of ah
• - cxploiion, have felt the efFe£ta of the returtungftrohe^ in
fame -{legree or other ^ from that of a violent concujfion^ to
that of a flight and alnioft imperceptible pulfation. But
no obfervations of this kind are known to us; nor have
we ever heard of any pci-fon*s experiencing any kind
of eleftrical commotion in a thunder-ftorm, except
fuch as have either been dircftly flruck, or have hap-
pened to be in the very near neighbourhood of the fpot
where the explofion took place.

** The author has been aware of this objeftion,
which he propofts, and endeavours to remove : but his
anfwer to it amounts to little more than what has been
already quoted from him ; that is, to a fimple efti-
inate of the enormous difference between the elcAncal
denfity, or the ehft'tc eleQrkal preffurej of the atmofpherc
of an extenfive thunder cloudy and that of a charged
prime conduSor. We have already obfcrved, that this
is not the proper method of eftimating their different
effe^ls, when thcfe two caufes, how unequal foever in
power, are confidered as exerting that power on bodies
containing a limited and comparatively fmall^ quantity
of eledtric matter.

** We have been induced to difcufs this fubj^ft thus
particularly, with a view to quiet the minds of the ti-
morous; as the author's extenAon of his principles, re-
^eAing the returning llroke in artificial elc6lricity, to
what pafies in natural eledlricity, holds out a new,
and, in our opinion, groundlefs fubje6t of terror to
thofe who, in the midlt of their apprehenfions, have
hitherto only dreaded tlic effeAs of a thunder-ftorm
^'hen it made near approaches to them ; but who» if
this doArinc were believed, would never think them-
fclves in fecurity while a thunder-cloud appeared in
£ght, unlefs (heltered in a houfe furnifhed with pro-
per condudlors : — for we (hoiild not omit to remark,
that a fubfequent obfervation tends to diminifh their
fears, by fhowing that high and pointed condudtors tend
to fccure both ptrfons and buildings againft the va-
rious effeds of any returning Jlroke whatever, as well as
of the mainjlrohe,**

A late melancholy accident which happened in Scot-
land has afforded 'Lord Mahon an opportunity of
bringing additional arguments in favour of his fyitcm.
^S An account of this accident is given by Patrick Bry-

fblTwd' ^°"^' ^^^5 ^- ^- ^- ^" *^^^ 77^^^ volume of the Philo-
dentbjan fophical Tranfadlions. It happened on the 19th of
clc<ftriail July 1 785, near Coldftflream on the Tweed. The
morning was fine, with the thermometer at 68'' 5 but
about eleven o'clock the fky became obfcured with
clouds in the fouth-eaft : and betwixt twelve and one
a ftorm of thunder and lightning came on. This
ftorm was at a confiderable difbmce from Mr Brydonc's
lioufe, the intervals between the flaih and crack being
from 25 to 30 feconds, fo that the place of explofion
Kuft have been betwixt five and lix miles o^: but
while our author was obfcrving the progrefs of the
ftorm, he was fuddenly furprifed with a loud report,
neither preceded nor accompanied by any flafh of light-
ning, which refembled the explofion of a great num-
ber of mufkets, in fuch quick fucceffion, that the car
could fcarcely difcriminatc the founds. On this the
thunder and lightning inilantly ceafed, the clouds be-
gan to feparate, and the iky foon recovered its fereni-
tj. In a little time Mr Brydene was informed^ that

czplofion
frcm toe

a man with two hotfes had been^ killed hj the thun-L'^henTnfr,
der \ and, on running out to the phce, our author
found the two horfes lying on the fpot where they had
been firft flruck, and ftill yoked to the cart* As the
body of the man who was killed had been carried off,
Mr Brydone himfelf had not an opportunity of exa-
mining it, but was informed by Mr Bell, minifter of
Coldftream, who faw it, that the fkin of the right
thigh was much ^umt and (hrivelled ; that there were
many matks of the fame kind all over the body, but
none on the legs : his clothes, particularly his (hirt^
had a ilrong ftncU of burning ; and tliere was a ztg^
zitg line of about an inch and a quarter broad, extend*
ing from the chin to the right thigh, and which feem-
ed to have followed the direction of the buttons of his
waiflcoat. The body was buried in two days withouC
any appearance of putrefaction.

Mr Brydone was informed by another perfon who
accompanied him that was killed, of the particidar ctr-
cumftances. They were both driving carts loaded
with coals ; and James Lauder, the perfon who wa9
killed, had the charge of the foremoft cart, and was fit**
ing on the fore part of it. They had crofFed the
Tweed a few minutes before at a deep ford, and had
almoft gained the higheft part of an afcent of about 6j
or 70 feet above ihe bdd of the river, when he was
ftunned with the report above mentioned, and faw his
companion' with the horfes and cart fall down. On
running up to him^ he found him quite dead, with his
face livid, his clothes torn in pieces, and a great fmell
'of burning about him. At the time of the explofion
he was but about 24 yards diftant from La<uder*s cart,
and had him full in view when he fell, but felt ilo
fhock, neither did he perceive any flafh or appearance
of fire. At the time of the explofion his horfes turned
round, and broke their hamcfs. The horfes had fallen
on their left fide, and their legs had made a deep im-
preflion on the duft ; which, on lifting them up, fhowed
the exadl form of each leg, fo that every principle of
life fcemed to have been extinguifhed at once, without
the Icaft ftrBggle or convulfive motion. The hair was
finged over the grcateft part of their bodies, but was
moft perceptible on their belly and legs. Their eyes
were dull and opaque, as if they had been long dead,
though Mr Brydone faw them in half an hour after the
accident happened. Tlie joints were aU fupple, and he
could not obferve that any of the bones were broken or
difiblved, as is faid to be fometimcs the cafe with thole
who are killed by lightning. The left fhaft of the
cart was broken, and fplinters had been thrown off in
many places ; particularly where the tiniljer of the
cart was connedled by nails or cramps of iron. Many-
pieces of the coal were thrown to a confiderable di-
Itance ; and fome of them had the appearaace of bein^
fome time on a fire. Lauder's hat was torn into in-
numerable fmall pieces ; and fome part of his hair was
ilrongly united to thofe which hadcompofed the crown
of it.. About four feet and a half behind each wheel
of the cart he obferved a circidar hole i)f about 20
inches diameter, the centre of which was exaftly in the
track of eacli wheel. The earth was torn up as if by
violent blows of a pick-ax ; and the ihiall ftones and
dull were fcattered on each fide of the road. The
tracks of the wheels were flrongly marked in the duft ,
botli before and behind thefe holes, but did not in the

fmaUeil

L I G

C 6^ ]

L I G

IjJjjfh^ning:. fmaSeft degree appear on the fpots thcmfelvcs for up-
^ ■ V ' vi'ards of a foot and a half. There were evident marks
of fufion on the iron rings of the wheeb ; the fur-
face of the iron, the whole breadth of the wheel, and
for the length of about three inches, was become blu-
i(h, had loil its polifh and fmoothne&, and was formed
into drops which projeded feniiblf , and had a roundifh
form ; but the wood did not appear any way injured by
the heat which the iron mail have conceived. To deter-
ininc whether thefe were made by the exploflon which
had torn up the ground, the cart was puihed back on the
fame trafls which it had defcribed on the road ; and the
marks of fufion were found exadlly to correfpond with
the centres of the holes. They had made almoft half a
involution after the explofion ; which our author afcribcs
to the cart being pulled a little forward by the fall of the
horfes. Nothing remarkable was obferved on the oppo-
fite part of the wheel. The broken ground had a fmcU
^ fomething like tliat of ether ; the foil itfelf was very dry
and gravelly.

The cataflrophe was likewife obferved by a (hepherd,
at the diftance of about 2co or 300 yards from the fpot.
He faid, that he was looking at the two carts going up
the bank when he heard the report, and faw the fore-
moil man and horfes fall down ; but obferved no light-
ning, nor the leail appearance of fire, only he faw the
dufl rife about the place. There had been feveral Rafhes
of lightning before that from the fouth-caft ; whereas
the accident happened to the north-weft of the place
where he ftood. He was not fenfible of any fhock.

Our author next gives an account of feveral pheno-
meneha which happened the fame day, and which were
evidently conne Aed with . the explofion. A fhepherd
tending his flock in the neighbourhood, obferved a
lamb drop down ; and faid, that he felt at the fame
time as if fire had paffed over his face, though the
lightning and claps of thunder were at a confiderable
diftance. He ran up to the creature immediately, but
found it quite dead ; on which he bled it with his
kntfe, and the blood flowed freely. The earth was
not torn up ; nor did he obferve any duft rife» though
he was only a few yards diftant. This happened about
a quarter of an hour before Lauder was killed, and
the place was only about 300 yards diflant.

About an hour before Uie explofion, two men ftand*
ing in the middle of the Tweed, fifhing for falmon,
were caught in a violent whirlwind, which felt fultry
and hot, and almoft prevented them from breathing.
They could hot reach Uie bank without much difficul-
ty and fatigue ; but the whirlwind lafted only a very
jhort .time, and was fucceeded by a perfedl calm.

A woman making hay, near the banks of the river,

fell fuddenly jto the ground, and called out that (he

had received a violent blow on the foot, and could not

imagine from whence it came ; and Mr Bell, the mi-

liifter above mentioned, when walking in his garden,

a little before the accident happened to Lauder, felt

16 leveral times a tremor in the ground.

Mr Bry- The conclufion drawn from thefe fadts by Brydone

dene's con- [^ ^j^^t at the time of the explofion the equilibnum

from the Ix^tween the earth and the atmofphere fcems to have

/ads. been completely reftored, as no more thunder was

heard nor lightning obferved ; the clouds were dif-

pelled, and the atmofphere refumed the moil perfeA

tranquillity : ** But how this vaft quantity q£ electric

matter (fays he) could be dilcharged from the one ele-

.^OL.X. PartL

ment to the other, without any appearance of fire, I L'ghtning*
fhall not pretend to examine. From the whole it .»
would appear, that the earth had acquired a great fu-
perabundance of eleftrical matter, which was every
where endeavouring to fly off into the atmofpln?re.
Perhaps it might be accounted for from the exceflive
dryne£i of the ground, and for many months the al-
moft total want of rain, which is probably the agent
that nature employs in preferving the equilibrium be-
tween the two elements." • * u

LordMahon« now Earl Stanhope, whofe obfervationa Arguments
on this accident are publiihed in tlie fame volume, en- drawn by
deavours to eftablifh the following pofitions as fad^s. £wl Scan-

1. That the man and horfes were not killed by any Jjour Lf Si
dired main Jlroht of explofion from a thunder-doud ei- fyftem.
ther pofitively or negatively ele6brified.

2. They were not killed by any tranfmUted mam
Jiroke either pofitive or negative.

3. ^Fhe mifchief was not done by any lattrcd exfipjiotu
All thefe are evidently true, at leaft with refpedt tf»
lightning at that time falling from the clouds ; for aU
the lightning which had taken place before was at a
great diftance.

4. They were not fuffocated by a fulphureous va»
pour or fmell which frequently accompanies elc6tricity.
This could not account for the pieces of coal being
thrown to a confiderable diflance all round the cart,
and for the fplinters of the wood which were thrown
off* from many parts of the cart.

;. It might be imagined by fome that they were
killed by the violent commotion of the atmofphere*
occafioned by the vicinity of the eleftrical explofion*
in a manner fimilar to the fatal wounds that fometimes
have been known to have been given by the air having
been fuddenly difpluced by a cannon-ball in its paffage
through tlie atmofpherical fluid, though the cannon-
ball itfelf had evidently neither ftruck the perfon
wounded nor grazed his clothes. The duft that rofe •
at the time of the explofion might be brought as an ar*
gument in favour of the opinion, that a fudden and vio-
lent commotion of the air did occafion the effed^s pro-
duced. But fuch an explanation would not account for
the marks of fufion on the iron of the wheels, nor for
the hair of the horfes being ftnged, nor for the fkin of
Lauder's body having been burnt in feveral places.

6. From thefe different circumflances his Lordfhip is
of opinion, that the cffeAs proceeded from eledbicity ; .
and that 110 eUSrieal Jire did fafi immediatelyr either
from tlie clouds into the cart, or from the cart into the
clouds. Fron^ the circular holes in the ground, of
about 20 inches diameter, the refpe^ive centres of
which were exadly in the track of each wheel, and the
correfponding marks of fufion in the iron of the wheels^

it is evident that the eledrical fire did pafs from the
earth to the cart, or fi-om the cart to the earth, through
that part of the iron of the wheels which was in con-
tad^ with the ground. From the fplinters which ha4
been thrown off in many places, particularly where
the timber was conned ed by^nails or cramps of iron,
and from various other effedts mentioned in Mr . B17.
done's account* it is evident, that tliere muft have
been a great commotion in the electrical fluid in all, or
at leaft in different parts of the cart, and in the bodies of
the man and horfes, although there were no lightning.

7. All thefe phenomena, his lordfliip argues, may
be explained io a fatisf^^ctory manner from the dodrinc

I already

L I G [

Jtightning. Jtrtstiy had down concerning the retimung ibroke. Be-
"^ ^ * fore entering upon the fubjeiSi. of the nuun explolion,

however, he takes notice of the other phenomena al-
ready mentioned in Mr Brydone*8 account.

With regard to the cafe of the Uunb, his lordftiip is
of opinion, that it belongs to the moft fmiple dafs of
returning ftrokes, vh. that which happens at a place
where there is neither thunder nor lightning near ; and
that it may be produced by the fudden removal of the
elaflic de^rical preflure of the eledrical atmofphere of
z Jingle main cloud, as well as of an afTcmblage of clouds*
It appears (fays he) by Mr Brydone's account^ that
the ihepherd who faw the lamb fall, was near enough
to it to feel, in a Imall degree, the eledrical returning
ftroke at the fame time that the lamb dropped down.
—The blow which the woman received on the foot
was unqueftionably the returning flroke. When a
perfon walking, or ftanding, out of doors, is knock-
ed down or killed by the returning ftroke, the elec-
trical £re muft rufh in, or ru(h out, as the cafe may be,
through that perfon'a feet, and through them only ;
which would not be the jcafe were the perfon to be
killed by any main ftroke of explofion cither pofitive
Mf negative.

8« In order to account for the manner in which the
man and horfes were killed, hislordihippremifes, that,
according to Mr Brydone's account, the doud muft
have been maoy miles in length $ inafmuch as juft be-
fore the report, the lightning was at a conftderable di*
Aance, viz. between five and fix miles. The loud re-
port refembled the firing of feveral muikets fo clofe to-
gether, that the ear could fcarcdy feparate the founds,
and was followed by no rumbling notfe like the other
daps. This indicates, that the explofion was not hi
^ftant, and likewife that it was not extremdy near :
for, if the explofion bad been very near, the ear could
not at all have feparated the foimds.
IfTi^efit ^' ^^ "• "°^ fuppofe a doud, eight, ten, or
by which twelve miles in length to be extended over the earth,
lie accounts and let another cloud be fituated betwixt that and the
£<>^J*»«J>hc- earth ;. let them alfo be fuppofed charged with the fame
"*'"""' kind of ele<?>ridty, and both pofitive. Let us farther
&ppoie the lower cloud to be near the earth, only a
little beyond the ftriking diftance ; and the man, cart,
;and hoHes, to be fituated under that part of the cloud
which is next tlie earth, and to be exadlly asdeCcribed
by Mr Brydone, viz, near the fummit of an hill, and
followed by another a little farther down ; and let us
iuppofe the two clouds to be near each other juft over
the place where the man and horfes are ; Let the re
9iote end of tlie doud approadi the earth, and dif-
charge its deHricity into it. In this cafe the follow-
ing effed^s will take place.

lO. When the upper cloud difcharges its electricity
jnto the earth from the remote end, the lower cloud
will difcharge its dedricity into the nearer end of the
upper doud, which is fuppofed to be dire'^ly over the
place of the cart and horfes, or nearly fo. This ac-
counts for the loud report of thunder that was unac-
companied by lightning. The report muft be ioud
from its being near ^ but no fi^hthing could be percei-
ved, by reafon of the thick doud fituated immediately
between the fpedbitor and the fpace betwixt the two
clouds where the lightning appears.

ti. As the lower doud gradually approached to-
muA\ th/s earthy that, part of the latter where the man

iwoMoa.

66 ] L I G

and horfes were, muft of courfe become fuperinduced L^htnbgi
bv the elaftic de^rical preffure of the de&rical atmof- ^•^■■V^
phere of the thunder-cloud ; which fuperinduced elaftic
eledrical preffure muft gradually have increafed as the
doud came dofer to the earth, and approached nearer
to the limit of the ftriking diftance.

12. Hence, if any conducing body (not having
prominent or conduding points) vrere to be placed
upon the furface of the earth, and there dedricsdly in*
fulated ; then fuch conducing body, by the laws of
de£iricity, muft, at its upper extremity (namely the
part neareft to the pofitive cloud) become tugatm ;
at its lower extremity it muft become pofuvoe ; and,
at a certaun intermediate p<Mnt, it will be neither //»/
nor minus. This infulated conduding body, thus fita*
ated, wiU be in three oppofite ftates at the fame time,
that is to fiiy, it will be, at the fame time, pofitivdy
dedrified, negatively dedrified, and not eledrified at
alL-»-For a demonftration of this propofition, his lord-
fhip refers to his Principles of Eledricity ; but it is a
generally known and eftaUifhed hJBi in de6ridty.

13. If this condu^ng body on the furfiice of the
earth be not infulated, or be but imperfefUy infulated,
then the whole of fuch body, from its being immerged
in the ele6lrical atmofphere of the pofitive cloud, will
become negative ; becaufe part of the eledricity of the
condudling body will in this cafe pafs i;ito the earth |
and the condudUng body will become the more nega-
tive as it becomes the more deeply immerged into die
denfe part of the elaftic ele^cal atmofphere of the
approaching tliunder-cloud.

14. When the lower doud comes fuddenly to- di(^
charge with an explofion its fuperabundant eledlridty
into the upper one, then the elaftic eledrical atmo-
fphere of the former will ceafe to exift ; confequently
the dedrical fluid, which had been gradually expelled
into the common ftock from the conduding body on
the furface of the earth, muft, by the fudden removal
of the fuperinduced elaflic ele6brical preffure of the
eledrical atmofphera of the thunder-doud, fuddenly re-
turn from the earth into the faid conduding body,
producing a violent commotion fimilar to the pungent

, fiiock of a Leyden jar in its fenfation and effeds. j^

1 5. This, which his lordfhip calls the ekSrkal re» Snjppofe^
turning Jroke^ he fuppofes to have been what killed the ^^^ •^
man and horfes in the prefent cafe, they having he-?^^^^^
come ftrongly negative before the explofion. The

man, according to Mr Brydone*s account, was fitting
when he received the ftroke, and his legs were hang-
ing over the fore parfof the cart at the time of theeX'>
plofion. I'he returning ftroke, therefore, could noC
enter his body through the legs ; and this accounts for
the (kin of his legs not having been at all burnt or
fhrivelled, as the (kin was on many other parts of his
body ; and it likewife (hows the reafon why the xig«
zag line, which was terminated by the chin, did aoa
extend lower than the thi^h.

16. Mr Brydone hkewife informs us, that the hair
of the horfes was much finged over the greateft part
of their bodies, but was moft perceptible on the bd-

ly and legs. This is eafily accounted for by the re- ' • .
turning ftroke ; for the lower part of the bodies oF
thefe animals muft of courfe have been more affeded
than any other part, as the eledrical fire muft have
rufhed fuddenly into their bodies through their legs,.
which bad made a deep impreffi«a on (he tluft*

t 1 o r ^7 1 L I o

XAgfctnln^ ly; The various tSe&$ produced on tlie qat majr greater ratio than the ftreugth of the mala ftrokefifomtho t.ightn^

be explained alfo from the returning ftroke with equal chargredbody producing the elafUc eledbical atmofphero^' »

facility. The fpb'ntcrs were thrown oflF by reafon of Aiper^j^duced* Thus, let us attempt to produce the re-gt^^pg^ ^

the interruption of good condu^lors ; the wood being turning ftroke^by means of a metallic conductor of about the return-

a much lefs perfe6l condu6^or than the iron. It is al-
fo evidenty that it was the e]e6):rical returning fire that
produced the marks of fufion on that part of the iron
of the wheels which was in conta£^ with the gaoiind ;
iaafmuch as the whole eledricity, at the inftant of the
explo^fiont did enter at thefe places.-

1 8. No perfon in the leaft verfed in the principles

of eledbricity can helitate to aifent to the propofition,

that the eledkrical returning ftroke mud exill under

circumflances fimilar to thole explained above ; , but it

may be obje£led, as the reviewers formerly did, that

the quantity of ele€bicity naturally contained in the

body of a man, &c. is by far too fmall to produce fuch

violent effefls. For an anfwcr to this obje6lion, his

lordfhip refers to his book : By way of corroboration!

^^ however, he makes the following remarks.

Great '9- No perfon can reafonably conclude, that the

ftrength of force of a returning ftroke muft always be weak when

in*" ftrok' " P'^""^ ^T ^^« difturbed elearical fluid of a man's

In^crtain ^^Y^ ^Y ^afon that a man's body contains but a fmall

20 or 2 1 inches in length and of about two inches in u^ff .^^^^
diameter $ and by ineaas of another metallic body of*?"*"^^^
equal dimenfions placed parallel to the prime conduc- ^^^
tor, juft out of the limit of the ftriking diftance ; and
let the prime condu^or be charged by one of thecom«
mon glafs globes of lefs than nine inches in diameter;
the returning ftroke in this cafe will be fo weak, that
it can hardly be faid to exift : but if the experiment be
made by means of a large cylinder, and by means of »
metallic prime condu6^or of about three feet fbiif
inches long, by nearly foUr inches and an half diame-
ter, and alfo by means of another metaUic body of
equal dime.nfions with this prime conductor, then there
will be no kind of comparifon betwixt the ftrcngth of
the returning fti*oke obtained out of the ftriking dr-
ftance, and the ftrength of the main ftroke received
immediately from the prime c;ondu£^or ; the fharpnefs
and pungency of the returning ftroke being fo much
fuperior. The returning ftroke in this cafe is L'ke thd
fudden difcharge of a weakly eleftrified Leyden jar,
caTes. quantity of eleAricity : for it has never been proved provided due attention be paid to the ndes for ob-
that a man's body contains only a fmall quantity of taining a ftrong returning ftroke.
electrical fluid ; neither is there the fmalleft reafon to 21. In the cafe of a returning ftroke, the ftrength
believe fuch an hypothefls, which appears, on many depends, according to his lordlhip's hypotheils, not fd
accounts, to be completely erroneous ; and if thai by- much on the quantity of the ele^ric fluid, as on its vr-
pothefis be erroneous, the obje6Uon to the ftrength of /ori/v ; whence alfo it depends lefs on the quantity 0/
an ele6trical returning ftroke remains altogether un- fur&ce ufed than on the ftrength of the eledrical pref.
fupported by atgument. ** When a body is faid to fure of the elaftic eledrical atmofphere fuperinduce<)
hepltu or pofitive (fa^s his lordfhip), it ftmply means, upon the body ftruck previous to the explofion. But
that the body contains more than its natuial fliare of the eledrical prefTure of the elaftic eledin'cal atmo-
ele6kricity, but does not fay that it is completely fatu* fphere of the ^eat thunder-cloud which produced the
rated with it. In like manner, when a body is faid to mifchief on the prefent occafion, muft have been im«
be minus or negative^ it only figniflea, that the body menfely greater than that of a metallic prime conduc-
contains left than its natural fhare of electricity ; but tor y and it is not furpriiing that the effefls fhould be
does not imply that fuch body is completely exhaufted proportioned to the cauies.

of the electricity which it contains in its natural fl!ate« 22. His lord/hip next accounts for the returning \(r])y ^

** Now (fays he), the ftrength of natural eleCtricity isfo ftroke not being felt by the man who followed Lau-returnJii^

immenfe, when compared with the very weak effeCtsof der'ft cart. This, he thinks, may in fome degree bc^'oke was

our largeft and beft contrived eleCtrical machines, that accounted for by the latter having been higher up the "^^ ^^^^ **'

bank ; though it may better be done by fuppofing the who drove
cloud to have been pending nearer the earth over the the feconA
fpot where Lauder was killed, than over the place ^*^«
where his companion was ; for, in order to receive a
dangerous returning ftroke, it is neceflary that he
fliould be immerged, not merely in the cloud's atmo-
fphere, but in the denfe part of the cloud's electrical
atmofphere. It may alfo be accounted for by fuppo-
fing that the fecond cart were either better conne^ed
with the common ftock, or better infulated ; for either
of thefe circumftances will weaken a returning ftroke
prodigioufly. Now Mr Bry done mentions, that there had
been an almoft total \^^nt- of rain for many months^
He alfo fays, that the ground, at the place where Lau-
der was killed, was remarkably dry, and of a gravelly
foil. This ftate of the ground was particularly adapted
to the production of the 'eleCtncal returning ftroke^
when produced upon the lar?e fcale of nature, where
the elfdtic eleCtrical preflure is fo powerfid.

To thefe arguments adduced by his lordfhip for the
exiftenct and ftrength of the eleCtncal returning ftroke*

1 conceive we cannot, by means of artificial eleCtricity,
expel, from a man's body, thoufandth, or perha;p8 the
ten-thoufandth part of the eleCtrical ftuid which it
contains when in its natural ftate."

20. An hypothefis which eafily accounts for any na-
tural phenomenon has a much better claim to our atten-
tion than an oppofite one, which prevents it from being
intelligibly explained. There is no reafon to conclude
that any ele^rkal machine, of any given fize, is ca*
pable of rendering a conduCtin? body either completely
plus or completely minus ; but rac otherwife. And it
would have been as logical for any perfon fome years
ago (when eleCtrical machines were not brought to
their prefent flate) to have maintained, that thofe ve-
ly imperfeft machines were capable of rendering a body
completely pofitive or completely Mgatite^ as for us to pre-
tend to do it at this day. We evidently have not,
with onr machines, even approached the limit of elec-
trical ftrength, particularly in refpeCt to the returning
ftroke : for it is remarkable, that, by the laws of elec-
tricity, thf ftrength of the eleCtrical returning Jroke^

near the limit of the ftriking diftance, does increaf&in » we fhall add an account of fome experiments publifhed

I 2 . *i*

L I G

r 68 T

L I O

eiperi
oientt.

lightning. Jn the Gentleman's Magazine for iVS^.' They were
' - ' ■■ made with an infulated rod of iron of confiderable
p ^? length, rifing fome feet higher than a common, con*
mems with ^"^^r placed at the other end of the houfe, A fet
an infuia- of bells were affixed to the former, which in a thunder
ted condac-ilorm, even when the thunder was four or five miles:
**• diflantjy were rung by the electricity of the atmofphcrc j

but whenever a flaih of lightning burft from the cloud,
even though at tlie diftancc juft mentioned, the Jam£
Jlo/hf according to our author, paffed through the
condu^ar alfo, and the bells ceafed to ring fomettmes
for feveral feconds ; then they began again, and
continued to ring till they were flopped by another
flafh. This fiafh which paffed thro* the condudtor was
undoubtedly what earl Stanhope caUs the returning
firoke ; of which we muit now give fome explanation :
And in confidering the whole dodrine'of that firoke,.
together with the particular explanation laid down by
his lordfbip, the following obfervations naturally oc-
cur.

1 . In the experiments made by his lordfhip to de-
j. monflrate the exiflence of the returning firoke, there

Bertptk^m is adeception, of which the reviewer^ take notice>Wz.
in Earl ^ that the man touches a large prime condudlor, which,
^^opc 8 |jy ^Yit operation of the machine, becomes negatively
ele^rified as well as himfelf. Hence when the dlf-
charge is made, all the fire returning to that conduc-
tor mufl pafs through his body a^ well as that of which
his body itfelf is fuppofed to be deprived ; and tlu's,
though no other caufe intervened, mufl nearly double
the flrength of the fhock. To make the experiment
more fairly, it would be neceffary to take away this fe-
cond condudlor, and let the man only touch the brals
ball communicating \vith the earth.

2. In this experiment there is another deception^
not taken notice of by the reviewers, *ot%. that any
body immerfed in a pofitive eledrical atmofpliere be-
comes negative. Hence the fecond condudlor, by be-
ing applied to the air pofitively eledrified by the ma-
chine, becomes almofl as flronzly negative as if another
machine had been applied to it on purpofc % and this
negative eledricity will be the flronger in proportion
to the flrength of eledricity in the air furrounding it.
Again, it is well known that a plate of air may be
charged by means of two fmooth pieces- of metal held
at a fmall diflance from each other, one of them con-
neded with an ele^rical machine, and the other with
the earth. Now fuppofing, inHead of the ufual com*
munication, that a man flanding upon an infulating
flool, held the lower metallic plate in one hand^ and
with the other hand touched the earthy or a conduc-
tor communicating with it, it is plain ^ that by touch-
ing the upper plate, the eledricity acquired by th^ air

2^ between them would be difcharged, and that the man

Returning would feci what earl Stanhope calls the returning

5^5^^ "^* Jiroie; but which in truth is the fhock of a charged

Iroin dlat ^^^^"^ fubflance, and would therefore be proportion-

of a char- aibly pungent. Now, in his lordfliip's experiments, the

gcdphiaL two condudor« anfwer exadily to the two metallic

phtes above mentioned ; the air between them r^eives

a charge, and is difcharged by the explolion from the

prime condudor, becaufe this conductor forms one of

the charging plates. . It is true, that the round fhape

9f the condudiors renders them unfavourable for try*

ing the experiment \ and this is one reafon why it re-

quires a great po\rer of eledlricity to make the rctufn-I/gh^nmsr.
ing firoke fenfible. The thicknefs of the plate of air — v *""^
interpofed betwixt the two condudiors is another rea-
fon : but tliia makes no difference as to the principles ;
for his lordfhip's experiment, is undoubtedly no other
than that of the Leydcn phial Were his lordfhip to
life two flaft plates inftead of rouad condudiors, the ds!-
ception would then be removed ; aiid we may venture
to determine a priori^ that the returning firoke would
then be not only very fevere, but even dangerous^ witb
a very powerful machine and large plates.

3., Though tlie fecond cundudlor were entirely re-
moved, yet there would flill be a deception in this
experinxMit, for then the furface of the man's body
would adl in (bme meafure as one of the metallic
p1atc&; fo tint llill the experiment would be on the*
principles of the Leydeir pliial, though much weaker
than before. ' -

4. In order to make this experiment abfolutely with-^^^ ^^.^
out deception, the man fliould fland upon the gxiound exi erinymt
without touching any thing ; and in that cafe we may ft»o»W be
venture to affirm, that he would fed no returning P'®^^
fhock. His being infidated varies the nature of the
experiment entirely, as will eaiily be underilood fronv

the following confiderations;

Under the article ELECTRtciTV, we have- fhown,^\notiier
that pofitive eledlricity does not confifl in an accumuIa-'Ct^isLnztiyn
tionf nor negative eledlricity in a deficiency ^ of the fluid; °f ^^^ V^"
bttt that all eledlric phenomena are to be accounted °**^^*^"^
for from the mere motion of the fluid, and that tlus mo-
tion is always a circulation. We have fhown, that ii>
the working of a common machine, the tlledlric fluid
comes from the earth ; that it is accumulated around
the prime condudlor; evaporates in the air; and i»
then filently abforbed by the earth, and recondudled
to the machine. Hence, in the charging of a machine
which works pofitively, the earth, and all bodies on its
furface, for fome way round, are in a negative flate ;
becaufe they are then abforbing the eledlrical fluid from-
the atmofphere. That part of the earth indeed di-
redlly under the feet of the machine, and perhaps fome
little way farther, is pofitive; becaufe it is giving out
eledlricity: but the negative portion, will be much*
more extenfive. When the condudlor isr difcharged
by a fpark, then the circulation ceafes in a great
meafure by thecoUifion of the two oppofite flreamsof
eledlric matter. All bodies on the furface of the earth,,
then, as far as it w^as negatively eledlrified, mull receive
what his lordfhip calls the returning Jlroke: but the elec-
tricity being difFufcd among fuch a number, and over
fuch a wide extent, it is ho wonder that it fhould be
infenfible. If, however, we infukte a large condudl-^
ing body, and then make another part of it communi-
cate with the earth by means of a good condudlor, we
inflantly put it in a fituation fit for tranfmitting more
than its fhare of the eledlricity of the atmofpbere, and
reducing it to the flate of the infulated rubber of an
eledlrical machine, through which the whole quantity
of eledlricity nUifl pafs to the phial held towards it, in
order ta be charged negatively. In proportion to this
quantity tranfmitted the fhock mufl be, not becaufe the
condudlor has loll a large fliare of its n^i/i/m/ eledlricity,
but becaufe a large quantity is artificially made to pafs
through it. We may therefore fafely venture to affcrt^
that| in thunder ftormsi unlefs a body tran*fmits nutr^

than

t T a

IJghtRing^. than its ^fiaHtral proportion of ele^nc itiatter, no ihock
•■" w will be felt, much Icfs can the perfon be killed.

** , - 5. In his explanation of the accident which hap-
^hich"^!^ pened to Lauder, his lordfhip i« reduced to the _?reat-
cur in his ^^ difficulty, a,nd makes one of the moft unphilotophi-
l.ordfhip*8 cal fl^ifts in the world ; no Itfs than that of arranging
kypcthclii. the clouds of heaven^ not according to fa»E^, but accord-
ing to his own imagination. He fuppofes the exiil-
ahce of two clouds, one below the other ; and afcribes
to them various motions and fituations, which we have
already taken notice of: but who knows whether fuch
clouds ever exifled ? His Lordfhip does not pretend
that any body ever faw tht:ni 5 and thus he runs into
what is termed by logicians a viaous circle ; he firft
alFumes data, purpoftrly made to accord with his hy-
potheiis, and then proves the hypothefis from the
data.

6. Granting the arrangement of the clouds, and
every thing that his lordfhip defires, the main requifite
is ilill wanting, viz. a flafh of lightning at a diflance
to produce the returning ftroke. According to him,
the diilant fla{h and returning ftroke muft be fimul-
taneous ; but Mr Br)'done mentions no fuch thing :
on the contrary, there had been no flafh for fome
Httle time before ; and the immenfe velocity of the
ele£lric fluid will not allow us to fuppofe that it would
take up the ufual time betwixt thunder-claps in travel-
ling five or fix miles.

7. His lordfliip accounts for no lightning being feen
at the time of the explofion in a very arbitrary and
unnatural manner, by fuppofing it to have proceeded
from a difcharge of the one imaginary cloud into the
other ; and that it was not Jeen on account of the
thicknefs of the lower cloud, A much more natural
fuppofition muft be, that it happened below the cart-
wheels, but was not feen on account of its being day-
light, and the cloud of -duft which it raifed. The
fucceflion of noifes^ too, indicated a fucceifion of explo-
iions, the flaflies of Which would be lefs eafily obferved
than a fingle large one.

8. It feems altogether impoffible, that the refurn of
]any quantity of naiural ele^ricity into a body fhould
fliatter that body to pieces. In the prefent cafe> the
fire entered by a fmall part of the iron of the wheels,
and this part was melted. His lordfhip does not he-
iitate to o\yn, that the fufion was a proof that the whole
fire belonging to the cart, man, and horfes, or at kail
to the cart and man, had entered by this part of the
wheels, and confequently more than naturally belonged
to that fmall part of iron. The fame evidence, how-

• ever, will hold good with regard to every other part.
We grant that the fire entered the man's body by his
right thigh : this might have therefore been burnt by
receiving the fire belonging to the whole body ; but it
ought then to have quietly diffufed itfelf through the
other parts of his body, or at leafl if any damage had
" >k been done, it ought to have been done only to the in-
ternal parts. Inftead of this, a broad zig-zag line
upon his body indicated a vafl quantity of ele^ric
matter running along the furface without entering the
body at all. In like manner, his hat being torn in
pieces, indicated a violent explofion of eleiStric matter
at his head, where there ought to have been little or
no explofion, as none could be wanted there except
wliat the hot had parted with 5 and it 13 ridiculous to fup-

€9 ] X I a

pofe t\i2X hcUi part with fuch quantities olT'eledricity Lightmog'.
as would tear them in pieces by hs return. The ' ^.
fhivering of the cart, the burning and throwing
about of the coals, and all the other circumfbmces of
the cafe, alfo point out in the cleareft manner, not a
quantity of ele^lric matter returning to fupply any
natural deficiency, but an enormous explofion of that
matter from the earth overwhelming and deflroying
whatever flood in its way. That two explofions were
made from the earth is very evident, becaufe there
were two holes in it ; and the very fize of thefe holes
indicates a much greater difcharge of eleftricity than
we can reafonably fuppofe to have been lofl by the
man, horfes, and cart.

We ftiall now confider the experiment quoted from phen^nena
the correfpondent in the Gentleman's Magazine. Thefe, of thcinfn-
as well as the accident under confideration, undoubt--*ated thun-
edly fhow, that, during the time of a thunder-llorm, '^^''^f^***
both atmofph'ere ai}d earth are affedled for a very con- f^,.^ '
fiderable way. With regard to the quantity of this
eledlrical affc6lion, however, though it mufl undoubt-
edly bcexccllivc when taken all together, we can by
no means agree that it is fo taken partially. From
an experiment related in the Magazine above quoted,
it appears, that the ele<£lricity <yf a violent thunder-
florm extends fometimes over a circle of 100 miles
diameter ** Eledbricity (fays the author) feldom ap-
peared without a fhower ; but I was furprifcd, on the
5th of June 1784^ that the beHs rang with thin and
very high clouds, and without; the lesS appearance of
rain, till the next poft brought me an account of a
violent thundei^orm, and very deflru£live hail, at a
village 50 miles diilant*" We cannot by any means
fuppofe, that all this fpace was electrified like a charged
phial ; otherwife, grrcat as the explofions of lightning
arc, they would ftill be much greater. This is evi-
dent even in our ele^rical machines. A fingle phial
may be charged much higher than a battery, as ap-
pears by the eledlrometer ; but the battery, though
iefs charged, will have incomparably more power than
a fingle phial. His lordfhip appears to have deceived
himfelf in this matter, by miilaking the extent of the
eleClrified furface for the quantity of charge in every
part of it. The furface of the earth in a thunder- q^^jJ^
ilorm is exaftly fimilar to that of a charged conduttor. nt^ „f l"^^*
According to the extent of ele£lrified furface, the tr'city in
fpark will be great or fmall ; and jufl fo it is with i" «ny g|-
lightning, for fonw kinds of it are much more dcilruc- 'J" Portion
tive than others. In e^ll cafes, however, the quantity e^rih'« fur-
of ele6lricity in a particular fpot is very incon fiderable. face.
Lightning ftrikes bodies, not becaufe they are highly
ele^rified, but becaufe they afford a communication
betwixt the atmofphere and fome place below the
furface of the earth. This flroke is the aggregate of
the whole electricity contained in a circle of probably
many miles in* diameter ; but the returning ilroke, if
bodies are in their natural ilate, can only be in pro-
proportion to the quantity of electricity in each fub-
ilance contained within that fpace. It is in fact the
light ning itfelf diffufed through the earth which makes
the returning ftroke ; and it is impoffible that every
fubflance within two or three miles of the explofion
can receive the whole flafh, or another equal to it.
It is only in cafes where the quantity of eledricity^
diffufed through a great fpace^ happens to dif<^har«re
a iti'df

I. I t 70

IM^tniiig. itf«IF (hrovg^ % huBMR body or eth« ooftduding fub«
'— ' ftance of no great bulk, that the efF<(6is upon the latter
can be any way confiderabk. This wad undoubtedly
the cafe with the thunder-rod mentioned by the corre-
fpondent in the Magazine ; for it received either froni
tlic atmofphere or from the earth, at the time of every
flaih, the whole quantity of eledricity which had been
diffufed for a confiderabk way round. Pointed Bodies,
We know, draw off eleftricity very powerfully ; info-
much that an highly charged jar may be deprived of
almoft all its power by merely prefenting a needle to
It. We can be at no lofs tlierefore to underftand
why a pointed conductor (hould draw off the electrici-
ty from a large portion of the furface of the earth, or
from a conliderabk portion of atmofphere.

We mull now, however, inquire into the reafon of
ihefe appearances of fparks in places at fuch diftance
from the explofion of the lightning. To underftand this,
we mull always keep in our eye that principle fo fully
explained under the article Electricity, viz. that
there never is, nor can be, a real deficiency of the elc^ric
fluid in any fubilance or in any place. It is to be
confidered as an abfolute plenum^ and of confequence
' it can have no other motion than a circulatory one.
At every difcharge of lightning therefore from the
clouds into the* earth, or from one cloud into another,
there mud be a return of the fame quantity to thofe
clouds which have made the difcharge. In the vafl
extent of eledirified furface, fome part of thefe re-
turns mud undoubtedly be made at ereat diftances
from the place where the exploiion of lightning hap-
pens. As long as matters remain in their natural ilate,
the eledlric matter will return by innumeraUe paf-
fages in fuch fmall ftreams, that no perceptible effe^
upon any fingle fubftance can' take place. But if a
body be fo fituatedi that a large portion of the ekdric
matter mufl return through it from the earthy then
fuch body will undoubtedly be more affe^ed by every
flafh than the reft of the fubflances around it ; and if
the communication with the earth be interrupted, a
flafh of fire will be perceived betwixt the conducing
fubftance and the earth at the tiiiie that a flafh burfts
out from the cloud. The ftrength of fuch a flafh»
however, muft by no means be fuppofed equivalent to
that of the mam ftroke of lightning, unlefs we could
fuppofe the whole eledirical power of the vaft circk
already mentioned to be difcharged through the con-
.j du£^or.
Particular But though this may explain the reafon of the
eiplanntion fparks or flafhes obferved in the cafe of the thundcr-
dt^ *^^* rod juft mentioned, we cannot from this principle ac-
count for the accident which befel the man and horfes.
There was indeed at that time a very violent emiffion
of ele^ricity from the ^arth, but no diftant flafh of
lightning happened at the fame moment with it, to
expel the ekdtricity from the earth. It appears there-
fore, that the eledricity had in this cafe been accu-
mulating in the earth itfelf, in a manner iimikr to
that which produces earthquakes ; and which is fully
explained under that article. The thunder-ftorm was
the natural means employed to fupply that part of the
earth with eledricity, which was in the flate of
charging; and the moment that the quantity thusfup-
l>lied was thrown back, all figna of eledricity muft

1 L I G

ceafe, at muck ai when that thrown la uma om fide l^^bteiaf;
of a Leydcn phial is again thrown off. Hence, when
the flafh burft out of the earth, and killed the ^ifian
and horfes, that portion of earth which abfbrbed the
eledricity till then, required it no longer; and of
confequence the thunder-ftorm occadoned by thitf jib*
forption naturally ceafed.

That this difpofition to an earthquake did really
prevail in the earth at that time, is evident from the
tremor which Mr Bell felt on the ground when walk-
ing in his garden. The ftroke which the woman re-
ceived on the foot, the death of the lamb, and nv'
doubt many fimilar circumftancest concurred to fhovr
that there was an attempt to reftore the equilibrtum
from the earth, as has been already rekted. The
iame difpofition to an earthquake, however, was af-
terwards renewed ; and on the 1 1 th of Auguft that fame
year, a fmart fhock of an earthquake did adually take
pkce, as Mr Brydone informs us in the fame paper.

Befides the different kinds of lightning already
treated of, it is by no means uncommon to fee flafhea
unattended by any report. Thefe ace always of the
fheet kind; they happen very frequently in windy
weather when the fky is clear ; and likewife when th«
iky is cloudy, immediately before a fall of rain or
faow. The general reafon of thefe appears to' be,
that the ele6knc fluid is the medium by which the
vapours are fufpended-in the atmofphere ; and of con-
ftquence, every (eparation of, vapour, whether as rain,
fnow, or haU, , muft be attended with what is called a
Sfiharge of eledrical matter. The reafon why this
kind of Ughtning is never attended with any report
is, that there is no particukr objed againfl which
the force of the flafh is direded ; but it diffipates it-
felf among the innumerable condu^ng bodies with
which the atmofphere always abounds. It is, how-
ever, in a manner impoifibk to expkin the various
waya iit which this fubtile fluid aAs. We know not*
for inftancc, in what ftate it is when ading aa a me-
dium of connexion betwixt the air and vapour, nor
in what its difehmrge into other parts of the atmofphere
properly confifts^ At any rate, we fee that a fkfh •£
lightning, however limited its extent may appear to
us, diffufes its effe^s over a great fpaee of atmo-
fphere ; for after one of thefe filent flafhes, it is no
uncommon thing to obferve the fky .to become ob-
fcure though it had been quite ferene before ; or, if
it had been cloudy, to fee rain or fnow begin to fall
in a very few minutes. It is probable indeed, that
there is no change whatever that can take place in
the atmofphere but by means of ekdlricity ; and there
is great reafon to believe, that the filent difcharges of
this fluid fronji one part of the atmofphere to another,
many of which are totally invifible, ultimately occa-
fion the whole of the phenomena of METBOROLOcr.
See that article.

Various parts of hk Lordfhip's Treatife on Elec- Dire&ooi
tricity, befides thofe. already quotedt tend to prove for co«-
the utility of high and pointed condu^lors, in prc-f"^'
ference to thofe which terminate in a haU^ or rotmd-
ed end. Towards the end of the performance, the
author difcuffes this matter very particulariy; and ent>-
merates the * nectary requifiies* in ere6ling thenv
in number 1 1 ; to eveiy one of which we readily

(ub-

L I G [71

laghcnitf^. fttbfcribe. As this matter is of a popdar nature, and
on a fubjeS generally intereftingy we (hall tranfcribe this
lift ; adding a (hort explanation to particular articles,--^
Thefe requifites (fays the author) are 1 1 in number,

* ifty That the rod be made of fuch fubftances
as arty in their nature, the befl conduSors ofeleSrtciiy*

« 2dly, That the rod be wunterruf^cd^ and perfealy
continuous.* "This is a very material eircutnftance.
One entire piece of metal cannot perhaps be had : but -
k is not fufficient that the rods, of which the con-
du6tor confiftsy be fenjihly in contadl ; they Ihould be
pirefled into adual contaA by means of nuts and fcrews,
with a thin piece of (heet-lead between the fhoulders
of the joints.

« jdly, That it be of a fufficknt thicinefsJ^A.
copper rod half, an inch fquare> or an iron rod one inch
fquare, or one of lead two inches fquare, are thought
fully fuificient by the author.

* 4thly» That it be pcrfcflly conneAcd with the
common ftock.^ — That is, it ihould be carried deep
into the ea^h, which is frequently dry near the fur-
face ; and then continued in a horizontal dire6tion, fo
as to have the farther extreiftity dipped, fliould this be
pra^eable, into water, at the diftance of 10 yards or
more from the foundation.

* jthly. That the upper extremity of the rod be as
€tcute!v pointed as poiBble**— This termination /hould
be of copper $ or rather a very fine and exceedingly
acute needle of gold (hould be employed, which wiB
not materially add to the expence.

* 6thly, liiat it be very finely tapered :'*^fo that
the upper extremity may be a cone, the diameter of
the baiie of which may bear an extremely fmall pro-
portion to its height ; for inftance, that of one to
forty.

* ythly, That it be extremely prominent ;•— 'that
is, 8, 10, or 15 feet at leaft above the higheft parts
of the building. The author lays great flrefs on this
circumfUnce ; in confequence of the law above-men-
tioned, deduced by him firom his experiments, relating
to eledric atmofpheres« According to this law, the
denfity of an elef^nc atmofphere (the negative atmo-
fphere, for inftance, of the roof of a houfe, &c. while
9kp^tively charged cloud hangs over it) diminifhes in
the inverfe ratio oftht/quare of the diftance from the
iurface of the body to which that atmofphere belongs.
Accordingly, if Hat rod proje^ 1 2 feet into this atmo->
Iphere, it wiB reach to a part of it four times lefs
denfe than if the rod projcded only to half thtt di-
ftance, or fix feet ;^ and to a part one hundred and forty

Jour times rarer, than if it projeded only one foot-

* Stfaly, That each rod be carried, in the fhorteft
convenient dire6yon, from the point at its upper end,
to the common ftock.,

* 9tKly, That there be neither large nor prominent
bodies of metal upon the top of the building proposed.
to be fecured, but fuch as are conneded with th^
condu£kor, byfome proper metallic communication.

« lOthly,, That there be ?l fufficient number of high.
«nd pointed rods.' — On edifices of great importance,,
cfpecially magazines of gun-powder, the author thinks
ihefe ought never to be above 40 or 50 feet afunder.

« I ithly, That every part of the. rods be very fub-

L I d^

The author declares that he has • never been able Li^ta^Bj
to hear of a Jingle inftance, nor does he believe that ^ ''
any one can be produced, of an high^ tapering^ and a-
eiUely pointed TtitXsiSiliic condu£ior, having eveo in any
country, been ftruck by lightning ; if it had aU the
neceifary requifites abovementioned, efpecially the fe«
cond and fourth/ 3|

On the whole, it feems to be pretty certain, that V^^J,,^*'*
both pointed and knobbed metalline condut^ors *
have the power of preferving any body placed at a
fmall diftance from diem from being ftruck by light-
ning. This they do, not becaufe they can attraQ the
lightning far out of its way, but becaufe the refiftancc-
to its pafiage is always leaft on that fide where they
are ; and as pointed condu£lorB diminiih the refiftance
more confiderably than blunt ones, they feem in all
cafes to be preferable*— It appears, however, that a
fingle conduSor, whether blunt or pointed, is not ca-
pable of fecuring all the parts of a large building from
ftrokes of lightning; and therefore fevcral of thera
will be required for this purpofe : but to what diftance
their influence extends, hath not been determined, nor
docs it fccm eafily capable of beiiig afcertained.

It - now remains only to explain fome of the more Wby Kghto
uncommon appearances and eife6b of lightning. OneniDgf»me«
of thefc is, tiiat it is frequently obferved to kill al- ^l**]^^^!^
ternately: that is, fuppofing a number of people *"*^*^^
ftanding in a line ; if the firft perfon was killed, the
fecond perhaps would be fafe; the third would be

killed, and the fourth (afe $ the fifth killed, &c

EfFedls of this kind are generally produced by the moft
violently kind of lightning ; namely, that which ap-
pears in the form of balls, aud*which are frequently
feen to divide themfelves into feveral parts before they
ftrikc. If one of thefe parts of a fire-ball ftrike a
man, another will not ftrike the perfon who ftands
immediately dofe to him ; becaufe there is always a
repulfion between bodies eVedrified the fame way.
Now, as thefe parts into which the ball breaks have
all the fame kind of eledbicity, it is evident that they
mnft for that reafon repel one another ;. and this re-
pulfion is fo ftrong^, that a man may be interpoicd
within the ftroke of two ofthem, without being hurt
by either. ^^-

The other effeft of lightning* is mentioned under Why it
the article Jkrv SALE n, where thofe who attempted ^o"»«*»»«^
to rebuild the temple had the marks ofcroffeS im*^!^^^*
prefTcd upon their garments and bodies. This may the form*
reafonably be thoughf^o arife from the fame caufe to of a crolW
which' the angtdar appearance of lightning in the air
is owing, namely, its violent impetus and velocity,
together with the oppofition of the atmofphere. A
fmall ftroke of lightning, fometimee indeed a very con-
fid^rable one, cannot always enter the fubftance of ter-
reftrial bodies, even when it touches them, for reafons
already given. In this cafe it runs along their furface,
and,^ as iii its motion it is perpetually refifted by the
atmofphere, it undoubtedly has the fame angular mo-
tion which we often perceive in the atmofphere. If
fn this fituation it. happens to touch the human flcin,
or a garment, efpecially of linen, as being a condu^or^
it will' undoubtedly leave a mark upoh it; and this
mark being of a sig-zag form, might, in the above in-
!|iaKe9.1iate.bc«a either takcx^for the exadionn of a.

^CJROJV*-

L I G

C It \

L I O

X-iglirning crofs by the beholders, or have fuggcded that idea
, . II in relating the llorv to make it appear more won-

!!«""•"• dcrfui. . ■

Thefe obfervations may fcrve to give fome idea of
the nature of lightning, and its operations after it ap-
pears in its proper form and burAs out from the
cloud ; but for an jiccount of its original formation,
and of the poAvers by which the clouds are at firfl
electrified*, and their eledlricity kept up notwith-
llanding many fucceflive difcharges of lightning, and
the quantity of eledlric matter continually carried off
by tlie rain, &:c. fee the article Thunder.

Arttjicial LiGwtsiNG. Before the dlfcoveries of
Dr Franklin concerning the identity of ele^ricity
and lightning, many contrivances were invented in
order to reprefent this terrifying phenomenon in mi-
niature : the coruications of pholphorus in wafm wea-
ther, the accenfion of the vapour of fpirit of wine
evaporated in a clofiie place, Sca* were ufed in order to
fupport the hypothefis which at that time prevailed ;
namely, that lightning was formed of fome fulphu-
reous, nitrous, or other combuftible vapours, floating
in long trains in the atmofphere, which by fome un-
accountable means took fire, and produced all the
deftruftive effeAs of that phenomenon. Thefe reprc-
fentationst however, are now no more exhibited ;
and the only true artificial lightning is univerfally ac-
knowledged to be the difcharge of ele6lric matter from
bodies in which it is artificially fet in motion by our
machines.

Lightning was looked upon asfacred both by the
Greeks and Romans, and was fuppofed to be fent to
execute vengeance on the earth : Hence perfon^ kill-
ed with lightning, being thought hateful to the gods,
w«K buried apart by themfelves,' lefl the aihes of other
men (hould receive pollution from them. Some fay
they were interred upon the very fpot whete they died;
others will have it that they had no interment, but
were fuffered to jot where they fell, becaufe it was
unlawful for any man to approach the place. For
this reafon the ground was hedged in, left any perfon
unawares fhould contrail pollution from it. All
places ilruck with lightning were carefully avoided and
fenced round, out of an opinion that Jupiter had ei-
ther .'taken offence at them, and fixed upon them the
marks of his diipleafure, or that he had, by this mean8»
pitched upon them as (acred to himfelf. . The ground
thus fenced about was called by the Romans lidetitu!*
Lightning was much obferved in augrury, and was a
good oi bad omen, according to the circumftances at>
tending it.

LIGNICENCIS TERRA, in the materia medica^
tfie name of a fine yellow bole dug in many parts of
Cjermany, particularly about Emeric in the circle of
Wellphalia,. and ufed in cordial and ailringent conj-
plaints.

LIGNUM viT-s. See Gu aiacum*

Lu.suM Aloes. Sec Exco£caria>

Lignum Nethrllkum* See Guilandina.

Lignum RboiHuniy or Roftwoody in the materia me-
dica ; a wood, or root, chiefly brought to us from the
Canary iflands. The writers on botany and the ma-
teria medica are much divided about the lignum rho-
dium, not only with regard to the plant which affords
it, butlikewife in their accounts of the drug itfe'lf, and

have defcribed, under this name, fimples tnanifeftly
different. This confufion feems to have arifen from an
opinion, that the rhodium^ and the afpatathtu (an ar-
ticle of confiderable efteem among the ancients, but
with regard to which the moderns are very much at a
lofs), are the fame ; whence different woods brought
into Europe for« the unknown afpalathus, were fold
again by the name of rhodiumm

In thofe modem pharmacopoeias which admit the
lignum rhodium, different Linnaean names are at pre-
fent given to it : thus the authors of the Difpenfa-
torium Brunfvicenfe fuppofe it to be the Rhodiola rofa of
Linnseus; and thofe of the Pharmacopoeia Roffica,
the Genijia Canaricnfis, As to Afpalathus^ the andents,
themfelves difagree ; Diofcoridcs meaning by this ap-
pellation the wood of a certain fhrub freed from the
bark, and Galen the bark of a root. At prefent we
have nothing under this n^me in the fhops. ^Vhat
was heretofore fold among us as afpalathus, were pie-
ces of a pale*coloured wood brought from the Eaii
Indies, and more commonly called calambour.

The afpalathus, calambour, and lignum aquils, are
fuppofed to be woods of the nature of agallochum, or
lignum aloes, but wcakef' in quality. The lignuna
rhodium of the fhops is ufually in long crooked pieces,
full of knot«, which when cut appear of a ycUow co-
lour like box, with a reddifh caft : the largefc* imooth-
eft, mofl compa^^, and deepefl coloured pieces, fhould
be chofen ; and the fmall, thin, or pale ones, rejeded#
The tafle of this wood is lightly bitterifli, and fome-
what pungent ; its fmell is very fragrant, refembling
that of rofes : long kept, it feems to lofe its fmell %
but on cutting, or rubbing one piece Againfl the other,
it fmelk as well as at firfl. JDiftilled witb w^er, it
yields an odoriferous effential oil, in very fmall quan-
tity. Rhodiiun*is at prefent in efleeni only upon ac-
count of its oil, which is employed as an high and a«-
greeable perfume in fcenting pomatums and the like.
But if we may reafon from analogy, this odoriferous
fimple might be advantageoufly applied to more
ufcful purpofes ; a tio6lure of it in redlified fpirit of
wine, which contains in fmall volume the virtue of 9
confiderable deal of the wood, bids fair to prove a fer-
viceable cordial; np^ inferior perhaps to any thing of
this kind.

Lignum Campechenfe. See HematoxiluM, .

Lignum Colubrinum. See Ophiorhiza.

LIGULATED, among^otanilb, an appellation,
given %o fuch flofcules as have ^ flraight end turned
downwards,, with three indentures, but not feparated
into fegmentsu

LIGURIA (anc. geog* ), a country of Italy, bound-
ed on the fouth by the Mediterranean -fea, on the
north by the Appennine mountains, on the weft by
part of Tranfalpine Gaul, and on the eaii by Etruria.
There is a great difagreement among authors concerur
ing the origin of the Ligurians though moft pro*
bably they were defcended from the Gauls. Some
carry up their origin as far as the fabulous heroes of
antiquity ; while others trace them from the Ligyes,
a people mentioned by Herodotus as attending Xerxes
in his expeditions againil Greece. Thefe Ligyes ar^
by fome ancient geographers placed in Colchis ; by
others, in Albania.— According to Diodorus Siculus^
tjie Ligurians led a very wretched li/c) their country

being

L I G [73

X.(jp]iyeiiin,1>eing entirely overgrown with woods, wKxch they
X^iguftruin. ^^re obliged to pull up by tha- root» in order to cul-
* " ■' tivate their land, which was alfo encumbered with
great ftonesy and, being naturally barrefly made but
very poor returns for all their labour. They were
much addi6^ed to hunting | and, by a life of continual
exercife and labour, became fo fbrone»that the weakeft
Ligurian was generally an overmatch for the ftrongeft
and moft robuft among the Gauls. The women are
faid to have been almoft as ftron? as the men, and to
have borne an equal fliare in all laborious enterprifes*
With all their bravery, however, they were not able
to refift the Roman power ; but were fubdued by that
"virarlike nation, about Hi B. C.

LIGUSTICUM, LOVAGE, in botany : A genus of
the digynta order, belonging to the pentandria dais of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th ordcr^ Umhellats. The fnlit isoblong, and quinque-
fulcated on each fide ; the florets are equal $ the petals
involuted or rolled inwards, and entire. There are feven
fpecies ; of which the moft renMurkablc are, the levi-
^ilieum or common, and the fcoticum or Scots, lo-
vage. The ftrft is a native of the Apennine moun-
tains in Italy. It has a thick fleihy, deeply-pe-
netrating perennial root, crowned by very laree,
many-parted^ radical leaves, with broad Ic^s, ha-
ving incifionsat top, upright, ftrong, channelled flalks,
branching fix or feven feet high, and all the branches
terminated by yellow flowers in large umbels. The
lecond is a native of Scotland, and grows near the fea
in various parts of the country. It has a thickifh,
fleihy, penetrating, perennial root, crowned by large
doubly-trifoliated leaves, with broadf ihort, indented
lobes, upright round ilalks, half a yard high, ter-
minated by fmall yeUoW umbels* Both fpecies are
hardy, and eafily propagated by feeds fewn in fpring
or autumn.

Medicinal uftt^ &c. The root of the firft fpecies
agrees nearly in quality with that of angelica : the
principal difference is, that the lovage root has t
ftronger finell, and a fomewhat lefs pungent tafte, ac-
companied with a more durable fweetnefs, the. feeds
being rather warmer than the root ; but although cer-
tainly capable of bein{^ applied to ufeful purpofes,
this root is not regarded in the prefent prad^ice. The
leaves of the fecond are fometimes eaten raw as a falad,
or boiled as greens, by. the inhabitants of the Hebrides^
The root is reckoned a good carminative. They give
an infufion of the leaves in whey to their calves to
purge them.

LIGUSTRUM, FxiVBT, in botany : A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the diandria ckfs
cf plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 44th order, Sepiaris. The corolla is quadrifid ;
the berry tetrafpermotts. There is but one fpecies ;
of which there are two varieties, the deciduous and
the evergreen. They are h^y plants, rifing from 10
to 15 feet htghf adorned with oblong entire leaves, and
fpikes of inumdibuliform oblong white flowers, fnc-
ceeded by black-berries. They are eafily propagated
by feed, layers, fuckers, or cuttings. They atv ufed for
making hedges. Tke purple colour upon cards is pre-
pared from the berries. With the addition of alum,
thefe berries are faid to dye wool and filk of a good
and durable green % Sot which purpofe they muft be
VpL.X. Parti.

] L I L

ga^ered as (bon as they are ripe. The letves ar6 l^^lHime.
bitter and flightly aftringent. Oxen, goats, and (hecp, ^»W"° *
eat the plant \ horfes refule it.

LIIiBURNE (John), an enthufiaftie demagogue,
who was tyrannically punilhed by the ftar-chamber
court, being put in the pillory, whipped, fined, and
imprifoned, for importing and publifliing feditious
pamphlets, which he had got printed in Holland;
they chiefly refle^ed on the church of England
and its bifhops; he futfered in 1637, and in prifot^
was doubly loaded with irons. In 1 64 1 , he was re*
leafed by the long parliament: and from this time,
he had the addrefs to make himfelf formidable to all
parties, by his bold, afpiring genius. He fignalized
himfelf in the pariiament army ; and was at one time
the fecret friend and confident of Cromwell, and at
another his avowed enemy and accufer; fo that, irii
1650, Cromwell found it to be his intereft to filencd
him, by a girant of fome forfeited eftates. But afte^
this, he grew outrageous againft the protestor's go«
vemment ; became chief of the levellers ; and wad
twice tried for high treafon, but acquitted by the
juries. The laft was for returning from exile (havinj^
been baniflied by the parliament) without a pais. He
died in 16$ 7, aged 88.

LILIACEOUS, in botany, an appellation givea.
to fuch flowers as refemble thofe of the lily.

LILIUM, the lily, in botany : A genus of Xhtf
mox^ogynia ordea belongring to the hexandria clafs of
plants ; and in Uie natural method ranking under the
loth orderi Coronarid* The corolla is hexapetalous,
and campanulated, with a longitudinal nedUrifcrous
line or furrow ) the capfules conne^ed by finall can-
cellated hairs. There are many fpecies ; aU of them
bulbous-rooted, herbaceous, flowery perennials, rifing
with ere^ annual ftalks three or foiir feet high, gar-
niflied with long narrow leaves, and terminated by fine
dufters of laige, bell-fliaped, hexapetalous flowers
of exceeding great beauty, <rf white, red, fcarlet, orange^
purple, and yellow colours.

Culture* AU the fpecies are propagated by fowing
the feeds ; and if care is taken to preferve thefe fcfeds
from good flowers, very beautiful varieties are often
produced. The manner of fowing them is as follows.
Some fquare boxes ihould be procured, about fix inches
deep, with holes bored in the bottoms to let out the
wet : thefe muft be filled with frefti, light, fandy earth ;
and the feeds fown upon them pretty thick in the be-
ginning of Auguft, and covered over about half an
inch deep with light Mtt6. earth of the fame kindk
They fliould then be placed where they may have the
morning fun \ and if the weather proves dry, they muft
be watered at times, and the weeds carefully picked,
cut. In the month of O^ober the boxes are to be
removed to a place where they may have as much fun
as poflible, and be iecured from the north and north-
eaft winds. In fpring the young plants will appear,
and the boxes are then to be removed into their for-
mer fituation. In Auguft the fmalleft roots are to be
emptied out of thefe boxes, and ftrcwed over a bed of
light earth, and covered with about half an inch depth
of earth of the faihe kind fifted,over them. Here
they moft be watered, and (haded at times, and de-
fended from the fcverity of winter by a flight covering
of ftraw or peafe*haulm in the hardeft weather, in

K Fe.

L I L

XilluiDt February* the fur&ce of the bed ibould be ckared,
^''^- and a little light earth fifted over it. When the leaves
are decayed, the earth (hould be a little fUrred over
the roots; and in the month of September following
ibme more earth fifted on. Ih the September of the
following year, the roots muft be transplanted to the
places where they are to remain, and fet at the diftance
of eight inches ; the roots being placed four inches
below the furface : this (hould be done in moift wea-
ther. They will now require the fame care as in the
preceding winters; and, the fecond year after they
are tranfplanted, the ftrongeft roots will begin to flower.
The fine ones (hould then be removed at the proper
feafoji into flower beds, and planted at mat difUnces
fix>m one another that they may flower ftrong.

Medical ufeu The roots of the white lily are e-
^ollient, maturating, and greatly fuppurative. They
are ufed externally in cataplafms for thefe purpofes
with fuccefs. The common form of applying them is
boiled and bruifed ; but fome prefer the roafUng them
till tender, and then beating them to a pafte with oil,
in which form they are faid to be excellent againft
bums. Gerard recommends them internally againft
dropfies.

The Kamtfchatence, or Kamtfchatka lily, called there
farannef makes a principal part of the food of the Kamt-
fchatkans. Its roots are grathered by the women in
Au.'Tuf^, dried in the fun, and laid up for ufe : they
are the beft bread of the country ; ^nd after being
baked are reduced to powder, and ferve indead of flour
in foups and feveral difhes. They are fometimes wa(h-
ed, and eaten as potatoes ; «re extremely nourifhing,
and have a pleafant bitter tafle. Our navigators bod-
ed and eat them with their meat. The natives often
parboil, and beat it up with feveral forts, of berries, fo

I 74 ]

L I L

and heroes, and the ruin brought on private femXes
by an indulgence of avarice, lufl, &c. as the havock
made in ilates and empires by ambition, cruelty, or
tyranny. His " George Barnwell," " Fatal 'Curiofi-
ty," and ** Arden of Feverfham," are all planned oq
common and well-known (lories ; yet they have per*
haps more frequently drawn tears from an audience
than the more pompous tragedies of Alexander the
Great, AU for Love, &c. In the prologue to ** £U
meric,'' which was not a6ted till after the author*^
death, it is faid, that when he wrote that play, he
<• was' deprelTed by want,'' and alHided by difeafe ;
but in the former particular there appears to be evi-
dently a miftake, as he died pofTefled of an eftate of
L. 60 a-year, befides other effe^s to a confiderable
value. His death happened in 1739, in the 47th year
of his age. His works have been lately collef^ed, and
publiihed, with an account of his life, in 2 vols 1 2mo,
by Mr T. Davis.

LILLY (John), a dramatic poet, was bom in the
wilds of Rent, about .the year 1553, and educated in
Magdalen-college, Oxford, where he took the degree
of bachelor of arts in 1573, and that of mafler in
1575. From Oxford he removed to Cambridge; but
how long he continued there, is uncertain. On his
arrival in London) he became acquainted with fome of
Queen Elizabeth's courtiers, by whom he was careffed,.
anS admired as a poet and a wit ; and her majcfty,
on particular feftivals, honoured his dramatic pieces,
with her prefence. His plays are nine in number.
His firft publication, however, printed in 1580, was a<
romance called EuphueSf which was univerfally read and
admired. This romance, which Blount, tlie editor of
fix of his plays, fays introduced a new language, efpe-
cially among the ladies, is, according to Berkenhout,

as to form of it a very agreeable confe£kion. Provi- in fa£i a moft contemptible piece of affie6lation and

dentially it is an univenal plant there, and all the nonfenfe : neverthelefs it feems very certain, that it.

grounds bloom with its flower during the feafon. An- was in high eftimation by the women of fa(hion of

other happinefs remarked there is, that while fi(h are thofe times, who, we are told by Whalley the editoc

fcarce the faranne is plentiful ; and when there is a
dearth of this, the rivers pour in their provifions in
redoubled profufion. It is not to the labours of the
fenudes alone that the Kamtfchatkans are indebted for
thefe rootS9 A fpecies of moufe faves them a great
deal of trouble. The faranne forms, part of the win-
ter provifions of that little animal : they not only ga-
ther them in the proper feafon, and lay them up in
their magazines, but at times have the inftindl of bnng-
ing them out iit funny weather to dry them, left they
(hould decay. The natives fearch for their hoards ;
but with prudent tendemefs leave part for the owners,
being unwilliAff to fufifer fuch ufeful caterers to perifh.
LILLO (George), jin excellent dramatic writer,
l)om at London in 1693. He was a jeweller by pro-

of Ben Johnfon's works, had all the phrafes by heart ;,
and thofe who did not fpcak Euphwfm were as little
regarded at court as if they could not fpeak French..
'' He was (fays Oldys). a man of great reading, good
memory, ready faculty of application,, and uncommon,
eloquence ; but he ran into a vaft excefs of allufion."
When or where he died is not known. Anthony Wood-
fays he was living in 15971 when his laft comedy waa.
pub]i(hed. After attending the court of Queen Eli-
zabeth 13 years, notwithftanding his reputation as aa.
author, he was under a nece(fity of petitioning the
queen for fome fmall ftipend to fupport him in his old
age. His two letters or petitions to her majefty oa
this fubje^t are preferved in nxaaufcript.

Lilly (William )f a noted EnglifK aftrologer.

feflion, and followed his bufinefs for many years in born in LeicefteWhire in i6oa; where his fathernot

that neighbourhood with the faireft reputation. He
was at the ^une time ftrongly attached to the mufes,
yet feemed to have laid it down as a ma^im, that the
devotion paid to them ought always to tend to the
promotion of virtue, morality, and religion. In pur-

being able to give him more learning than conunoa
writing and arithmetic,, he refislved to feek his for»
tune in London. He arrived in 1 6zo%^ and lived four
years as a fervant to a mantua-maker in the parifh of
St Clements Danes ; but then moved a ftep higher to

fuance of this aim, Lillo was happy in the choice of the fervice of Mr Wright, mafter of the Salter's com*-

his fubje£^Sy and (howed great power of a£fe£ling the
heart, by working up the paffions to fuch a height, as
to render the difirefles of common and domeftic life
•equally interefUng to the audiences as that of kings

pany in the Strand, who n«t being able to write, Lilly
among other offices kept his books. In 1627, when,
his mafter died, he paid his addrefies to the widowj^
whom he married with a fortune of 2 000 L Being nowL

urtf

L I L

kja own mafter, he followed the puritanical preachers ;
audi turning his mkid to iudicial aftrology, became pu-
pil to one Evans, a profligate Welfh parfon, in that
pretended art. Getting a MS. of the Art nctitia
of Corn. Agrippa, with alterations, he drank in the
dodlrine of the magic circle, and the invocation of fpi*
rrts, with great eagernefs. He was the author of the
MerRnus Anglicus junior ; 7be Supematund Sight g
and Tie JVbite Klng^t Propbecf. In him we have an
mflance of the general fuperftition and ignorance that
prevailed in the time of the civil War between Char. I.
and his parliament : for the king confulted this aftro-
k>ger, to know in what quarter he fliould conceal him*
lelf, if he could efcape from Hampton court; and
general Fairfax^ on the other (ide, fent for him to his
army> to a(k him if he could tell by his art, whe«
f her God was with them and their caufe ? Lilly, who
made his fortune by fevourable predictions to both
parties, aflured the general that God would be with
him and his army. In 1648, he publifhed hid Treatife
of the three Suns feen the preceding winter $ and alfo
an aftrological judgment upon a conjundlion of Saturn
and Mars. This year the council of ftate gave him in
money 50 1, and a penfion of lcx>L per annum^ which
he received for two years^ and then reflgned on fome

C 75 3

L I M

ly city are now to be feen, except fome aqueduda and
temples ; though it was ftanding in Strabo*8 time.

LILYE (Wilh'am,) the granunarian, was bom in
the year 1466 at Oldham in Hampfhire ; and in 14861
was admitted a femi-commoner of Magdalen college,
in Oxford. Having taken the degree of bachelor of
arts, he left t^e univerfity, and travelled to Jerufalem.
Returning from thence, he continued five years in the
ifland of Rhodes, where he fludied the Greek language*
feveral learned men having retired thither after the tal-
king of Conllantinople. From Rhodes he travelled to
Rome ; where he improved himfelf in the Greek and
Latin languages, under Sulpitius and P« Sabinus. He
then returned to London, where for fome time he
taught a private grammar-fchool, being the firfl per-* ,
fon who taught Greek in the metropolis. In 15 10,
when Dr Colet founded St Paul's fchooi, Lilye wasap^
pointed the firfl mailer ; at which time, it feems, he waa
married and had many children. In this employment
he had laboured 1 2 years, vtrhen, being feized by the
plague, which then raged in London, he died in Fe-
bruary 1523, and was buried in the north yard of St
Paul's. He had the character of an excellent gram«
marian, and a fuccefsful teacher of the learned* lan-
guages. His principal work is Brevifflma in/Htutio,

difguil. In June 1660, he was taken into cuftody by feu ratio grammotkes cognofcends ; Lond. 1513* Re

order of the parliament, by whom he was examined
concerning the perfon who cut oflF the head of king
Charles I. The fame year he fued out hift pardon un-
der the great feal of England. The plague raging in
London, he removed with his family to his ellate at
Heriham ; and in 06lober 1666 was exatntned be-
fore a committee of the houfe of commons concerning
the fire of London> which happened in September
that year. After his retirement to Heriham, he ap-
plied himfelf to the ftudy of phyiic, and, by means of
his friend Mr Afhmole, obtained from archbifhop Shel-
don A licence for the pradlicc of it. A little before his
death he adopted for his fon, by the name of Merlin
junior^ one Henry Coley, a taylor by trade; and at
the fame time gave him the impreflion of his almanac,
after it had been printed for 36 years. He died in
i68i of a dead palfy. Mr Afhmole fet a monument
ever his grave in the church of Walton upon Thames.
His ** Obfervations on the Life and Death of Charles
late King of England," if we overlook the aftrological
Roufenfe, may be read with as much fatisfa<%on as
more celebrated hiflories ; Lilly being not only very
Well informed, but flri^ily impartial. This work, with
the Lives of Lilly and Afhmole, written by them-
felves, were publifhed in one vol. 8vo, in 1774, by Mr
Burman.

LILY, in botany. See Lilium.

L\tr of the Valley, See Convallaria.

LILYBJEUM (ancgeog.), a city of Sicfly, fi-

printed times without number, and commonly called
Lily^s grammar. The Englifh rudiments were writ*
ten by Dr Colet, dean of St Paul's ; and the preface
to the firfl edition, by cardinal Wolfey. The Englifh
fyntax was written by Lilye; alfo the rules for the
genders of nouns, beginning with Propria qu£ mari*
oui : and thofe for the preterperfed tenfes and fupines,
beginning with As in prejenti. The Latin fyntax was
chiefly the work of Erafmus. See Ward's preface to
his edition of Lilye's Grammar, 1732.

LIMA, a city of South America, in Peru, of which
it is capital, with an archbifhop's fee, and an univer-
fity. It gives its name to the principal audience of
Peru ; and is furrounded with brick-walls, fortified with
feveral ramparts and baflions, eight yards high. The
ilreets are handfome, and as flraight as a line ; but the
houfes are generally only one flory high, on account
of the earthquakes. However, they are pretty enough,
and well adorned^ having long galleries on the front.
One part of the roofs are covered with coarfe linen
cloth, and the others only with feeds, which is not in-
convenient, becaufe it never rains here ; however, the
richefl inhabitants cover theirs with fine mats or beau-
tiful cotton-clothsv There are trees planted all round
their houfes, to keep off the heat of the fun. What
the houfes want in height they have in length and
depth ; for fome of them are 200 feet long, and pro-
portionably broad, fo that they have 10 or 12 large
apartments on the ground-floor. The royal fquare is

t^ted on the itioft weflerly promontory of the ifland very handfome, and in the middle there is a fountain of
of Sicily, and faid to have been founded by the Car- bronec, adorned with the image of Fame which fpouta
thaginians on their expulfion from Motya by Diony- up^water. On the cafl and wefl fides are the public flruc-
fius tyrant of Syracufe. It is remarkable for three tures, which are well built. The river which crofTes
fieges it fuftained ; one againfl Dionyfius the tyrant, Lima forms canals or flreams which run to mofl of the
another againfl Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and the third houfes, and ferve to water their gardens, as well as for
againft the Romans. The two firft failed in their at- other ufet. All the churdies and convents are ex-
tempts, but the Romans with great difiiculty made tremdy rich ; and many images of the faints are of
Aemfelves mailer of it* No remains of this once flatc- maffy gold, adorned with jewels. This city is four

LWye,
Lima.

K 2

miln

L I M

f ?6 ]

L I M

TtaveU
iSwoMgh

]iuteain lengthy and two in breadth, and iadrvided into
eight pariOies ;, and yet it contain^ but 28,000 inha*
bitants, whereof 9000 are Sps^niards. They make ufe
of mules to draw their coaches With, and of thefe there
are about 5000. It is the feat of the viceroy, and
contains fevcral courts ; as that of the viceroy, of the

toman army entered thit city on the 2d of July» and
ravaged it without mercy. It was then deilroyed by
the flames ; and at prefent it is only a wretched place^
in which one can fcarcely diftinguifti any remains of ita
ancient edifices. It is governed by a commilTary and
a cadi : the latter judges cafes only provifioaally, before

archbiihop, of the inquifition, of the crofado, and of they are carried to the fuperior tribunal of Nicofia.

tlie will^. Earthquakes are here very frequent ; fome
of which have done this city a great deal of damage,
particularly that in 1 746, whereby it was almoin de-
iirc3yed : were it not for this, it would be a perin^t

Earadife ; there being plenty of corn, wine, oil, fugar,
iiits, and flax. The inhabitants are fo rich, that when
the viceroy, who was duke of Palata, and fent from
Spain to Peru in 1672, made his public entrance in-
to this city, the inhabitants paved tlie ftreets he was
to pafs through with ingots of filver. The inhabitants
of Lima are very debauched, but at the fame time ex-
tremely fuperttftious, and they have a ftrong belief in
the power of charms. About a fourth part of the city
are monks and nuns, who are not a jot more chafte
than the red ; and if any one happens to rival a monk,
ke is in danger of his life, for they always carry a dag-
ger under their frocks* The nuns are fuch libertines,
that it is hard to find any free from the French dif-
cafe, of which they fometimes die for want of good
phyfxcians. The greateft Anners think they atone for
all their faults by hearing a mafs, and kiffing the robe
of St Francis or St Dominic, and then they return to
their former pra^ices. It is feated on a large, plea*
fant, fertile {Jain, on a fmall river iMar the tea. W.
Long. 68. 45. S. Lat. 12. 15.

LIMASSOL, or LiMisso, a town of Cyprus, in
the fouth of the ifland. Of the ancient city nothing
but ruins now remain ; though it was a celebrated place,
even under the government of the dukes. King Ri-
chard, the conqueror of the lafl of thefe vaffals of the
empire^. lazed it in 1191, and it was never afterwards

The harbour is very commodious ; and being (heltered
from impetuous winds, it affords a fafe and calm afy-
lum to veflels when overtaken by a ilorm. The carob
tree Is here more abundant than any where clfe ; and
it is from the port of LimafTol that the greateft quan-
tity of its fruit is exported. The inhabitants export
alfo fak, procured from a lake near Salines. Cotton^
wheat, barley, and mulberry-trees, are both pkntifid
and well cultivated in this part of the ifland: the.
ground alfo produces all kinds of garden Huff. 7hc
beil Cyprus wine is made from the vines that grow on.
the hills of LimafFol. All the wines of the country
are colle^cd in this city to be tranfported to Lamic*
where there are the largeft cellars, and which on that
account becomes the natural centre of commerce.

LIMAX, the Slug, or NaJked ShoU ; a genus of
infedls belonging to the order of vermes moUufca. The
body is oblong, fitted for crawling, with a kind of
mufcular coat on the upper part ; and the belly ia
plain. They have four tentacula, or horns, iituated
above tlie mouth, which they extend or retrad at plea-
fure, — This reptile is always deflitute of (hell ; but be-
fides that its ikin is more clammy and of a greater coa<*
fiilency than that of the fnail, the black naked Aug
has a furrowed cloak, almofl as thick and as hard as lea-
ther, under which it withdraws its head as within a
(helL The head is diilinguifhed from the breaft by a
black line. It is in its head and back that the fnail-
llone is found ; which is a fmall pearled and fandy ftone»
of the nature of lime ftones : according to a popular
opinion, it cures the tertian ague, if failened to the

rebuilt.. This city originally was the fame as A ma- patient's arm^ Thefe flugsmoveonflowly, leaving every

THUS, or Amathonte ; fo ^unous, as Paufanias tells us, where clammy and fhioing marks of their pailage.

for its temple erected in honour of Venus and Adonis. Their coming together is towards the end of fpring.

Amathus was the refidence of the nine firft kings of The organs of generation are placed, as in the fnail,

the ifland; and amongil ethers of Oneliftus, who was on the right fide of the neck. The male -implement

(iibjeded afterwards by tlie arms of Artabanes, the unfolds with the fame mechaniim as the finger of a

Perfian generaL This city, ere^ed into an archbifliop- glove when turned infide out. They are fometimes

nc in the time of the Chriiiians, has produced a num- met with hanging in the air with thetr heads down--

ber of perfonages celebrated for their knowledge and wards ; and their tails, united by a kind of vifcous and

the iJLadtity of their lives. In the neighbourhood thick tie, grappled to the branch of a tree. In this £v

there are feveral copper mines, which the Turks have
Wen forced to abaxidon. The following lines, in the
tenth book, of Ovid's Metamorphoiies, prove that they
were known in the time of that po^t l

Capta viri £Drma, npn jam Cythsrea curat
Litt«ra, dou alto repeut Paahoa squore dniftam^
Pifcofamque Gnidon, gravidainque AmathuntametaUis.

The piaoe wbert the new Liaairol now ftands,. for*

tuation they remain for three hours, and that is the
time of impregnation. They depofit their eggs in the
earth. There are eight fpecies, dillinguifhed entirely
by their colour ; as the black Aug, the white. Aug, the
reddifli Aug, the aih-ccdoured Aug, &c. The black
Aug is hermaphrodite, both fexes being in each indi-
vidual, and in the coitus both impregnate and are im-
pregnated at the fame time* — A black Aug powdered

■lerly had the nam^ of Nmofia^ from the multitude oi over with ^inuff, fait, oit liigar, falb into convulfions, cafta
woods by which it was furreunded. Richard king of forth all its foam, and dies. See Repkoduction.
England hamng deftroyed Amathonte, Guy de Luf LIMB, in general, denotes the border or edge of
fignan in the 1 2th century kid the fbnndations.of that a thing ; . thus we fay» the limb of a quadrant, of the
new city which .the Greeks called Neofoleos. The &r . fim, ^ a ttai^ &c.

mily of Lu%Ban, who continued to embelliih and for* LuiJi, in anatomy, an appcflation given to the cx<^
tify it, built there pahces, and' Greek and Latin, tremities of.thc body, at to the arms and lega.
churches ; and made it the feat of a bifhop.. When. Lxmb^ Limku, m the chu):ch of Home, ia ufed in
tihe iivid waa taken by the Turks in 1570, the Ot- two diffexsent fenfea. u The limb of the patriarchs is

4 laid

lAmttt
Limk

L I M

[

K^imbat, faii to be the place where the patriarch* waited the re-
l«imborch. ^gniption of mankind : in thig place they fuppofe our
SaTiour's foul continued from the time of his death to
his refurrc^kion. 2. The limb of infants dying with-
out baptifin, is a place fuppofed to be dillin£l both from
heaven and hell ; iince, fay they, children dying inno*
cent of any a^ual fin> do not deferve hell ; and^ by
Teafon of their original fin, cannot be jidniitted into
heaven.

LIMBATy the name of a periodical wind common
in the i/land of Cyprus, and of great fervice in mode-
rating the heals of the climate, which would other-
wife be -intolerable.

According to the Abbe Mariti, it begins to blow
at eight in the morning the firft day ; increafes as the
fun advances till noon ; then gradually weakens, and
at three falls entirely. On the fecond day it arifcs at
the fame hour; but it does not attain its greated
ftrength till about one in the afternoon, and ceafes at
fom* precifely. On the third day it begins as before ;
but it falls an hour later. On the five fucceeding
days, it follows the fame progreflion as on the third ;
but it is remarked, that a little before it ceafes, it be-
comes extremely violent. At the expiration of five
days it commences a new period like the former. By
narrowly obferving the fea on that fide from which
it is about to blow a little before it arifes, one may
determine wliat degree of ftrength it will have during
the day. If the horizon is clear, and entirely free
firom clouds, the wind will be weak, and even ahnofl
inCenlible ; but if it is dark and cloudy, the wind will be
ftrong and violent. This limbat vrind, notwithftanding
ks utility in moderating the exceffive heat, often becomes
the caufe of fevers, efpecially to the Europeans, firom
their being lefs habituated to the climate, more apt
than the natives to fuffer themfelves to be furprifed by
the cool air when in a ftate of pecipiration. This
wind, the falling of which happens ^n hour iboncr or
later, is fucceeded by a calm, accompanied by a cer-
tain moiilure that renders the air fomewhat heavy*
This moiflure difappears in the evening, being, diiiipa-
ted by a wind which arifes every day at that period.
This wind is confidered as- a land breeze by the inha-
bitants of the fouthem and eaftern- parts of the idand;
but it is caUed ajea hree%e by thofe in the northern and
weftem, who indeed receive it immediately from the
fea. In fummer it blows till four o'clock in the mom>
isg ; and when it ceafes,. it leaves a profound calm^
which continues till the hour when tlie limbat com-
mences* In autumn and winter it never falls till day-
break, when it is fucceeded by other winds, which pro-
ceed from the irregularity of the feafon.. In fpring it
does not continue longer than midnight ; and is then
fucceeded by that happy calm,, during which thofe re*
freihing dews are formed that moiflentbe earth at fun*
rifing. The limbat winds, which arife in the^beginning
of fummer, ceafe about the middle of September ; and
this is the period when the moft'infupportable heat§
commence, becaufe their riolence is not modeimted
by^ finalleft breeze.. They are, however,, luckily
iK>t of long duration ; and about the latter end of Oc-
tober they decreafe fenfibly, as the atnM>iphere begins
to be loaded with watery cloudd.

LIMBORCH (Philip), a learned writer among the
tcmonfixaatty bom at Aniterdam in x633« After ha*

77 1 . L I M

ving made great proficiency in his fludies, he was, in Limhnrgh

1655, admitted to preach in public, which he did firfl . ^ . ^

at Hacrlem. Hisfermons had in them no afFcacdclo- ^imcnck..

quence ; but were folid, methodical, and edifying. He

was chofen miniiler of Goudja ; from whence he i^'us

called to Amflerdam, where he had the profeffurihip

of divinity, in which he acquitted himfelf with great

reputation till his death, which happened in 1712.

He had an admirable genius, and a tenacious memory.

He had many friends of dilHn^tion in foreign parts as

well as in his own country. Some of his letters to Mr

Locke are printed with thofe of that celebrated author.

He had all the qualifications fuitable to the charadler

of a fincere divine, lived an example of cvi r)' virtue^

and preferved the vigour of his body and mind to «

confiderable age. He wrote many works, which are

efteemed ; the principal of which are, i. Arnica coh-

lotto de veritate rtUgion'u Chrijliatut cum erudlto JwUo^

in i2mo. 2. A complete body of Divinity, ac*

cording to the opinions and doflrines of the remon-'

flrants. 3. A hiftory of the Inquifition ; which hli^

been tran Hated into Englifh by Dr Samuel Chandler*

Limborch alfo publifhed the works of teh fiunout

Epifcopiusy who was his great-uncle by the mother*! •

fide.

LIMBITRGH-DtJCHy, a province of the Anftrian*
Netherlands, bounded by the duchy of Juliers on the
north and call, by Luxemburgh on the fouth, and by
the biihopric of Liege on the well. It is about 30 •
miles in length, and 25 in breadth ; and confifts of good
arable and paflure land» with plenty of wood, and iome
iron mines..

LiMBURGH, the capital city of the duchy of Lim-
burgh, in ihe Auflrian Netherlands, is feated oh a lieep-
rock near the river VelTe. This town is fmall, but plea-
fantly (eated on a hill» with fhady woods ; and confifla
chie% of one broad ftreet, net very well built. It \% .
flrong by'fitaation, andalmoil inacceiiible; however, it
was taken by the French in 1675, ^"^ by the confe«
derates under the duke of Marlborough in i6o3»>
for the houfe of Auflria, to whom it remains by the
treaties of Rafladt and Baden, after having been dif— '
mantled. It is famous for its cheefe, . which is exceeds -
ing good. £. Long. 6. 8. N. Lat« 50. 40..

LIM£. See Quicklime.

LiMB'Tree. See Citrus*

Lime or LinoBN'^Trie* See Tilia.

LiMS'Water. See PHARMACY^/ji^/rx..

LiMR^ or Lyae^ See Lyme.

LIMERICK, a coimty of Ireland, in the province,
of Munfler, is bounded on the eail by Tipperary, oa.
the weft by Kerry, on the north by the river Shan«
non, and on the fouth by Cork. It is a firuitfol and
pop4ilou8 tra6lf the foil ntquiring little or no manure
in moft places: befides rich pailure for iheep and
cows, it produces rich crops of all kinds of com
and'r^e, with fomc hemp* It gave title of earl
to the family of Dongan. It contains 375,320 Irifh ^
plantation acres, about fifty ofix church livings, though,
a much greater number of parifhc8,«. ten baronies^,
three boroughs, and fends eight members to parlia«
ment«* It has fbrae clays, furze, fern, and mountain r
lands, and is famous for good cyder ; it has been much^
benefitedby the palatines, who fettled there and increafedi
tillage \ they are a laborious iadepeadent people^ jaoS^ ■

L I M . • r 78

l.jincr'cV. ly emplortd in their own farms. This country is well
' watered by large and fmall rivers ; the Shannon runs at

the north fide of the county, and fertilizes its banke.
The firing of the inhabitants is chiefly turf, and the
bogs are conveniently fituatcd. At Loghill in the
wcil of the county, there is a mine of coal or culm,
but it is more ufed in kilns than in houfe«. There are
few lakes except Lough Gur: and the principal hills
are Knockgreny, Knockany, Knockfiring, and Tory-
bill. The mountains lie weHward, the highcft being
Knockpatrick or St Patrick's hiD- Thie county is
about 45 miles long tmd 42 broad*

Limerick, or Lough- Meatbi a mafket-town, a bo*-
rough, and a bifhop^ fee, now the metropolis of the
province of Munfter. It is fituated on the river Shan-
non, 94 miles from Dublin^; and was the ftrongefl
fortrcfs in the kingdom. Its ancient Tiame was Lun-
neach ; and dui ing the firft ages it was much frequent-
ed by foreign merchants, and after the arrival of the
Danes was a place of confiderable commence until the
J 2th century. It was plundered by Mahon, brother
of Brien Boromlu after the 'battle of Sulchoid, iti 970^
and Brlen, in a future period, xJcaAed from the Danes
of this city 365 tons of wine as a tribute^ which (hows
the extenfive traffic carried on by thofe people in that
Rrticle. About the middle of ^he 6th century, St
Munchin ere6led a xhurch end founded a bifbopric
here; which, however, wasdeftroyed by the Danes on
their taking pc^fTeiSon^of this port in 853, and remain-
.ed in ruins until their converfion to the Chrifiian faith in
rthe I oth century4,atwhich.period the church of St Mun-
chin was rebuilt, and the bifhopric eftablifhed. Dona^
^*Brien, about the time of the arrival of the Englifh,
founded and endowed the cathedral $ and Donat O'Bri-
en, bifhop of Limerick, In the i J th century, contributed
much to the opulence of the fee. About the clofe of
the 1 2th century, the bifhoprick of Innis-Cathay was
united to that of Limerick. It was befieged by king
William III. in the year 1690 ; and though there was
no army to afiifl it, the king wa§ obliged to raife the
^lege. In the year. 1691, it was again befieged by the
-EngliHi and Dutch on the 21 ft of September; and it
was obliged to furrender on the 1 3th of October fol-
lowing, not without the lofs of abundance of men ;
however, the garrifon had very honourable and advan-
tageous conditions, being permitted to retire where
.they thought fit, and the Roman-catholics by thefe ar-
ticles were to be tolerated in tlie free exercife of their
religion. Within a century this place was reckoned
the fecond city in Ireland ; at prefent it has loft its
rank ; not becaufe it thrives lefs, but becaufe Cork
thrives more. It is compofed of the Irifh and Englifh
town-; the latter ftands on the King's ifland, formed
by tlie river Shannon. The town is three miles in
circumference, having weekly markets on Wednefday
and Saturday, and fairs on Eafter Tuefday, i&. July,
4th Auguft, and 1 2th December. There is a privi-
lege annexed to the fair held on 4th Auguft, that, du-*
ring 15 days, no perfon can be arretted in the city or
liberties, on any procefs ifluing out of the Tholfel
court of Limerick. Ardfert and Achadoe« in the
county of Kerry, are united to the bifhoprick of Li-
merick. This city returns two members to parlxa*
ment ; and g^ves title of vifcount to the family of Ha-
milton* It is governed by a mayor, fheriffs, recorder.

]

L I N

aldermen, and burgefles ; there ^s aUb a bal-rack aii3 ^
a military governor and town-major : it had fome time
the privilege of coinage; and different parliaments
have been held there. The town was formerly entire-
ly walled in ; and in 1 760, tbere were 1 7 of the city
gates ftanding ; but to the great improvement of the
place they are now all demolifhed, except the water-
gate of king John's caftle« The Itnen, woollen, and
paper manufa6iures, are carried on here to great extent,
and the export of provifions is very confiderable. Here
are many charitable hofpitals and handfome public
buildings, befides the cathedral and other churches. A
charter was granted to this city by king John, and
confirmed in fucceeding reigns. Dr Campbell ob-
fer%'es, that as you approach Limerick, the grounds
grow rich and Stquifitely beautiful ; the only di{a->
greeable matter is, that the fituation renders the air
moift, and confequently rather unwholcfome to ftran-
gers. About fix miles from this is the famdus Caftle*
connel-fpa. Limerick is 50 miles from Cork, 50
from Galway, and 73 from Waterford. It appears
that Limerick obtained the privilege of having mayors
10 ysars before that right was allowed to the citizens
of London. It was before governed by provofts, of
wliich thefirft was John SpafFord, in 1195 and Ii97f
during the provoftfhip of Henry Troy a charter was
granted, 9 Richard I. whereby the citizens were al-
lowed to choofe mayors and bailiffs, Adam Servant, in
1 198, being the firft mayor. It continued to be go-
verned by mayors and bailiffs, until the office of bailiff
was changed into that of fheriff, in 1 609.

Limerick is alfo the name of a fair-town in the
county of Wexford and province of Leinfter ; the fair*
are four in the year*

LIMINGTON, a town of Hampfhire in England.
See Lymington.

LIMIT, in a reftrained fenfe, is ufed by mathema-
ticians for a determined quantity to which a variable
one continually approaches; in which fenfe, the circle
may be faid to be the limit of its circuinfcribed and
infcribed polygons. In algebra, the term limk is ap-
plied to two quantities, one of which if greater and the
other lefs than ai^ther quantity ; and in this fenfe it
is ufed in fpeaking .of the limits of equations, whereby
their folution is much facilitated.

LIMME, a town of Kent, in England, near Hithe^
and four miles from Romney, was formerly a port^
till choaked up by the fands ; and though it is thereby
become a poor town, yet it has the horn and mace
and other tokens left of its ancient grandeur, and ufed
to be the place where .the lord warden of the cinque-
ports was fwom at his entrance upon his office. The
Roman road from Canterbury, called Siane-jirecty end-
ed here ; and from the brow of its hill may be feen
the ruinous Roman walls almoft at the bottom of the
marfhes. Here formerly was a cafUe, now converted
into a farm-houfe. When or by whom this edifice
was ereded is not known. It has, however, great
marks of antiquity ; as has alfo the adjoining church,
in which are feveral old tombiloues with crofFcs pa
them.

LIMNINGf the art of painting in water-colours,
in contradiftindion to painting which is done in oiU
colours.

• Limning is much the more ancient kind of paint« ,

ing

L I M

[ 79 ]

L I M

L^iffinlDg Jng. Tin a Flcmifh painter, one John van Eyck» bct-
^. U ter known by the name of John of Bruges^ found out
the art of painting in oil, the painters all painted in
water and in frefco, both on their waUs, on wooden
boards, and elfewhere. When they made ufc of
boards, they ufually glued a fine linen cloth over them,
to prevent their opening ; then laid on a ground of
white ; laftly, they mixed up their colours with wa-
ter and iize, or with water and yolks of eggs, well
beaten with theibranches of a fig-tree, the juice where-
of thus mixed with the eggs ; ahd with this mixture
they painted their pieces.

In limning, all colours are proper enough, except
the white made of lime, which is only ufed in frefco.
The azure and ultramarine mud always be mixed with
fize or gum ; but there are always applied two layers
of hot fize before the fize-colours are laid on : the co*
lours are dl ground in water each by itfelf ; and, as
they arc required in working, are diluted with fize-wa-
ter. When the piece is finifhed, they go over it with
the white of an ^gg well beaten ; and then with var-
. nifh, if required.

To limn, or draw a face in colours : Having all the
materials in readinefs, lay the prepared colour on the
card even and thin, free from hairs and fpots over the
place where tke pidure is to be. The ground being
laid, and the party placed in a due pofition, begin the
work, which is to be done at three fittings. At the
HrUt you are only to dead-colour the face, which wiU
require about two hours. At the fecond fitting, go
over the work more curibufly, adding its particuhir
graces or deformities. At the third fitting, finifh the
whole ; carefully remarking whatever may conduce to
render the piece perfe6^, as the cd& of the eyes, moles,
fears, geflures, and the like.

LIMOGES, an ancient and confiderable town of
France, in the province of Guienne, and capital of
Limofin, with a bifhop'a fee. It is a trading place,
and its horfes are in great eflecm. It is feated on the
river Vienne, in £. Long. i. 22. N. Lat. 42. 4^.

LIMOSIN, a province of France, bounded on the
north by La Marche, on the eafl by*Auvergne, on the
fouth by Quercy, and on the weft by Perigord and
Angoumois. It is divided into the Upper and Lower;
the former of which is very cold, but the latter more
temperate. It is covered with forefts of chefnut-trees;
and contains mines of lead, copper, tin, and iron ; but
the principal trade confifbs in cattle and horfes.

LIMPET. See Patella.

LIMPURG, a barony of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, included almoft entirely within Suabia,
and feated to the fouth of Hall in Suabia. It is a-
bout 15 miles long, and eight broad. Gaildorf and
Shonburg, near which iz the caftie of Limparg^ are
the principal places.

LiMPURG, a town- of Germany, in the ele£borate
of Triers or Treves, and in Wetteravia, formerly free
and imperial, but now fubje£l to the ek^lorate of
Treves. It is feated on^e river Lhon. £• Long*. 8*
J3. N. Lat. 50. 18.

LINARIA, in ornithology. See FaiNGiLLA.

LIN AC RE (Thomas), phyfician, was bom at
Canterbury about the year 1460, and there educated
under the learned William SeUing: thence he removed
to Oxford, and in 14B4 was chofen fdHow o£ All-

Souls college. Ttlly, aHas Selling, his former infbuc* !>•«*«,
tor, being at this time appointed ambaifador from ^'°^"'"*
King Henry VII, to the court of Rome, Mr Linacre
accompanied him to Italy, where he attained tho
highefl degree of perfedlion in the Greek and Latin
languages. At Rome, he applied himfelf particularly
to the ftudy of Ariftotle and Galen, in the original.
. On his return to Oxford, he was incorporated dod^or
of phyfic, and chofen public profcffor in that faculty.
But he had not been long in England, before he was
commanded to court by King Henry VII. to attend
the young Prince Arthur as his tutor and phyfician.
He was afterwards appointed phyfician^ to^ the king,
and, after his death, to his fucceflbr Henry VIII. Dr
Linacre founded two medical le^ures at Oxford, and
one a^. Cambridge ; but that which mofl effe^ually
immortalized his name among the faculty, is his being
the iirft founder of the coUeo^e of phyficians in Lon-
don. He beheld with vexation the wretched ilate of
phyfic in thofe times ; and» by an application to Car«
dinal Wolfey, obtained a patent in 1518,. by which
the phyfician s of London were incorporated. Hie in-
tention of this corporation was to prevent illiterate and
ignorant medicafters from pradlifing the art of healing)
Dr Linacre was the firft prefident, and held the office
as long as he lived. Their meetings were in his own
houfe m Knight-rider ftreet, which houfe he bequeath*
ed to the college. But our do£kor, when he was
about the age of 50, took it into his head to ftudy
divinity ; entered into orders ; and was collated, ia
1509, to the redory of Merfham. In the (kme
year he was inftalled prebendary of Wells, in 15 1^.
preSendary of York, and in the following year was
admitted precentor of that cathedral. This, we are
told, he refigned for other preferments. He died of
the ftone in the bladder in.06lober 1524, aged 64$
and was buned.in St Paul's. Thirty^three years after
his death,. Do6lor John Caius caufed a monument to
be ered^ed to his memory, with a Latin infcription,
which contains the outlines of his life and charad^ei^
H^ was a man of great natural fagacity, a fkilful phy^
fician, a profound grammarian, and one of the bed
Greek and Latin fcholars of his time. Erafmus in
his epiftles fpeaks hiehly of the do£lor's tranflations .
from Galen, preferring them even to the original
Greek. His works are,, i . De ewundata JlruSura La*-
tmi fermontsy libri fix ; London,, printed' by Pynfon^
1524, 8vo, and by Stephens, 1527, 1532. 2. The
rudiments of g^mmar, for the ufe of the princefs
Mary, printed by Pynfoii. Buchanan tranflated it
into Latin ; Paris, 1536. He likewlfe tranflated in^
to very elegant Latin, feveral of Galen's works, whick
were printed chiefly abroad at different times. Alfo >
Proch Dladochi fpbmra^ tranflated from the Greek ;
Venet. 1499, 150Q.

LINCOLN, a city of England, and capital of a
county of the fame name, is diflant 152 miles from
London. It ftands on the fide of a hill ; at the hot*
tom of which runs the river Withum in three fmall
channels, over which are feveral bridges. The old
Lindum of the Britons, which ftood on the top of th«
hill, as appears from the veftiges of a rampart, and
deep ditches ftiU remaining, was taken and demolifhed
by the Saxons ; who built a town upon the fouth Hdr
pf the hill down to the. river fidc; whicfat was iipveral

timcsL.

LIN (8

t.inco!n. times taken by the Danes, and as often retaken by the
Saxoiw. In Edward the ConfeiTor^s time, it aippears^
from Doomfday-booky to have been a very conflder-
able place ; and in the time of th^ Nomians» Malmibury
fays, it was one of the moft populous cities in £ng*

' land. William I. built a caftle upon the fummit of
the hill above the town. Thf diocefe, though the bi*
(hopric of Ely was taken out of it by Henry II. and
thofe of Peterborough and Oxford by Henry Vlil. is
ftil] vaftly large, containing the counties of Leicefter,
Huntingdon, Bedford^ and part of Bucks, making 1255
parilhes. Though, the other churches are mean, the
cathedral or mlnfter is a moft magnificent piece of Go-
thic architedure. Here is a prodigious largfe bell,
called Tom of Lincoln^ which is near five ton in weight,
and 25 feet in compafs. The hill onwR?ch the church
ilanda is (9 high, and the church itfelf fo lofty, that
it may be feen 50 miles to the north, and 30 to the
fouth. Befides other tombs, it contains one of brafs,
in which ar^ the entrails of Queen Eleaaor, wife to
Edward I. It \& (aid there were anciently 52 churches^
whtcfi are now reduced to 14. Such ts the magnifi'*
cence and elevation of the cathedral,' that the monks
thought the fight of it muft be very mortifying to the
devil ; whence it came to be faid of one who was dif-
pleafed, that be looked Hh the devil over Lincoln* The '

' declivity on which the city is built being fteep,,
the communication betwixt the upper and lower town
is very troublefome, and coaches and horfes au% obli-
ged to make a bompafs*

King Ed%vard III. made this city a ftaple for wool,
leather, lead, &c. It was once burnt ; once befieged
by King Stephen, who was here defeated and taken
prifoner ; and once taken by Henry III. from his re-
bellious barons. It abounded heretofore with mona^-
fleries and other religious houfes. There is a great
pool herci formed by the river on the weft fide of it,
trailed Swan^Pool^ becaufe of the multitude of fwans
en it. The Romans north gate ftill remains entire, by
the name of Newport^Gate, It is one of the nobleft
•of this fort in Britain. It is a vaft femicirdeofftgnes
of very large dimenfions laid without mortar, connedl-
ed only by their uniform ihape. This magnificent arch
is 16 feet in diameter, the ftones are four feet thick at
the bottom. It feems to have a joint in the middle,
not a key-ftone ; and on both fides, towards the upper
part, are laid horizontal ftones of great dimenfionsi
Ibme 10 or 12 feet long. This arch rifes from an im-
-poft of large mouldings, which are not perceivable
now ; there are alfo divers firagments of the old Roman
<wall. Over againft the caftle is an entrenchment caft
^P ^7 ^^% Stephen ; and here are carved the arms of
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, who lived here like
a king, and had a mint. The city has a communica-
tion with the Trent, by a canal called the Fofs-dyke.
In the centre of the ruined old caftle there ia a hand-
fome modern ftnidure for holding the aflizes. Its
-VL alls are almoft entire, and very fubftantial : the Keep
or principal tower is fituated on a high and very ftecp
mount, which yet continues in its original ftatCi but the
remains of the tower on it are only five or fix yards
high. The outer vtralls of the caftle are of very con-
fiderable height^ which appear ftill higher than they
ledly are from their lofty utuation and the moat below
them* The great gateway is ftill entire. This city

o 1 LIN

is a county of itfelf, and has a vifcountial jurifdtdioa Lik^
for 20 miles found, which is a privilege that no other
city in England can cquaL It now confifts principal-
ly of one ftreet above two miles long, well paved, be.*
fides feveral crofs and parallel ftreets well peopled.
Here are fome very handfome modern buildings, but
more antique ones ; upon the whole, it has an air of
ancient grcatnefs, arlfing in a great meafure from the
number of monaftic remains, moft of which are now
converted into Aables, out-houfes, &c* Upon the hill,
in the caftle are the ruins of the bifhop's palace, and
other ruins of ancient grandeur and magnificence*
The city is fupplied with water by feveral conduitsp
among which is a modem one, fomewhat in the pyra#>
midical ftyle, enriched with fculpture* It is governed
by a mayor, twelve aldermen, two fheriffs, a recorder,
four chamberlains, a fword-bearer, four coroners, and
above forty common-council men. Here are four cha^
rity fchools, where 1 20 poor children are taught by
the widows of clergymen. The neighbouring courfc
is noted for its ftcquent horfe-races. On the down of
Lincoln, towards Bofton, that rare fowl the buftard is
feen fometimes, as well as on Salifbury-Plain. Lincoln-
Heath extends above 50 miles, viz. ft>om Sleaford and
Ancafter fouth to the Humber north, though it is
but three or four miles over where broadeft. Five mikt
from Bofton on this extenfive heath, the late Lord Le
Defpenfer built a few vears ago a tower for the dire£tioa
of ftrangers. It is a lofty, fquare building with a ftair*
cafe, which terminates in a flat roof, and round the
bafe is a fquare court-yard. Great part of this extent
five heath is lately indofed. The markets here are
Tuefdays and Fridays ; and there are four faira ia the
year. We read that David king of Scots met king
John here, on the 2 2d of November* in the third year
of his reign, and performed homage to hii^ on a hill
without the city^ for his Englifli territories, in prefence
of the archbiihops of Canterbury, York, and Raffufii, 1 3
biihops,and a vaft number of temporal lords and knights.
King Henry VIL kept his court here at Eafter in
1486. The Jews were once its chief inhabitants, till
they were forced Xo remove, after having impioufiy crvu
cified the child of one Grantham, and thrown it into a
well, to this day called Grantbaa^e Well* Lincoln haf
given the title of eari to the fimiily of Clinton ever
fince the reign of Queen Elizabeth* W. Long. 27. i^
N. Lat. 53. 16.

LiNcoipr^Shiref a ■mrittme county of England, 77
miles in length and 48 in breadth, is bounded on die
eaft by the German ocean, on the weft by Notting-
hamihire, on the north by Yorkshire, on the fouth by
Rutlandfhire, Northampton (hire, and Camlnidgefliire.
It contains 4590 houfes, 24,340 inhabitants, 63 1 pa«
rifhes, and 3 1 market towns, whereof five fend mem-
bers to parliaipent, which, with two for the county^
make twelve in alL The principal rivers are the Hum«
ber, the Trent, the Witham, the Nenn, the WeDandt
the Ankhara, and the Dun. It is divided into three
parts, Lindfay, Keftoven, and Holland; the 'air of
whiph laft is unwholefome and foggy, on acconnt of
the fens and large marfliea. The foil of the north and
weft parts is very fertile, and abounds in com and pa-
ftures. The can and fouth parts are not fo proper for
com ; but then they fapply them vrith fifh and fowl in
great plenty^ particularly ducks and geefe. Lincoln

LIN

C »« ]

L I N

UlhefriatimXtowiu By the hie tnUmA ywjgttifta^ LIKDU^ (mIc^ g«ogOt ^ ^<>^i^ ^. ^^^^ A^^i^
thia covmty nat commimicalion witk the tirtn Mer* ted oa a htU on the weft fide of the ifland. It wta
Sej, Dee* Ribhle* Ottle» Dtmrent, Severn^ Thames* built by Tlepokmut the foa of Hercules^ aocordiog
Avon* 3ne, which naTigation* indiBliiig its windiagt» to Diodorus Siculus ; by one of the Heliades* g^and-

fons of the Siiiiy named Z«Muf«/> according to. Stvabo.
It wat the native [dace of CleobuluA» one of the wife
men. Here we fee the famous temple ot Lindian Mi-
nerva, which was built be the daughters of Danaus.
Cadmus enriched thia temple with many fplendid of-
ferings. The citizens dedicated and hung up here
the feveath of Pindar's Olympic odes» written in let*
ters of gold. ^ The ruins of that fuperb edifice arefHU
to be feen oo the top of an liifh lull which overlook*
the £ea. Some remains of the waBv eonfiiling of
(bones of an enormous fize» ftill fitow it to have beeft
b'uilt in the Egyptian ftyle. The pillars and other
ornaments have been carried oflL On the moft^ ele-
vated peak of the rock are the ruins of acaftky which
may have ferved as a fortrefs to the city. Its circum*

fTff"id* above 5cx> nnks through diverfe counties.

LINDESFARN* or LANDisFAaN. See Ifoir^
JfiamL

LINDSAY (Sir Dtvid)» a cdebrated Scots poet*
was deicended of an ancient &mily» and born in the
xeigtt of king Jomea IV. at his father's feat called the
Mwntp near Cupar ia Ftfeihire. He was educated
at tk aniverfity of St Andrew's $ and* after making
At tour of £uf ope* retvmed to Scotland in the yeac
1514* .Soon after his arrival* he vras appointed gen^
Sleman of thel)ed«diamber to the king* and tutor to
the young prince* afterwaixis James V. From the
vedes prefixed to hts dseam^ vre learn that he enjoyed
teiKral other honourable employments at court : but*
^ '53S» ^ *^ deprived of aU his places* except that

4)f Liin Hug ai arms^ wiiich he held to the time of ference is very extenfive* and % filled with rubbiflu

his death. His difgrace vras moft probably owing to
hn invc&iwes againft the clergy* which are firaquent in
«11 his vrritinga. After the deceafe of king James V.
Sir David became a £irvourite of the earl of Arraa* ve^
cent of Scotland ; httt the abbot of Faiiley did not

Lindof the modem city» ftands at the foot of the
hilL A bay* of confideraUe wideneiis and depths
ferves as a harbour to the city. Ships find ffood an-
ehomgc there -m twenty fiithoms water. They are
iafely (heltered from the fouth-weft windsi. which coa»

Miffier him to continue long ia firvour with the eari. He ftandy prevail throi^ the levereft fitafqa of the year,

then retiredvto hie paternal efl;ate* and fpent the le* In the beginning of winter* they caft anchor off »

viainder of his dm in rand tranqutDity. He died ia finall village named Maflary. Before the buHding of

the year 1553* His poetical taleata* confidering the Rhodes* Liadua was the hazbour which received the

age la which he wrote^ vrere not oontemptibk } but fleets of Egypt and Tyre. It was enriched by com-

he treats the Rcanifli decgy with grtat fevtrity* and merce. Mr Savary obferves* that a judicioui govern-

writes with fosne humours but* whatever merit might, meat, by taking advantage of its harbour and happy

be for^rly attributed to hioB* he takes fach liecntioua fituation* m\ght yet reftore it to a flourifhing ftate.
iibcrties with words* ftretching* of carriag them £9r LINE* ia geometry* a quantity extended ia length

meafure d^xhime* ^atthe Scots have a proverb* wbea only* without any breadth or thicknefs. It is formed

'they hear an unufaai eipstfibn^ that* Then is natt by the flux^ or motion of a poiat. See Fuvxions^

JSc a word m a' Durvii Limdfay^ Madsenxie tells ua*. and Gsombtrt.

that his comedies were fb ncetioiiQ* that they affozd^ LtNE» in the art of war*, is underfiood of the di£<

ad abundance of mirth. Some fnffi^mcata of thefie co- pofition of an »rmy' ranged in order of battle* witb

medies are ftill preferved in asanukript. He ia faii the front extended as &r as may be* that it may not

to have aifo writtea ieveral tragedies* and to have firA be flanked.

introduced dramatic poetry into Scothnd. One of hia Lwt of Battle^ is alfo underflood of a dii^ofitioit

comedies was playnl in 151 51* Mackenzie fays* he of the fleet in the day of eagagement ; on which ooca-

underftood nothing of the rules of the theatre. Ha fion the veflcls are ufuaUy drawm up as mock aspoiSbl^

was cotemponuy with John Hejwood* the firft Eng- nn a ftraight liae^ as well to gain and keep the advan«

lifli dramatic poet. His poems are printed in one t»gt oi the wind as to run t£e fiune board. See iVo*

Snail volume ; and fragmenta of liis plays* in maiw* W Tactics*

icript* are ia Mr William Carmichadfs coUe^^ioo. fforimontaJ Lene^ m geogiaphy and aftronomy*'i^

LINDSEY*^ the third and krgefk divifioa of the line drawn parattd to the horiaoa ^f any part of the

county of LmcdaOure ia Snghnd. On the eaft aad earth.

north it is wafted by the lea* iatb. whkfa it rubs oiit SqmtoiSlal Lt»^ in geography^ is a great circle

with a large firont ; on the weft it has Yorkflure aa4 on the earth's fyAa^ eaa6kly at die diftahce of 90^

Nottiaghamfliire* fixxn which it ia parted W the ri- ^from each of the pde% aad of cqnfequence bife6Ung

vers Trent aad Dun 1 oa the fo«th it has Keftevao* the earth in that part. * From ^is imaginary line, the

from which U ia feparated by the river Witham and degrees of longitude aad hititude are couated.— In a*

theEo&Klyke* vehich iafeven miles loag* and was cut^bgr ftroaomy* the e<|iuno6iial line is that circle which the

Henrjr I. between the Witham and the Trent* for the
convenience of carriage ia diofe parts* It had its
name from Lincoln* the capital of the county* which
ftands in it* and by the Romans csUed Lmdum^ by

fun ieems to defcribe round the earth on the days of
the equinox ia March and September. See Astrono^
MY and Geography.

Meridhm LiNn^ is an ims^ginaxy citde drawn thro*

the 3ritQna landcoiu by the Saacoas UndtKoUyne^ pro- the two poles of the earth and^aay part of its. furface»

^>ably (rom its fituation oa a hill* and the lakes or •See GEocRAPaic* a'' 29.

woods that wett aocteatly thereabouts ; but the Nor^ Ship^ of tie Limm^, a veijfcl large enough to be

mani called it NicioL It giv^ title of ead and aaaiv- drawn up in the li^ aad to have a place m a fea^

^uis to the did^e of Aacafies* ighiU

Vol. X. Part X. - . L. I^nfM^

l.ine
Liiieh.

LIN r

Lirrg^ itt genealogy, la feries or focceffion of rela-
tions in various degrees, all defce&ding from the fame
common father. See Descent.

Line, alfo denotes a French meafure containing
the 1 2 th part of an inch, or the i44lh part of a foot.
Geometricians conceive the line fabdivided into iix
points. The French line anfwers to the EngliOi
barley-corn. ^

Fj/bing Line, See Fishwg Line,

Lines, in heraldry, the figures ufed in annories to
divide the (hield into different parts, and to compofe
different figures. Thcfe lines, according to their dif-
ferent forms and names, give denomination to the pie-
ces or figures which they form, except the flraight or
plain lines. See Heraldry.

LIN£A ALBA, in anktomy, the concourfe of the
tendons of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles of the
abdomen ; dividing the abdomen in two, in the middle.
It is called linea^ line, as being ftraight ; and alboj from
its colour, which is white. — The Hnea alba receives a
twig of a nerve from the intercoftals iri each of its di-
gitations or in^entings, which are viiible to the eye,
in lean perfons efpecially.

LINEAMENT, among painters/^is ufed for the
outlines of a fieice.

LINEAR NUMBERS, in mathematics, fuch as have
relation to length only ; fuch is a number which repre-
fents one fide of a plain figure. If the plain figure be a
fquare, the linear figure is called a root*

8a T . LIN

the drying, breaking, fcutching, and heckling the Line.
flax, to fit it for the fpinners ; and others- in fpinning
and reeling it, to fit it for the weaver : others (hould
be concerned in taking due care of the weaving,
bleaching, beetling, and finifhing the cloth for Che
market. It is reafonable to believe, that if thefe fe-
veral branches of the manufaflure were carried on by
diiiin6l dealers in Scotland and Ireland, where our
home-made linens are manufa^hired, the feveral parts
would be better executed, and the whole would be^
afforded cheaper, and with greater profit.

Staining of LiNftff. Linen receives a black colour
with much more difficulty than woollen or cotton. The
black flruck on linen with common vitriol and galls, or
logwood, is very periihable, and foon wa/hes out.— In-
flead of tHe vitriol, a folution of iron in four ftrongbeer
is to be made ufeof. This is well known to all the calico-
printers ; and by the ufe of this, which they call their
iron liquor^ and madder-root,' are the blacks and pur-
ples made which we fee on the common printed linens.
The method of making this iron-liquor is as follows :
A quantity of iron is put into the four ftrong beer ;
and, to promote the difibkition of the metal,-the whole
is occafionaUy well ftirrcd, the liquor occafionally
drawn off, and the ruff beat from the iron, after which
the liquor is poured on again. A length of time is
required to make the impregnation pcrfed^ ; the folu-
tion being reckoned unfit for nfe till it has fkood at
lead a twelvemonth. This folution ftains the linen

LtNEAk Problem ; that which may be folved geo- of a yellow, and different fhades of buff-colour ; and

metrically by the interfedion of two right lines, is the only known fubfiance by which thefe colours

This is called a Jtmple problem ^ and is capable but of can be fixed on linen. The cloth ffained deep with

one folution. the iron liqtior, and afterwards boiled with madder,

LINEN, in commerce, a well-known kind of without any other addition, becomes of the dark co-
doth chiefly made of flax. — Linen was not worn by lour which we fee on printed linens and cottons ; which,

the Jews, Greeks, or Romans, as any part of their or-
dinary drefs. Under tunicks of a finer texture fup-
plied the place of (hirts : Hence the occafion for fre-
quent bathing. Alexander Severus was the firft em-
peror who wore a fhirt : but the ufe of fo necef-

if not a perfe<5l black, has a very near refemblance to
it. Others are ftained paler with the fame liquor di-
luted with water, and come out purple.

Linen may alfo be ftained of a durable purple by
means of folution of gold in aqua regia. The folution

fary a garment did not become common till long after for this purpofe Ihould be as fully faturated as poffible ;

him. it fhould be diluted with three times its quantity of

water ; and if the colour is required deep, the piece,
when dry, muff be repeatedly moiflened with it* The
colour does not take place till a confiderable time,
fometimes feveral days, after the liquor has been ap-

The linen manufa£lure was probably introduced into
Britain with the firft fettlements of the Romans. The
flax was certainly firfl planted by that nation in the
Britifti foil. The plant itfelf indeed appears to have
been originally a native of the eaft. The woollen dra- plied : to haften its appeaorance, the fubjedl fhould be

pery would naturally be prior in its origin to the linen ;
and the fibrous plants from which the threads of the
latter are produced, feems to have been firft noticed
and worked by the inhabitants of Egypt. In £gypt»
indeed, the linen manufacture appears to have been
very early : for even in Jofeph's time if had rifen to a
confiderable height. From the Egyptians the know-
ledge of it proceeded probably to the Greeks^ and
firom them to the Romans. Even at this day the
Bax is imported among us from the eaftem nations ;
the weftem kind bei«g merely a degenerate fpeciet
of it.

In order to fucceed in the Knen maiinfa6^inv, one

expofed to the fun and free air, and occafionally re<
moved to a moift place, or moiftened with watec—
When folution of gold in aqua regia is foaked up in
Knen cloths, the nietal may be recovered by drying
and burning thedfe

The anacardium nut, which comes from the EafU
Indies, is remarkable for its property of ftaining linen
of a deep black colour, which cannot be wafhed out
either with foap or alkaUne ley. The ftain is at firft
of a reddifh-browD, but afterwards turns to a deep
black on expofuie to the air. The cafhew-nut, called
the anacardium of the W^'Indies^ differs from the
orienlad anacardium in its colouring quality. The

fet of people ihould be confined to the ploughing and juice of this n«t is much paler than the- ether, and
preparing the foil, fowing and covering the feed, to ftainsline»or cottonoidy of abrownifh colour; whicli
the weeding, pi^'ng, rippling, and taking care of ' indeedis very dbrable,but does nqt at all chan^ towards
'^c new feedf and watering and dreffing the flax tiQ blacknefi^ — There are, however, trees, natives of our
it is lodged at home : others fhould be concerned ia own colonieS} \riiich appear to contain juices of the

LIN [ 83 ] LIN

fame aaturi with diofe of India. Of this kind are {ieferd» two plants wbkh grow fpontaneoufly in Britain ; the

and perhaps the greater jDumber, of the fpecies of the one is the a8M jpicat^t hexlM:hriftopher, or bane-

t ^S€ciK^.toxicodendr«norpoifon-treef» MrCateihy^in his hi- berries; the other the erica haecifera tt^Of blacks

ftory of Carolina, deCoribes one. called there tbtpoi/btH berried heath> crow-berriesj or crake-berries. The

q/hf from whofe trunk flowed a liquid as black as ink, juice of the bane4>erries9' boiled with alum, is faid to

andfuppofedtobepoifionous; which reputed .poifonous yield a black ink ; and the heath'<l>erries, boiled alfo

quality- has hitherto prevented the inhabitants from
collecting or attempting to make any ufe of it« In
the Fhilofophical Tranfaftions for the year 17559 the
abb6 Mazeas gives an account of three forts of the
toxicodendron raifed in a botanic garden in France,
containing in their leaves a milky juice, which in dry-
ing became quite black, and communicated the fiune
ccttour to the linen on which it was dropped. The
linen thus ftained was boiled with foap, and came out
without the leaft diminution of colour ; nor did a
ftrong ley of wood-aihes make any change in it. Se-
veral of thefe trees have been planted in the open
ground in England, and fome ftill remain in the bifhop
of London's garden at Fulham.

That fpecies called by Mr Miller the true lac tree^
was found by Dr Lewis to have properties of a fmiilar
kind. It contains in its bark, and the pedicles and
ribs of the leaves, a juice, fomewhat milky, which foon
changed in the air to a reddifli-brown, and in two or
three hours to a deep blackiih or browniih-Uack co-
lour : whexevev the bark was cut or wounded, the in-
cifion became blackifh ; and on feveral parts of the
leaves the juice had fpontaneoufly exfuded, andlUined
them of the fame colour. This juice dropped on linen
gave at firii little or no colour, looking only like a
ipot of oil } but, by degrees, the part moiilened with
it darkened in the fame manner as the juice itfelf.
On wafhing and boiling the linen with foap, the
ftain not only was not difchaiged, but feemed to
have its blacknefs rather improved ; as if a brown
matter., with which the black was manifeftlv debafed,
.had been in part wafhed out, and left the black more
pure.

As the ntllky juice of fome of our common plants

with alum, to dye Knen of a purplifli black.

LtVMM flowered wtb Gold-i^* Dr Lewii infonns
OS of a late manu&6hire eftabhihed in London for em-
beUifhing linen with flowersand ornaments of gold-leaf.
The linen, he iays, looks whiter than moft of the printed
linens; the gold is extremely beautiful, and bears wafh-
ing well. The DoAor informs ut, that he had feen a-
piece which he was credibly informed had been wa(hed
three or four times, with only the fame precautions
which are ufed for the finer printed linens ; and on which
the ^old continued entire, and of great beauty.— Con-
cerning the procefs ufed in this manufadture, he gives
us no particulars.

Fojffile Lisstff is a kind of amianthus, which con-
fifls of flexible, parallel, foft fibres, and which has
been celebrated for the ufes to which it has been ap-
plied, of being woven, and forming an meamhuflille
cioiL Paper alfo, and wicks for lamps, have been made
of it. See Amianthus -and Asbestos.
LING, in zoology. See Gaous,
LINGEN, a ftrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Weflphalia, and capital of a county of the
fame name. It belongs to the king of Pruifia ; and
is fituated on the river Embs, in £• Long. 7. 30.
N. Lat. 52. 32.

LINGELBACH (John), an excellent painter,
bom at Franckfort on the Maine in 1625. He firft
learned the art in Holland, but perfe6bd himfelf at
Rome ; where he fludied till he was 25 years of age»
when he fettled at Amflerdam. His ufual fubjeds
are fairs, mountebanks, fea-pieces, and landfcapes,
which he compofed and executed exceeding well : hia
landfcapes are enriched with antiquities, animals, and
elegant figures; his fea-fights are full of expreffion.

turn dark<oloured or blackifli in drying, the Do6kor • exciting pity and terror, and all his obje^ are well

was induced to try the efle^ts of feveral of them on
linen. The milks of wild-poppies, garden-poppies,
dandelion, hawk-weed, and fow-thiiUe, gave brown or
brownifh-red ftainsrwhich were difcharged by wafhing
with foap ; the milks, of the fig-tree, of lettuces* and
of different kinds of fpurges, gave no colour at alL
The colourlefs juice which ifTues from hop-ftalks when
cut, flains linen of a pale-reddifh, or brownifli-red, ex-

defigned. He had an uncommon readinefs in paint-
ing figures and animals, on which account he was
pnployed by feveral eminent artifts to adorn their
landfcapes with fuch objeds ; and whatever he iaferted
in the wdrks of other maflers, were always well adap-
ted, and produced an agreeable effeft. He died in
J 687.

LINIMENT, in pharmacy, a compofition of a

trem^y durable ; the colour was deepened by repeated confiftence fomewliat thinner than an unguent, and

applications of the juice, but it never made any ap- thicker than aiy oil ufed foir anointing different parts

proach to blacknefs. The juice of floes gave likewife of the body in various intentions. The materials

a pale-brownifb fUin, which by repeated wafliings proper for compofing liniments are, fats, oil, balfams,

with foap, and being wetted with flrong. folution of and whatever enters the compofition of unguents and

alkaline fait, was darkened to a deeper brown : on plaflers.

baking the {ioe$f their juice turns red| and the red flain
which it then imparts to . hnen is, on wafhing with
foap, changed to a pale-bluifh, which alfo proves du-
rable. Thefe colours could not be deepened by rer
peated applications of the juice. The floes were tried

LINLITHGOW, the chief town of Weft Lothi-
an in Scotland. It is fuppofed to be the, LtnJitm
of Ptolemy ; and to take its name from its fituation on

a lake, which the word Lin or Liyn fignifies. It is

diftant 1 6 miles from Edinburgh, and is a royal borough

in different ftates of maturity, from the beginning of and feat of a prefhytery. It contains between three and

September to the middle df December, and the event
was always nearly the fame.

In the fifth volume of Linnseus's Ammnkates jicade*
mkd^ mention is made of a bbck colour obtained from

four thoufand fouls j and carries on a confiderable trade
in dreffing of white leather, which is fent abroad to be
manufadkured. It alfo employs many hands in drefling
of flax ; alio ia wool-combing, the wool for which is

.L a hroMght

L I IQ I M 1 ' X I N

WoughtCromfbeborden. fopettwatfoniiciif JMshU freftntUBg^ffiaRden accepted tie

nefi; t>ttt fincetke decUbe of tbit place, Burr^u^owinrfty 4>£lae, and rewarded ilia dgflmimg. yeaca hj dnnMHig

aibeat two ^nilea diftant from Linlitkgow The towa •Ua peofioiij aad bf a libeai doaatkai a£ iaaded ^b»-

ttoiiMs of due open fboet, from 'wlieoce lanes are da- -petty ietded on bim and kia faadly.

tached od botlh fides ; the hoafes are i>uilt of ftoac. It feema probafafe^ that Linoeeua'a tafte for tke %Mr

tolerabiy neat and oommpdloos ; and the ^ace is dy of aalure was caug^ faun the example of luafiithcr;
adorned with fome ftately*pubKc edifices. Thepalaoe,
btt3t,a8 Sibbald feppofed^oii the fite of a Roman ftationy
jorma a fquare with towers srt the corners, and ftands
oh «a gentle eminence, with the heautiful loch hehtnd
•k to the weft. It was one of the acibleft of the royal

'vefidences ; and watf greatly ornamented by Jaanes V. natufalift was oa the poiat of bcmg ^kftiaed ta

and VI. Within the palace is a handlbme fquare; .one mechanical employroieat: Ibrtuaaaely, hoapever, thia

£de of which is more modem than the others, having dedgn was over-mlod. la 171 7 he was fienl to

^en built by James VI. and kept in good repair tfll iehool at Wexfio; where, as his opportunities weKe«ea-

1746, when it was accidenrtaHy damaged by the king's barged, his progrefs in all his favaunte purfuits waa

■Ibrces making fures on the hearths by which means ppoportionably eatended* At this eaiiy period he paid

who, 'as he has hhnfclf iaforsicd -ik, cnltifated, as has
firft amidemeat, a garden plentiifaUy ^bored with pbata.
Young IdinasBtts iaon became acquainted arith thefe, aa
well as with the indigenous osks of his neaghbeurhood.
Yet, from the ftraitnefe of his father's iacome,our yooag

attention to other branches of natural hilLory, parti-
culaHy to the kaowledge of infe£U.

The firft part of his academical education Linnaeua
received under pvofefibr ^oteus, at LrUnd, in Scania^
who favoured his indinatioos to the ftudy of aataral
hiftory. After a Mfidenoc of about a year, he
ved in i jiS to Upial. Heae he foon

«the joifls were burnt. A ilone ornamented fountain in
the middle of the court was deflroyed at the fame
•time. The other fides of the fquare are more ancient.
In one is a room ninety-five feet long, thirty feet fix
■Inches wide, and thirty-three high. At one end is a
gallery whh three arches, perhaps for mufic. Narrow
'galleries fun quite round the old part, to preferve com-
munications with the rooms ; in one of whidi the un» dofc friendlhip with Artedi, a native of the peovinoe
fortonate Mary Stuart firft faw light. On the north of Angermama, who had already been four years a ihi-
We of the high ftreet, on an eminence eaft of the pa- dent in that untverfity, and, like himfdf, haul a ftrong
lace, Hands St Michaels chuaxh ; a handfoiile ftru^ure^ bent to the ftudy of natural hiftory iirgeneni, but par-
where James V. intended to have ereded a throne and ticularly to ichthyology. Soon after his refidenoe at
twelve ftafis for the fovereign and knights of the order Up&l, our author was aUb happy enough to obtaaa
of St Andrew. In the market-place is another fouft- the ^svour of feveral geatiemen of eftabliihed chara^nr
■tain of two ftories with eight fpouts, and furmounted in literature. He was ia a particular ms^naer «dcoii-
tike the former with an imperial crown. In one of the raged in the purfait'of hisiludies by the patronage of Dr
ftreets is fliown the gallery whence the regent Munray Ohus Celfius, at that tioie proMRar of divinity, and the
aras fhot^. Hw was a houfe of Carmelites,, founded vcftapcrofnaturalliiftory in Sweden; who, being Arack
^y the townfpeople in 1 290, dellroy«d by the reformers with the diligence of Lianseua in deferibing the plante
.1559. The family of Livingfton, who take the title
«f carl' from this place, are hereditary keepers of thia
•alace, as alfo bailifPft of the king'b bailifry, and con«
Aables of Blackne& caftlc ; but by their concern ' in
idle rebeSton of 171 5 all thefe honours with their eftate
were forfeited to the crown. Sir James L»vingfton»
ton of the lirft earl by marriage with a daughter of have a very ftriking proof o^his merit and attam-

of the Upfal garden, jiad his exteofive knowledge of
their names, not only patronized bim in a general way»
but admitted him to his houle, his table, and his lir
brary. Under iiieh encouragement it is not ftrange
that our author made a raptd progreis, both ia hia
Audies and the efteem ^ the profeflbrst in fad, we

Callendflu-, was created eari of Callendar by Charies I.
1641, which title funk into the other.

LINNJELUS (Sir Charles), a celebrated botanfft
and natural hiftonan, was bom on May 24. 1707, ia
a village called Roe/huh in Smaland, where his £aither»
Nicolas Linnseus, was then vicar, but afterwards pre-
ferred to the curacy of Stenhrohult. We are U^d, that

ments, inafmuch as we €nd, that, after oidy two years
refidence, he was thought fufficiently ^uai^Sed to give
le6bures occafionaUy from the botanic diair, in the
«ooia of profeffor Rudbeck.

In the year 1731, die royal academy of fcieaoes at
\5^{al havm? for 4baie time meditated the defiga of
inippoving the natural hiftory of Sweden, at the in-

'On the farm where Linnsus was born> theve yet ftands 'ftanee paiticularly of ynAtVon Celfius and Radbacic*

41 large lime-tree, firom which his anceftors took the
fumaaies of TViandeTf Lmdekusy and Lmruius ; and
*«hat this origin of furnames, taken from natural ob*
je6is, is not uncommon in Sweden.

This eminent man, whofe talents^ enabled him to re-
form the whole fcicnce of natural hiftory, accumulated,
<very early in life, fome of the higheft honours that
await the moft fuccefsful proficients in medical fcieace %
4nce we find that he was made profieflbr of phyfic and
botany, in the univorfity of Upfal,. at the age of 34 ;
and fix years afterwards, phyfician to his fovereign
the late king Adolphus ; who in the year 1753 hoooua*
jtA him ftill farther, by creating him knight of the op*
dcr of the Polar Star. His honours did nottarmiaate
teci: for in 1757 he was aoaaUedf and in 1776 the

deputed Limueus to mAit the tour of Laplaad, with
the fole view of 'exploring the natcn^d hiftory of that
ar^ic region y to which undertaking, his reputation,
already higb as a naturalift, and the Aaeagth of his
conftttution^ equally recommended him. He left
Upfal the 13th of May, and took hia roitte to
Oevaba or Gevels, the principal town of Gcftrida^
45 miles djftaot from UpfaL Hence he trav^ed
through Hdfingiand into Medalpadia^ wfte^a he made
an exctfrfion, iad afeended a vemarkaMe mountain^
before 'he reached Mudwickfwald, the chief Iowa of
H^fingland. Fvom hence he went through An|;er>
manland to Hemofand,^ a iCea-port on the Bochnic
gulf, 70 adks diftaat ttom JJ^udwKkfwald. Wheir
he had proceeded thus- fiur, he found it proper to re^

5 tard

LIN

r 85 1

LIN

Ufd Int }0mntjf » tke fjpnag imt 'Sot MBciently «d-* die covatry en the eafteinikk of the Boduiaii gulf: Uob^b^

vanced ; «nd took tiin oppottunky #f vifiting liM»fe Im firft ftsge, thereforey was to Uk in Eaft Bothnia ; * "^^

tcmaxkflfble caTcrns on die (bnunit <Sf mount Skokt from thence to Old and New Carlebj, 84 mfles foudi

t^Kongh at the hazard of his life. • from Uhu He continaed his route through Wafa,

' • \^en Ltmneus arriTed at Uma^ in Weft Both- Chriftianftadt, and Biomeburgh, to Abo, a fmall «nl-

mia* about 96 mfles from Hemofandy- he quitted the Tcrfity in Finland. Winter was now fetting in apace ^

"he therefore crofled the gulf by the idand of Aland^i

BobEc roady and took his courfe dirough the woods
weftwardy in order firft to traverfe the moft ibuthera
parts of Lapland. Being now come to the country
that was more particularly the obje^ of his inquiries,
equally a ftranger to the language and to the manners
of the people, and without any affociate, he committed
bimfelf to the ho^tality of the inhabitants, and ne-
ver failed to experience it fully. He fpeaks in ieveral
places, with peculiar fatisfafkion, of the innocence and
fimplioity of dieir lives and their freedom from difeafes.
In this excurfion he reached the mountains towards
Norway ; and, after encouhtering great faardfhips,
returned into Weft Bothnia^ qmte exl\aufted with
fetigue. Our traveller next vifited Pitha and Lula,
upon the g^ of Bothnia ; from iK^ich latter place he
took again a weftem route» by proceeding up the ri-

and arrived at Upfal in November, after having per*
formed, and that moftly on footy a "Journey of ten de«
grees of latitude in extent, exclufively of thofe devi*
ations which fuch a defign rendered neceflary.

In 1^33 he vifited and examined the feveral mines ii»
Sweden ; and made himfelf fo well acquainted with mi-
neralogy and the docimaftfc art, that we find he wa»
fufficiently qualified to give tenures on thofe fubjeds
upon his return to the univeriity. The outlines of hia^
iyftem on mineralogy appeared in the early editions of
the Sji/iema Nature ; but he did not exemplify the whole
until the year 1 768.

In the year 1734 Linnaeus was fentby baron Reu--
terholm governor of Dalekaxlia, with feveral other na-
tundifU in that province, to inveftigate ^e natural pro--

ver of that name, and vifited the ruins of the temple of du£tions of that part of the Swedi£ dominions ; and it
Jockniock in Lula Lapland or Lap Mark : thence he was in this journey that our author firft laid the plan
traveried what is called the Laplati4 De/$rt^ deftitute of of an excellent inftitution, which was afterwards exe-

«H villages, cultivation, roads, or any conveniences!
inhabited only by a few fbaggliag'people^ originally
defcended from the Finlanders, and who fettled in this
country in remote ages, being entirely a diftinfk people
from the Laplanders. In this diftri6t he mfcended a

cutcd, in a certain degree at leaft» by himfelf, with the
affiftance of many of his pupils, and the reftilt publifh-
ed under the title of Pan SuecuSf u^ the fecond volume
of the Amamiates Acadenaca*

After the com|^etion of this^ expedition, it appeara-

noted mountain called WaUevari ; in feeaking of that Linnaeus refided for a time at Fi^un, the princi-
which he has given us a pleafant relation of his finding pal town in Dalekarlia; where he tells us, that he

a fingidar and beautiful new plant (Andromeda tetrago'
na) when travelling within the ar6^ic circle, with the
fun in his view at midnight, in fearch of a Lapland
hut. From hence he croued the Lapland Alps into
Finmark, and traverfed the ihores of the north fea as
bx as Sallero.

Thefe journeys from Lula and Pitha on ^e Both-
nian gulf, to the north fliore, were made on foot ; and

taught mineralogy and the docimaftic art, and pra6ti-
fed pfayfic ; and where he was very hofpitaUy treated
by Dr More, the phyfician of the place* It alfo ap-
pears, that he contra6^ed at this time an intimacy with*
one of thatt gentleman's daughters, whom he married
about five years afterwards upon his fettling as a phyfi-
cian at Stockholm. — In this journey he extended his
travels quite acrois the Dalekarliaa Alps into Norway i

our traveller was attended by two Laplanders, one his but we have no particular account of his difcoveries in*
interpreter, and the other his guide. lie tells us, that that kingdom. In 1735 Linncus travelled over many
the vigour and ftrength of thofe two men, both old, other parts of Sweden, fome parts of Denmark andf
and fufficiently loaded widi his baggage, excited his Germany, and fixed in Holland, where he chiefiy re-
admiration ; fince they appeared quite unhurt by their fided until his return to Stockholm, about the year
labour, v/hile he himfelf, although young and robuft, I73p* In 1735* the year in which betook the degree
was frequently quite exhaiifted. In this journey he of M. D. he publifhed the firft fketch of his Sjfiem0^
was wont to fleep under the boat with which they ford- Naiuray in a very compendious way, and in the form'
ed the rivers, as a defence againft rain, and the gnats, of tables only, in 12 pages in fblio. By this it s^pears,«
which in the Lapland fummer are not lefs teazing than that he had at a very early period of his life fcertainly
in the torrid zones. In defcending one of thefe ri- before he was 24 years old) laid the bafis of that greats
vers, he narrowly efcaped perifliing by the overfetting ftrufture which he afterwards raifed, not only to the in-
•f the boat, and loft many of the natural productions creafe of his. own fame, but to that of natundTcieoce.
which he had colleded. ' In 1 7j6» Linnseus came into England^, and vi'
Linnpeus thus fpent the greater part of the fummer fited Dr Dillcnius, the late learned profeiTor at Ox-

in examining this ardic region, and thofe mountains
on whichf tour years afterwards, the French philbfo-
phers feciired in^mortal fame to Sir Ifaac Newton. At
length, after having fiifPered incredible Iktigues and

ford, whom he jufkly eonfidcred as one of the firft bo--

t.anifts in Europe. He mentions with particular re<^

fpefk the civilities he received from him, and the pri-

'^eges he gave hiun of infpeding his own and the

hardihips in climbing precipiees, pafing rivers in mi*- Sherardtan col!e6fcibna^ of plants. It is needlefs to

lerable boats, fuffering repeated yicilfitudes of extreme &y,. that he" vifi^ted' Dr* Martyn, Mr Rand, and Mr

heat and cold, and not unfrtquently hunger and thirft*. Miller, and diat he was in' a more fingular manner

he returned to Tomoa in September. He did not indebted to the friendihip of Dr Ifaac Lawfon. He*

take the fame route from Tomoa as when ht came alfo contra6ted an intimate friendship with Mr Petev

Mto Laplaad, luenng deccrmined to ^vifit and eaaminc CoUinibn^ which was reciprocally tncrcafed by a muU

titude

L I N E 86 ] LIN

Linneus.^ titode of good offices^ and continued to the laft with- men^ aflTorded him great fatisfa^on* He had in- L,hmmm>

out any diminution. Dr Boerhaavc had furnifhed him tended to have gone from thence into Gennany, to

with letters to our great naturaliil Sir Hans Sloane ; vifit Ludwig and the celebrated HaUer» with whom

but, it is with regret that we muft obferve, they did Jie was in clofe correlpondence ; but he was not able

not procure him the reception which the warmth of to complete this part of his intended route^ and was

his recommendation feemed to claim. obliged to return without this gratification.

One of the mod agreeable circumilances that hap- Our author did not fail to avail himfelf of every
pened to Linnaeus during his refidence in Holland^

arofe from the patronage of Mr Clifford^ in whofe
houfc he lived a coniiderable part of his time^ being
now as it were the child of fortune i^^Exivi pat fid
triglnta fex nummis aureis dives — are his own words.
With Mr Clifford, however, he enjoyed pkafures and
privileges fcarcely at that time to be met with elfe-
where in the world; that of a garden excellently ftored
with the fined exotics, and a library fumifhed with
almoil every botanic author of note. How happy he
found himfelf in this fituation, thofe only who have
felt the fame kind of ardour can conceive. Whilft in
Holland, our author was recommended by Boerhaave

advantage that accefs to the (everal mufeums of this
country afforded him, in every branch of natural hi-
ftory ; and the number and importance of his publi-
cations, during his abfence from his native coun«
try^ fui&ciently demonflrate that fund of knowledge
which he nluil have imbibed before, and no lefs teflt'
fy hit extraordinary application* Thefe were, Sjffe'
ma Naturs^ FundamcrUa Botanica^ BibRoibeca Botanica^
and Genera Plantarttm ; the laft of which is juftly con*^
iidered as the moft valuable of all the works of this
celebrated author.' What immenfe application had
been bellowed upon it, the reader may eafily conceive
on beine informed, that before the publicatfon of the

to fill the place, then vacant, of phylician to the ' firfl edition the author had examined the charaders

Dutch fettlement at Surinam ; but he declined it on ac-
count of his having been educated in fo oppodte a
climate.

Befides being favoured with the particular patro-
nage and friend/hip of Boerhaave and Mr Clifford,

of 8000 flowers. The lafl book of Linnseus's coqi-
pofition, publifhed during his ilay in Holland, was
the Claffes Plantaruniy which is a copious illufbatios
of the fecond part of the Fundamental

About the latter end of the year 1 738, or the be-

as is above mentioned, our author had alfo the plea-^ ginning of the next, our author fettled as a phyfician

fure of being contemporary with, and of reckoning
among the number of his friends, many other learned
perfons who have fmce proved ornaments to their pro-
feilion, and whofe merit has mofl defervedly raifed
them to fame and honour. Among the£e we may pro-
perly mention Dr John Burman, profeifor of botany
at. Amfterdam, whole name and family are well known
in the repubh'c of letters, and to whom our author dedi-
cated his Bibliotbeea Bptarucaf having been greatly af-
fifted in compiling -that work by the free accefs he
had to that gentleman's excellent library ; John Fre-
derick Gronovius of Leyden, editor of Clayton's Flo"
ra Virgmca^ and who very early adopted Linnaeus's
fyHem; Baron Van Swieten, late phyfician to the
Emprefs Queen \ Ifaac Lawfon, before mentioned,
afterwards one of the phyficians to the Britifh army,^
who died much regretted at Oofterhout in the year
J 747, and from whom Linnaeus received fingular and
very important civilities ; Kramer, fince well known
for an excellent treatife on the docimaflic art ; Van
Roy en, botanic profclTor at Leyden ; Litberkun of
Berlin, famous for his fkill in microfcopical infbruments
and experiments. To thefe may be added alfo tlie
names of Albinus and Gaubins, and of others, were
it requifite to (how that our author's talents had very
early rendered him confpicuous, and gained him the
regard of all thofe who cultivated and patronifed any
branch of medical fcience, and to which, doubtlefs,
the fingular notice with which Boerhaave honoured
him do not a little contribute.'

Early in the year 1738, after Linn^ua had left
Mr Clifford, and, as it fhouTd fee^, when he refided

at Stockholm ; where he feems to have met with con-
fiderable oppoHtion, and was oppreffed with many
difficulties ; but all of thefe at length he overcame, and
got into extenfive pra6^ce ; and foon after his fettle-
ment, married the lady before fpoken of. By the in-
terefl of Count Teflin, who was afterwards his great
patron,' and even procured medals to be flruck in ho-
nour of him, he obtained the rank of phyfician to the
fleet, and a ftipend from the citizens for giving lec-
tures in botany. And what at tliis time efpeciaDy
was highly favourable to the advancement of his cha-
ra6ler and fame, by giving him an opportunity of dif
playing his abilities, was the eflabUfhment of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm > of which
Linnsus was conflituted the firfl prefident, and to
which eflablifhment the king granted feveral privi-
leges, particularly that of free poflage to aU papers
dire6led to the fecretary. By the rules of the academy,
the prefident held his place but three months. At the
expiration of that term,Linn8eus made hitOrathde memo^
r^'dihtu in In/e3isj0&.. 3. 1739; in which he endeavours
to excite an attentii>n and inquiry into the knowledge
of infects, by difplaying the many fingular phenomena
that occur in contemplating the nature of thofe ani-
mals, and by pointing out, in a variety of iaflances,
their tifefulnefs to mainkind in particular, and to the
economy of nature in general.

During all this time, however, Linnaeus appears to
have had his eye upon the botanic and medical chair
at Upfal, at this time occupied by Rudbeck, who
was far advanced in life* We learn indeed that he
was fo intent on purfuing and perfecting his great de-

with Van Royen, he had a. long and dangerous fit of figns in the advancement of his favourite ftudy of na-

ficknefs ; and upon his reco\'ery went to Paris, where
he was properly entertained by the Juffieus, at that
time the firft botanifls in France. The opportunity
this gave him of infpefUng the Herbaria of Surian
ftad Tournefort^ and thofe of the above«named gentle«

ture, that he had determined, if he failed in procuring
the profefforfhip at Upfal, to accept the offer that
had been made to him by Haller of filling the botanic
chair at Gottingen. However, in courfe of time, he
obtained his wi&. In the year 174X1 npon there-

fignation

LIN [ 87

.inraeiit. fignation of Roberg, he was conftituted joint profcf-
for of phyfic and phyiician to the king with Rofen,
who had been appointed in the preceding year on the
death of Rudbeck. Thcfc two colleagues agreed to
divide the medical departments between them; and
their choice was confirmed by the univerfity. Rofen
took anatomy, phyfiology, pathology, and the the-
rapeutic part ; Linnaeus, natural hiftory, botany, ma-
teria medica, the dietetic part, and the diagnoiis mor-
borum.

During the interval of his removal from Stock-
holm to Upfal in confcquence of- this appointment,
our profefibr was deputed by the ftates of the king*
dom to make a tour to the iflands of Oeland and Goth-
land in the Baltic, attended by fix of the pupils, com-
miflioned to make fuch inquiries as mi^ht tend to
improve agriculture and arts in the kmgdom, to
which the Swedifh nation had for fome time paid a
particular attention. The refult of this journey was
yerf fuccefsful, and proved fully fatisfadory to the
ftates, and was afterwards communicated to the pu-
bKcl On his return he entered upon the profeifor-
fliip, and pronounced before the univerfity his oration
de Pertgrinailonum intra Patriam neceffitate^ October 1 7,
1741 ; in which he forcibly difplays the ufefulnefs of
fuch exeuHions,. by pointing out to the iludents that
vail field of objc6is which their country held out to
their cultivation^ whether in geography, phyfics, mi-

] LIN

From the time that Linnaeus and Rofen were' apii> I Jnacut;.
pointed pfofeffors at Upfal, it fhould feem that the
credit of that univerfity, as a fchool of phyfic, had
been increafing : numbers of fludents reforted thither
from Germany, attracted by the chamber of thefe two
able men ; and in'Sweden itfelf many young men were
invited to the fludy of phyfic by the excellent manner
m which it was taught, \Wio- otherwife would have en-
gaged in di£Fierent purfuits.

Whilil Linnaeus was meditating one of his capital
performances, which had long been expedied and greats
ly wifiied for, he was interrupted by a tedious and
painful fit of the gout, which left him in a very weak
and difpirited flate; and, according to the intelligence
that his friends gave of him, nothing was thought to
have contributed more to the rcfloration of his fpirit»
than the feafonable acquifition, at this jundlure, of a
colle(5^ion of rare and undefcribed plants.

The fame which our author had now acquired by
his Sjftana Naiur^^ of whidi a iixth edition, much en-
larged, had been pubhfhed at Stockholm in 1 748 in
8vo, pp. 232. with eight tables explanatory of the
claffes and orders (and which was alfo republifhed
by Gronovius at I^eyden^ had broueht, as it were, a
conflux of every thing rare a ad valuable in every branch
of nature, firom all parts of the globe, into Sweden*
The king and queen of Sweden had their feparate coir
le6Uons of rarities; the former at Ulrickfdahl; the

nendogy, botany, zoology, or economics, and by fhow- , latter, very rich in exotic infeds and fhells, procured at
ing the benefit that muii accrue to themfelves and their ^ ^1 » r in„ • 1^ 1^ i^ .t^

country as rewards to their diligence. That animated
fpirit which runs through the whole of this compofition,
renders it one of the moil pleafing and inflru«5live of all
•ur author's productions.

' Linnaeus was now fixed in the fituation that was
the beft adapted to his character, his talle, and abili-
ties ; and which feems to have been the obje6l of his am-
bition and centre of his hopes. Soon after his eftablifh-
ment, he laboured to get the academical garden, which
had been founded in 1657, put on a better footing,
and very foon effeded it ; procuring alfo a houfe to be
built for the refidence of the profefTor. The whole had
been in ruin ever fince the fire in 1702 ; and at the
time Linnzus was appointed profefTor of botany, the
garden did not contain above fifty plants that were ex-
otic. His correfpondence with the firii botanifts in
Europe foon fupplied him with great variety. He
received Indian plants from Juflieu of Paris, and from
Van Royen of Leyden ; European plants from Haller
and Ludwig ; American plants from the late Mr Col-
linfon, Mr Catefby, and others ; and variety of annuals
from .Dillcnius : in fhort, how much the garden owed
to his diligence and care in a few years, may be feen by
the catalogue pi^lifhed under the title oiHortm Upfdunfu ,
txhihcttt Planiat exoticas horio Upfalienfis Acadenns afeje
(Linn£o)iUatas ah anno 1 742, in tmnum 1 748, odditis^ dif*
ferentiit fymonymtSi baUttUi^mbuSf hofpiiiisy rarwrumqut de»
Jcriptiombus^ingratiamJiudiofejuven[utis\ Holnu 1748,
Svo, pp. 306. tab. 3. By this catalogue it appears, that
•the profefTor had introduced lioo fpecies, exclufively
ef al the S wedifh plants and of varieties ; which latter,
in ordinary gardens, amount not unfrequently to one-
^ird of the whole number. The preface contains a
curious hiflory of the climate at Upfal, and the pro-
{ refs of the feafons throughout the whole year*

a great expence, at the palace of Drottningholm ; both
of which our aothor was employed in arranging and de*
fcribing. Befides thefe, the mufeum of the royal acade-
my of Upfal had been augmented by a confiderable do-
nation from the king, whilfl hereditary prince, in
1 746 ; by another from Count Gyllenborg the year be-
fore ; by a third from M» Gri]l> an opulent citizen o£
Stockholm.

From this time we fee the profefTor in a more
elevated rank and fituation in life* His reputation
had already procured him honours from almoft all the
royal focieties in Europe ; and his own fovereign^
truly fenfible of his merit, aiid greatly efleemmg
his chara^er and abilities, favoured him with a mark
of his diftinCtion and regard, by creating liim a
knight of the polar flar. It was no longer laudatur et
affret. His emoluments kept pace with his fame and
honours : his pradice in his profcfTioh became lucra-
tive ; and we find htm foon after pofTefTed of his couo-
try-houfe and gardens at Hammarby, about five miles-
from Upfal. He had moreover received one of the
mod flattering teflimonics of the extent and magrnitudc
of his ^me that perhaps was ever fhown to any lite-
rary chara«5ler, the flate of the nation which conferred
it, with all its circumflanc^s, duly eonfidered. This-
was an invitation to Madrid firom the king of Spain,
there to prefide as a naturalift,. with the offer of an an-
nual penfion for life of 2000 pifloles, letters of nobi-
lity, and the perfcA free excrcife of his own religion :*
Bat, after the moft perfedi acknowled^ents of
the fingular honom:- done him, he returned for anfwer^
* that if he had any merits^ they were due to his owiv
country.*

In the year 1755, the Roy^ Academy of Sciences*
at Stockholm honoured our profeflbr with one of the
firfl premiums, agreeably to the will of Count Sparrec;:

wSo*

L I N

UtHMww. who had dccived two ^old mcdaii» often dncttt rtint
' each, to be anniiatty given by the academy to the au-

thors of fuch papers, in the precedinor year's Stock-
hohn A^iy as (hould be adjudged moft ufefoi in pro-
rxnoting agricuhure particularly, and all brandies of ru-
dnl economy. This medal bore on -one £de the arms
4>f the count, with this motto, Si^eijhs m fcientus amor
Fredirici Sparrtm Linnaeus obtained it in con&qnence
lof a ps^er De Phmtis qu£ jilpium Snecicamm mdigetut,
magna ret tKomonuca et mediea emobmmUo, fieri po/Jfnt ; and
the ultimate intention was to Tcconnend dbefe plants,
/as adapted to culture in Lapland* This paper was
tnferted in the Stockhohn A6b for 1754, VoL XV.
Linnaeiis alfo . obtained the framum centum aureorumf
propofed hj the Imperial aoKlemy of fdenccs at Pe«
termurg, for the beft paper written to eftabliih or dff«

S8 ) L I K

commemoration was hdd at Stockholm, bnt, as tflifl
higher tribute, in his &eech from the dtrone to the %U
iiembly of the ftates, ne lamented Sweden's lofii by hi*
death* Nor was Linassos honoured only in his owil
country* The late worthy profefibr oS bptany at
Edinburgh, Dr Hope, not ooly pronounced an eulo*
gium in honour of him before his ftudents at the open*
mg of his le£bure8 in the ipring 1778, but itfo laid
the fonndation-ftone of a monument (which he after-
wards erc6ied) to his memory, in the botanic gaidcn
there ; which, while it perpetuates the name and me-
rits of Linnaeus, will do honour to the founder, and, it
may be hoped, prore the means of raifing an emula^
tion fitvounble to that fcience which this illuftrious
Swede fo highly dignified and improved.
As to the private and perfonal diaraf^er of this il*

piDve, by new arflruments, the do^rinc of the fexes of hiftrious philof(^her : His ftature waa diminutive and

plants. It was, if poifible, an additional glory to Lin*
nsBus to have merited this premium from the Peterf-
burgh academy $ inafimiok as a profeiTor of that fo«
ciety, a few years before, had with mote than common
«eal, although with a futility like that of the other
antagonifts of our author^ endeavoured to overturn the
whole Linnaean fyftem of botany, by attempting to
ihow that the do£brine of the Jfexes of plants had no
foundation in nature, and was Unfupported by hSU
:ftnd experiments.

It appears that Linnaeus, vfoa the whole, cnjoyad
A good conftitution ; but that he was fometimes f<

puny ; his head huge, ;uid its hinder part very high ^
his look was ardeat, piercing, and apt to daunt the
beholder ; his ear not fenlible to mufic ; his temper
quick, but eafily appeafed*

Nature had, in an eminent 'manner, been liberal in
the endowments of his mind. He feems to have been
poffcfled of a lively imagination, corre^ed however by
a ftrong judfirment, and guid^ by the laws of fyftem*
Add to thcle, the moft retentive memory, an unremit*
ting tnduftry, and the greateft perfeveraace in all hit
purfuits; as is evident from that continued vigour witk
which he profecuted the defign, that he appears to have

merely afflicted with a henueramaf and was not exempt* formed fo early in life, of totally reforming and fiii»

•cd firam jthe gout* About the dofe of 1776, he was bricating anew the whole feience of natural hiftory %

fdaed with an s^plexy, which left him paralytic; and and this fabric he raifed, and grave to it a degree of

«t the beginning of the year 1 777^ he fiiffered another ptvfie£Uon unknown before ; and had nsoreovev die un«-

iboke, which very much impaired his mental powers, common felicity of liring to fee hi» own ftruAure rifo

But the difeafe f^ppofed to have been the more tm- above all others, notwithftanding every difencourago*

jnediate cauiSe of his death, was an ulceration of the meat its author at firft laboured under, and the oppo*

urinary bladder; of which, after a tedious indifpofition, fition it afterwards met with* Neither has any writer

ht died, January 1 1* 177^, in the 71ft year of his age. more cautiouily avoided that common error of building

•*His princ^)al other woiks, befide thofe already men- his own fame on the ruin of another sum's. He every

tioned, are. The Iter OdanScnm et GotlanScmn, Iter where acknowledged the feveral merits of each author's

^anutmif Flora Suecica, Fauna Snecka, Materia Me-'
Sm^ Plnhfiplna Botemica^ Genera Morhormn, different
fxipers in the Jl8a UpfaUenJta^ and the Amatutates Aca^
Jemica The laft of diis greafr man's treatifes was the
Manttfa Altera^ publiHied in 1771 ; but before his
4leath he had finifhed the greateft part of the Maniiffa
^ertiof afterwards completed and puUiihed by his
Ion.

To the lovers of fcience it will not appear ftrange,
nor will it be unpleafant to hear, that uncommon re-
fytB. was ihown to the memory of this great man. We
are told, that '* on his death a general mourning took
phce at Upfal, and that his funeral pioceffion was at-
tended by the whole univeriity, as well profefibrs as

fyftem; and no man appears to have been more fenfible
of the partial defeds of his own. Thofe anomalies
which had principally been the objects of criticifm, he
well knew every artificial arrangement muft abound
with ; and having laid it down as a firm maxim, that
every fyftem muft finally reft on its intrinfic merit, he
ariUingly commits his own to the Judgment of pofte*
rity* Perhaps tllere is no circumftance of Linneus's
life which (hows him in a more dignified light than hia
condu^ towards his opponents. Difavowing eontro-
verfy, and juftly confidering it as an unimportant and
fruitlefs facrifice of time, he never replied to any» nu-
merous as they were at one feafon.

To all who fee the aid this extraordinary man haa

ftudents, and the pall fupported by fixteen dolors of brought to natural fcience, his talents muft appear in a

phyfic, all of whom had been his pupils." The king very illuftrious point of view ; but more efpecially to

x>f Sweden, after the death of Linnsus, ordered a me- thcie who, from fimilarity of tafte, are qualified to fee

dal to be ftruck, of which one fide exhibits Linnacus's more diftindly the vaft extent of his original defigOf

buft and name, and the other Cybele, in a deje^ked at- the greatnefs of his labour, and the elaborate execution

iitude, holding in her left hand a key, and furrounded he has given to the whole* He had a happy conir

«rith animals and growing plants ; with this legend, mand pf the Latin tongue, which is alone the language

Deam biSut angit amjffl; and beneath, Pofi obitum Up* of fcience ; and ne man ever applied it more fucceia-

faBa, Se z. Jan. m.dcc.lzxtiii. Rege jwbente.'-^Thc fully to hispurpofes, or gave to delcription fuch c<^

^me generous monarch not only honoured the Royal pioufnefs, united wiUi that precifion and concifenefr

Academy of Sciences with his pmeace when Limueus'a which fo counently charaAerife bis writings.

L I N

[ 89 3

LIN

l^tnDeu

^e* vdonr oT UnDaeo^t fodiaatioitt to ibe ft'ndy of will afford. ThdTe birds w31 have yooncr ones three or Lin&ed

tiature, from his eaHieft years^ and that uncommon ap-
plication which he beftowed upon it^ g^ve him a moft
•comprehenfive view both of its pleafures and ufefulnefs,
^t the fame time that it opened to him a wide field
•hitherto bat little cultivated, efpecially in his own
•country. Hence he was early led to r^r^y that the
^udy of natural hiftory, as a public infUtution» had

four times a-year, efpecially iS. they are taken away be- Q
fore they are able to leave the oefts. Lintenwrn.

When linnets are to be taught to whiftle tunes, or
to imitate the notes of any other bird, they mull be
taken from the old one when they are not above four
day's old ; for at this time they have no idea of the
note of the old ones, and will be readily taught to

4iot made its way into the univeriities ; in many of modulate their voice like any thing that is moft famt-
nvhich, logical difputations and metaphyfical theories liar to their ears, and -within the compafs of their

•had too long prevailed, to the exclufion of more ufcfitl
fcience. Availing himfidf therefore of the advantages
^vhich he derived from a large fhare of eloquence, and
an animated ftyle, he never foiled to difphy, in a lively
«nd convincing manner, the relation diis fludy hath
<o the public good; to incite the great to countenance
And prote^ it ; to encourage and allure you^h into
«it8 purfVutB, by opening its manifold fources of pleafure
to their view, and (howing them how greatly this agree-
«ble employment would add, in a variety of infbinces,
both to their comfort and emolument. His exteufive
view of natural hidory, as conheded with alm«ft all
the arts of life, did not allow him to confine thefe mo-
tives aild incitements to thofe only who were defigned
for the pradicc of phyfic. He alfo laboured to infpire
the great and opulent with a tafle for this lludy ; and

tliroats. More care is required in feeding them when
taken thus young, tban when they are left in the neft
tiU nearly fledged ; but thcv will be reared very well
upon a food half bread and half rapefeed boiled and
bruifed : this muH be given them feveral times a-day.
It muft be made freih every day, and given them fuf-
ficijntly moift, but not in the extreme. If it be in the
leafk four, it gripes and kills them j and if too ftifF,
it is as mifchievous by binding them up. They muft

be hung up as foon as taken from the neft, under the
bird whofe note they arc intended to learn ; or, if they
are to be taught to whiftle tunes, it muft be done by
giving them TelFons at the time of feeding ; for they
will profit more, while young, in a few days, than in
a long time afterwards, and will take in the whole me-
thod, of their notes before they are able to crack hard
wiihed particularly that fuchas were devoted to an ec- feeds. Some have attempted to learn them to fpeak
cleftaftic life fhould (hare a portion of natural fcience ; ' in the manner of the parrot or other birds ; and they

not only as a means of fweetening their rural fituation,
confined, as many are, perpetually to a country refi-
dence, but as what would almoft inevitably lead, in %
variety of inftances, to difcoveries which only fuch fi-
tuations could give rife to, and which the learned in
great cities couU have no opportunities to make. Not
to add, that the mutual communication and enlarge-
ment of this kind of knowledge among people of equal
rank in a country fituation, muft prove one of the
ftrongeft bonds of union and friendfhip, and contri-
bute, in a much higher degree than the ufual perifh-
ing amufements of the age, to the pleafures and advan-
tage of fociety. *

Linnxus lived to enjoy the fruit of his own labour
in an uncommon degree. Natural hiftory raifod it-
felf in Sweden, under his culture, to a flate of per-
fedion unknown elfewhere ; and was from thence dif-
feminated thnough aU Europe. His pupils difperfed
shemfelves all over the globe ; and, with their mafter's
'fame, extended both fcience and their own. More
than this, he lived to fee ihe fovereigas of Europe
eftabliih feveral public inftitiitions in favour of this
iludy ; and even proleflbrfhips eftablifhed in divers
vmiveriities for the fame purpofe, which do honour to
their founders and patrons, and which have excited a
curiofity for the fcience, and afenfe of its worth, that
cannot 'fail to fi:rther its progrefs, and in time raife it
to that rank which it is intitled to hold among the
j>ufuits of mankind-

will arrive at fome fort of perfedion in it, with great
pains.

LINSEED, the feed of the plant linum ^Liii-

feed fleeped and bruifed in water gives it very foon a
thick mucilaginous nature, and communicates much of
its emollient virtue to it. See Linum.

LINT. See Flax, Linen, and Linum..

Lint, in furgery, is the fcrapings of fine linen,
ufed by furgeons in dreffing wounds. It is made in-
to various forms, which acquire different names accor-
ding to the difference of their figures. Lint made

up in an oval or orbicular form is called a pUdgH ; if in
a cylindrical form, or in (hape of a date, or oUve-ftone,
it is called a tloffii

Tbefe different forms of lint are required for many
|>urpo(ies ; as, i . To ftop blood in frefli wounds, by fill-
ing them up with dry lint before the application of a
bandage : though, if fcraped lint be not at hand, a
piece of fine linen may be torn into fmall rags, and ap-
plied in the fame manner. In very large haemorrhages
the lint or rags fhould be firft dipped in fome ftyptic
liquor, as alcohol, or oil of turpentine ; or fprinkled
with fome ftyptic powder, x. To agglutinate or heal
wounds ; to which end lint is very ferviceable, if fpread
with fome digeftive ointment, baliam, or vulnerary
liquor. 3. In drying up wounds and ulcers, and for-
warding the fonnation of a cicatrix. 4. In keeping
the hps of wounds at a proper diftancc, that they
may not haftily unite before the bottom is well di-

LINNET, in ornithology-. Sec* Fringilla.— It gcfted and healed. 5. They are highly necefl'ary to

K remarkable of this bird, that when it builds in prefervc wounds from the injuries of the air. Sur-

h edge 8, and when in furzerbuftics on heaths, in both geons of former ages formed comprefles of fponge,

which places the ncfts are very common, they are wool, feathers, or cotton ; linen being fcarce : but

made of very different materials. When they build in lint is far preferable to ail theie, and is at prefent uni-

hedges, they ufe.the flender filaments, of the roots of verfally ufed.

Inxes, and the do\sT> of feathers and thiftles; hut when LINTERNUM, or Literum, (anc. geog.), a ci-

riiey build on heaths, they ufemofs, principally for the ty of. Campania, fituated at the moutlr of the Clanius,

#nter part, finiihing it within with fuch things as the place which is alio called Litumus, between Ciunx and
» Vol.'^X. Part I. M Vnl-

LIN C 90 ] L I O

Unlflofik Vultumum* It received a Roman coloay at the fati^e tared tbe lint or fiax for making aS forts, of IiBen-

time withPuteoli and Vultumum ; wai improved and doth ; finom the ragt .of the linen n made paper $ and

enlarged by Augullus ; afterwards forfeited its right from the feeds is expreifed the lintfeed oil fo ufefol in

of colonyfhip, and became a prefe6iure. Hither Sci- painting . and other trades. The feeds themfelves are

pio African us the Elder retired from the mean e^vy efteemed an excellent emollient and anodyne : - they are

of his ungrateful countrymen | and here he died« and nfcd externally in cataplafms, to afluage the pain of in*

was buried : though this laft is uncertain, he having a flamed tumors i internally, a flight infu^on of lin>-

moniunent both here and at Rome* No vefbige of feed, by way of tea, is recommended in coughs as an

the place now remains. excellent' pe6loral, and of great fcrvice in pleurifieaB

LINTSTOCK, in military affairs, a wooden ftaff nephritic complamts, and fuppreflions of urine. The

about three feet long, having a fharp point in one virtue of the third fpecies is exprelfed in its title : an

end and a fort of fork or crotch on the other; the infu£on in water or whey of a handful of the frefh

latter of which ferves to contain a lighted match, and
by the former the lintftock is occafionaliy ftuck in the
ground, or in th^ deck of a (hip during an engage-
ment* It is very frequently uJfed in fmall vefTela,
where there is commonly one fixed between every two
^ns, by which the match is always kept dry, and
ready for firing.

LINTZ, a very handfome town of Germany, and
capital of Upper Auflria, with two fortified cafUes ;
the one upon a hiU, the etl^er below it. Here is a
hall in which the Hates affemble, a bridge over the
Danube, a nianiifadure of gunpowder, and feveral
other articles. It was taken by the French. in 174I9
but the Auflrians retook it in the following year. £•
Long. 14* 33- N. Lat. 48. 16.

LiNTz, a town of Germany, in the circle of th«
Lower Rhine, and eledorate of Cologne, fubje6^ to
that elc£lor. It is feated on the river Rhine, in £.
Long. 7. i» N. Lat. 50. 31.

LINUM, FLAX ; a genus of the pentagynia order,
belonging to the pentandria dafs of plants ; and in
the natural methoid ranking under the 14th order,
Gruinaks, The calyx is pentaphyllous ; the petals are
five, the capfule is "quinqnevalved and decemlocular ;
and the feeds are folitary.

Specie*, u The ufitatiflimum, or common annual
flax, hath a taper fibrous root ; upright, fiend^p-y un-
branched ilalks, two feet and a half high \ gamiflied
with narrow, fpear-ihaped, alternate grey-coloured
leaves ; and the ilalks divided ^ into footftalks at top,
terminated by fznaU Uue crenated flowers in June and
July ; fucceeded by large round capfuks of ten cells,
containing each <me feed. 2.* The perenne, or peren*
i^ial Siberian flax, hath a fibrous perennial root, fend«
ing up feveral upright, ftrong, annual flalks, branch*
ing four or five feet high ; gamifhed with fmall nar-
row, fpear-fliaped, alternate leaves of a dark green co-
lour ; and terminated by umbellate clufters of large blue
flowers in June, fucceeded by feeds in autumn. 3. The
<iatharticum, or purging flax, with leaves oppofite and
lanceolate ; the ftem bifurcated, and the corollz acute.
This ii a very fmall plant,- not above four or five inches
high ; found wild upon chalky hills and in dry plea**
Cure-grounds. There are 1 8 other fpecies*

Culture. The firft fpeeies is cultivated in the fields
according^ to the dire£Uons given under the article
Flax. The fecond fort is raifed from feed in a bed
or border of common garden-earth, . in fliallow drills
fix inches afunder ; and when the plants are two or
three inches high^ thin them ta the fame diftance ;
and in autumn plant them out where they are wanted*

Ufes.^ The fird fpecies may juflly b^ looked upon
|IB one of the mofl valuable of the whole vegetable
;. as from the baik of. itsflalks ia mt^aufac^

leaves, or a dram of them in fubilance when dried, axe
faid'^to purge without inconvenience.

LINUS, in clafiical hiftory, a native of Colchia»
CQtemporary with Orpheus, and one of the moil an«-
cient poets and muficuns of Greeee* It is impoffiblcp
at this diflance of time, to difcovcr whether Linus
was the difciple of Orpheus, or Orpheus pf Linut.
The nuijority, ho^verer, fecm to decide this queftion
in £ivour of Linus. According to arbhbilhop Uflicr,
he flourifhed about zaSo B. C* and he is mentioned by^'
Eufebius among the j^oets who wrote before the time
of Mofes. Diodorus Siculus tells us, from Diony fius of
Mitylene the hiftorian, who was cotemporary with C^
cero, that Linus was the firft among the Greeks who in*
vented verfes and mufic, as Cadmut firft taught them
the ufe of letters* The fame writer likewife attributca
to him an account es£ the exploits of the /irft Bac*
chus, and a treatife upon Greek mythology, written
tn Pelagian chara^ers, which were alfe thofe ufed by
Orpheus, and by Pronapides the preceptor of Homer*
Diodorus fays that he added the ftring ^bemot to the
Mercurian lyre ; and afcribes to him the invention of
riiime and melody ; which Suidas, who regards hun
as the moft ancient of lyric poets, confirms* Mr
Marporg tell us, that Linus invented cat*^t firings
for the ufe of the lyre, which, before his time, was '
only ftrung with thongs of leather, or with different
threads of flax ftrung together. He is fiiid by many
writers to have had feveral difciples of great renown ;
among whom were Hercules, Thamyris, and, accord-
ing to fome, Orpheus-^-Hercules, fays Diodorus, in
learning from Linus to play upon the lyre, being tx-
tremely dull and obftinate, provoked his mafter t«
ftrike him ; which fo enraged the young hero, that*
inftantly feizing the lyre of the mufician, he beat out
his brains with his own inftrument*

LION, in zoology* See Felis*

LIONCELLES, in heraldry, a term ufed for fe-
veral lions borne in the fame coat of arms*

LIOTARD, called the 7«ri, an eminent painter,
was bom at Geneva in 1 702, and by his father waa
defigned for a merchant ; but, by the perfuafion of bia
friends, who obferved the genius of the young man, he
vras pemriitted to give himfelf up to the art of painting.
He went to Paris in 1725, and in J 738 accompanied
the marquis dc Puifieux to Rome, who was going am-
baifador to Naples. At Rome be was taken notice
of by the earls of Sandwich and Belhorough, then lord
I>uncannon, who engaged Liotard to go with then
on' a voyage to Conftantinople. There he became ac-
quainted with the late Lord Edgecumbe, and Sir Eve-
rard Fawkener, our ambalTador, who perfuaded hia-
to come to England, where he ftaid two years* In
hia jouney to Uic X#c?anthe had adopted the etftem*.

kahit,.

L I P

I 9

liabity and woi'e it here with a very long beard. It
contributed much to the portraits of himfdfy andfomc'
. thought to draw cuftomers $ but he was really a paint-
er of uncommon merit. After his return to the con-
tinent) he^narrieda young wife, and facrificedhis beard
to Hymen. He came again to EnglaA in 1772, and
brought a coUedlion of pi^ures of difiFerent mailers^
which he fold hy au6liony and foihe pieces of glafs
painted by himfeif> with furpriiing efFe& of light and
ihade» but a mere curiofity, as it was neccfiary to
darken the room before they could be feen to advan-
tage ; he affixed, tpo^ as ufual, extravagfant prices to
them. He (laid here about two years, as in his former
journey. He has engraved fome Turkiih portraits,
one of the cmpreb queen and the eldeft arch-duchcfs
in Turkiih habits, and the heads of the emperor and
cmprefs. He painted admirably well in miniature;
and finely in enamel, though he /eldom pra^fed it.
But he is beft known by his works in crayens.- His
likeneiles were as exa^^ as poilible, and too like to
pleafe thofe who fat to him ; thus he had great bufi-
iiefs the firft year, and very little the fecond. Devoid
of imagination, and one Would think of memory, he
could render nothing but what he fiiw before his eyes.
Freckles, marks of the fmall-pox, every thing fonnd its
place ; not fo much from fidelity, as becaufe he could
Mot conceive the abfence of any thing that appeared
to him. Truth prevailed in all his works, grace in
vcr^ few or none. Nor was there any cafe in has
out-line ; but the ftiffnefs of a bufl in all his por-
traits. JValpok*

LIP, in anatomy. See there, n*' 102.

Hare^LtTf a difprder in which the UDjper lip is in a
thanner flit or divided, fo as to nsfembie the up|kr
lip of a hare, whence the name. See Suaol^aY.

LIPARA (anc. geog.), the principal of the
iflands called JEoliaf fituated between Sicily and Italy;
with a cognominal tonn, fo powerful as to have a
fleet, and the other iflands in fubje£Uon to it. Ac-
cording to Diodorus Siculus, it was famous for excel*
lent harbours and medicinal waters. He informs us
alfo, that it fuddenly emerged from the fea about the
time of Hannibal's death. The name is Punic, ac-
cording to Bochart : and given it, becaufe, being a
yolbano, it fhone in the night. It is now called Zi-
pari^ and gives name to nine others in its neighbour-
hood I viz. Stromboli, Pare, Rotto, Panaria, Saline,
Volcano, Fenicufa, Alicor, and Uilica. Thefe are
called, in general, the Lifari JJlands, Some of thefe
are a'^ive volcanoes at pfefent, though Lipari is not.
it is about 15 miles in circumference ; and abound* iit
com, figs, and grapes ; bitumen, fidphuv, alum, and
mineral waters.

LIPARI, an ancient and very flroiig town, and
capital of an ifland of the fame name in the Medi-
terranean, with a bifliop*s fee. It was ruined by
Barbarofla in 1544* who -carried away all the in-
habitants into flavery, and demoliflied the place ) but
k was rebuilt by Charles V. £. Long. 15. 30. N. Lat.

38. 35-

• Isiparif properly, is the genera] name- of a clufter of

iilands. Thefe, according to Mr Houel, are principally

ten in number, the reft being only italnfaabitable rocks

of narrow extent. The largeft and the moft populous of

them, that above-mentioned, communicates its nane to

I 1 IIP

the reft; Vo*tano is a defert but lifibitable ifland, Vf*
mg fouth from the large ifland of Lipari. SoTtnet^
which lies weft-north-weft from the fame ifland ; Fe^
hcttdi, nearly in the fame dirediion, but twenty miles
fiuther diftant ; and j1licu(Si ten miles fouth-wcft of
Felicudi ; are inhabited. Pannari is eaft of Lipari, the
famous StromhoFt north-eaft, and both -of them are inha-
bited. The reft are in a defaft ftate ; fuch as Ba%iIuzzo^
wliich Was formerly inhabited ; Attalo^ which might
be inhabited ; and L^ Exambtanca^ on which fome re*
mains of ancient dwellings are ftill to^ be found.
L'Efcanera is nothing but a bare rock.

The FermlcoRi a word fignifying attts^ are a chain of
fmall black cliffs which run to the north-eaft of I^ipa-
ri, till within a little way of Exambianca and Efcanera,
riflng more or lefs above the water, according as the
(ea is more or lefs agitated.

Ancient authors are not agreed with re(pe£l to the
number of the Lipari iflands. Few of thole by whom
they are mentioned appear to have feen them : and in
places fuch as thefe, where fubterraneous fires burfl:
open the earth and raife the ocean from its bed, ter*
rible changes muft fometimes take place. , VokantUa
and Volcano were once feparated by a ftraight fp as to
form two iflands. The lava and aflies have filled up
the intervening ftrait ; and they are now united into
one ifland, and have by this change become much
more habitable.*

The caftle of Lipari ftands on a rock on the eaft
quarter of the ifland. The way to it from the city
leads up a gentle declivity. There are feveral roads
to it» This caftle makes a part of the ci;y ; and on
the fumrait of the rock is tlie citadel, in which the
governor and the garrlfon refldes* The rathedral
ftands in the fame fltuation. Here the ancients, in
confonnity to their ufual pra^ice, had built the tem-
ple of a tutelary god. This citadel commands the
whole city \ and it is acceffible only at one place^
Were an hoftile force to make a defcent on the ifland^
the inhabitants might retreat hither, and be fecure -a-
gainft all but the attacks oi fanzine.

The ancient inhabitants had alfo fortified this place.*
Confiderable portions of th« ancient walls are ftill
ftanding in different places, particularly towards the
fouth : their ftru^^re is Grecian ; and the ftones are
exceedingly large, and very well cut. The layers aic
three feet high, which flibws them to have been raifed
in fome very remote period. Thefe remains are fur-
rounded with modern buildings. The remains of walls,
which are ftill to be feen here, hate belonged not only
to temples, but to all tht different forts of buildings
which the ancients ufed to ered. The vaults, whicl^
are in a better ftate. of prefervatlon than any of the
other parts of theie monuments> are now converted to
the purpofet of a prxfon.

In the city of Lipari there are convents of monks
of two different orders } but there are no convents for
women, that is to fay, no cloiftcrs in which women are
confined $ thofe, however, whofe heads and hearts
move them to en^race a ftate of pious celibacy, are at
liberty to engage in a monaftic Itfc, with the concur*
rence of their confefTors. Tl^ey put on the faced ha-
bit, and vow perpetual virginity, but continue to live
with their father and mother, and mix in fociety like
ot£er women. The vow and the liabit even enlarge

Ma ^ . their

Ltfsft»

L I P

r 9« 1

L I P

I.ip»ri. their liberty* This cuftom will^ n6 doubt, M. Houel
'^ » obiervesy appear very ftrange to a Frenchwoman ; but
this was the way in which the virgins of the primitive
church lived. The idea of (hutting them up together •
did not occur till the fifth century. The life of thefe
religious ladies is lefff gloonVy than that which tnofe un-
der the fame vows lead in other countries. They wear
cloaths of particular colours, according as they belong
to this or that order. Their drefs, gives them a right to
frequent the churches at any hours ; and the voice of
cenfure, which takes particular pleafure in dircAilig
her attacks againU pious ladies, goes fo far as to affert^
that fome young women affume the habit wilh no
other views hut that they may enjoy greater free-
dom.

In this ifland. oxen of a remarkably beautiful fpecies
are employed in ploughing the ground. The ancient
plough is (UU in ufe here. The mode of agpriculture
pradiifed here is very expeditious. One tuan traces
9 furrow, and another follows to fow in it grain and
pulf<;. The ploughman, in cutting the next furrow,
covers up that in which the feed has been fown : and
thus the field is both ploughed and fown at once. Na-
ture feems to be here uncommonly vigorous and fer-
tile. Vegetation is here more luxuriant, and animals
gayer and more healthful, than almofl any where elfe.

Near the city of Lipari, the traveller entex-s deep
narrow roads, of a very fingular appearance. The
whole iiland is nothing but an aflfemblage of moun-
tains, all of them confining of aihe&or lava difcharged
ff-om the depths of the volcano by which it was at
iirft produced. The particles of this puzzokna, or
afhes, are not very hard ;. the a6iion of the rain-water
has accordingly cut out trenches among the moun-
tains ; and thefe trenches being perhaps kfs uneven
than the reft of the furface, have of confequence been
ufed as roads by the inhabitants, and have been ren-
dered much deeper by being worn for fo many ages
by the feet of men and other animals. Thefe roads
are more than five or fix fathoms deep, and not more
than feven or eight feet wide. They are very crooked,
and have echoes in feveral places. You would think
that you were walking tlirough narrow (beets with-
out doors or windows. Their depth and windings
fhelter* the traveller from, the fun while he is pafling
hrough them ; and he finds them delicioufly cool.

The firft volcanic eruption in tlie Lipan iflands,
mentioned in hiftory, is that of which CalHas takes no-
tice of in liis hiilory of the wars in Sicily. Callias was
contemporary with Agathocles. That eruption con-
tinued without interval for feveral days and nights ;
gnd threw out great ftones, which fell at more than a
tnile's diflance. The fea boiled all around the ifland.
The works of Callias are loft, ^nd we know not whe-
ther he defcended to a detail of particulars concerning
the ravages produced by .this eruption. Under the
coufulfhip of iEmilius Lepidus and L. Aurelius O
reftes, 1 26 years before the Chriftian era» thefe iflands
were afFe6ied with a dreadful earthquake. The (>um-
ing of w£tna was the firft caufe of that. Around Lipari
and the adjacent iflands, the air was all on fire. Ve-
getation was withered ; animala died ; and fufible bo-
dies, fuch as wax and refin, became liquid. If the ihhabi
tants of Lipari, from whom our author received thefe
h&Zf and the writers who have baaded down au ac-

count of them,* have not exaggerated' the truth, we
muft believe that the fea then boiled around the
iOand; the earth became fo hot as to bum the cables
by which veffels were fixed to the fhore^ andconfumed
the planks^ the oars, and even the fmall boats.

Pliny, the naturalift *, fpeaks of another fimilar
event which happened 30 or 40 years afterwards, h^
the time of the war of the allied ftates of Italy againfb
Rome. One of the Eolian iflands, fays he, was alL
on fire as well as the fea ; and that ..prodigy continued"
to appear, till the fenate appeafed, by a deputatian, the
wrath of the gods. From the time of. that war, which,
liappened 86 years before the birth- of our Saviour,
till the year 144 pf our era, we have no account of
any eruption of thefe volcanoes : and from that period^
again, till the year I444> we hear of no explofion.
from them^ that is, for the fpace of 1 300 years. But,
at that time, both Sicily and the Eolian ifles were agita-
ted by dreadful fhocks of earthquake : the volcano of
thefe ifles poured forth fbreams of lava with an awful
violence, and emitted a volume of flame and fmoke
which rofe to an amazing height. After that it dif-
charged enormous ftones which fell at the diftance o9
more than Cix miles.

A century later, in the year 1550, the fury of
this volcano was again renewed. The afhes and ftones
difcharged from the crater filled up the ftrait between
Volcano and Volcanello.

About two centuries after that, in the year 1739^
there was a fixth eruption* Theburftings of the vol-
canic fire were attended with a noife fo dreadful, that
it was heard as far as Melazzo in Sicily.

Father Leaadro Alberti fays, that on one of thofe
dreadful occafions, the women of Lipari, after tm-^
ploying in vain all the faints, vowed to drink no*
more wine if the volcano fhould fpare them. Their
giving up this fmall gratification was doubtlefs of
great fervice; yet the eruptions ftill continue, and
have even become more frequent fiiice that time.
Only 36 years intervened between this eruption and
that which happened in the year 1775. The whole
ifland was then' fhaken ; fubtcPraneous thunder was
heard ; and confiderable flreams of fiame, with fmoke,
ftones, and vitreous lava, ifTued from the crater. Li-
pari' was covered over vrith afties j and part of thefe
' was conveyed by the winds ^1 the ^vay into Sicily.
Five years af^er, however, in the month of April 1 780^
there iffued a new explofion from Volcano ; the fmoke
was thick, the fhocks conflant^ and the fubterraneou&
noife very frequent. So great was the conftemjiion
among the inhabitants of Lipari on thisoccafion, that
the commander Deodad Dolomieu, who vifited thefe
iflands not long after that event, informs us, that the
mhabitants in general, but efpecially the women, de-
voted themfelves as flaves to the fervice of the bleffed
virgin | and wore on their arms, as tokens of their fer-
vitude, fmall iron chains, which they flill continue to
wear.

- This ad of piety, however,, was not fo efficacious
.as the deputation of the fenate had been. For after
that deputation, more than 200 years paffed before the
Eolian ifles were afilified by any other eruption, at
leaft by any confiderable one : Whereas, in three years
after the ladies devoted themfelves in fo fubmiffive a
maniicr to the fervice of the virgin^ the iiles of Li-
pari

2j£ u.

t I F

I 93 1

t I F

X*ipari. pari were agitated anew by that fatal earthquake
which' ravaged Calabria, and part of Sicilyy on the
5th of February 1783.

Tho dry baths of St Calogefro, in the illand of Li«
pari, are Rores, wlK're fulphureous* exhalations, knowa
to be of a fahitary nature, afccnd out of the earth
by holes or fpiracles, A range of apa^ments are

in its origm to the adjacent rooks ; which confift likfr- Lipari^
wife of a(hes, but aflies that have been dcpoiited at
a much later period. From this rock there proceeds
likewife a ilream of hot water, by which fome mills
in the neighbourhood are inoved#

It cannot but appear . furprifing, that nature has-
placed nearly on the fummit of a volcanic mountain

buik around the place where the exhalations arife^ fprings which fupply fo confidcrable a quantity of wa-

The heat is communicated through thofe apartments- ter^ To account for fuch a phenomenon would be<

iafuchaway, that when entering atone end, you ad- well worthy- of fome ingenious naturalift. Nor are

vancc towards the other, the heat ftill increafcs upon- thefe hot fprings all ; proceeding around the fame hiU,

you till you gain the middle ^artment,. and again di-? at about a mileV- diftance, we find a fpring of cold'

minifhes in the fame manner as you proceed from the water, which originates from the fummit of the fame

middle to the other, end of the range of cliambers. In
confequence of. this dtfpofitioa of thefe apartments,
the iick-pcrfon cau make choice of that temperature
whicUbell fuits the nature of his difeafe. There are

rock} that on the north-weft produces three hot*
i^rings. The cold water is very pleafant to drinks
and much ufed bocli by. men and cattle.

Among th^fe mountains there are many enormous

a few miferable huts and a fmall ohapel for the aeom« loofe maifes of lava, the appearance of which, M**

modation of the people wK) repair tQ thefe baths.
The people of the place are ready to attend thcm*
Phyficians likewife follow their patients thither^ when
the difeafe is of fuch a nature as to render their at-t
tendance requitite, and the patient rich enough to af-
ford them handfome fees : but there is no phyiician
fettled in the place. Beiides thefe dry baths, there are
baths of hot water diftingui(hed by the name of St Ca»
hgero^t bathj. There are around them buildings fuf-
ficient to lodge a coniiderablc number of fick people

HoueL informs us, ..naturally, leads the obferver to take
notice, that the lava of the volcano of Lipari is of a*
much greater diverfity* of colours, and thofe richer
and more lively^ tlian the lava of Vefuvius and Etna.*
The lava of Lipari is in fome places, for fcveral mileb,-
of a beautiful red colour. It contains likewife in great
abundance fmall black cryllallifed fcorix, as well as.
the Ismail white grains which are commonly found in
lava.

Among the eminences which overlook the city of

with their necefiar^K attendants* At prefent^owever, Lipari^ there are fome rocks of a fpeoies which is very^

thofe buildings are but. in a bad condition.

The ba^ths conliil of two halls ; one fquare, the other
round. The fonner is antique ; it hsw been buUt by
the Romans ; it is arched with a cupola, and I2 feet
in diameter \ it has been repaired : The other is like-
wife arched. wtth^a cupola both^'ithln and; wxtliout.
The water comes very hot into the firil. It guihes
up from among pie&es of lava, which compofe a part
of the mountain at the foot of which thefe baths are
built. Thofe ftones remain in their natural itate. All
that has been done is the raifing of a fquare building
iacloiing thenu Within that building the fick per-
fons either ^t down on the Hones, or immetfe them-
felves in the intervening cavitier which are filled with
water* They, continue, there for a certain time, and

cace^in Eiurope. Thofe are large maifes of vitrified
matter, which rife fix or eight feet above the fnrface
of the ground, and appear to extend to a great deptli
under it. They cxiil, through that range of moun-
tains, in enormous maffes, mixed with lavsiQ of eveiy
different colour, and always ftanding detached and in«
dilated. Were they cut and followed under ground,
they would probably be found, to exift in immenfo
quarries in the bowels of the earth. The glafs of
which they confift might be employed with great ad*
vantage in manufactures. It is ready made, aiid might
be eaiily purified. It is green, compad, and tranf-
parent.

T'he cultivation of the ground is the chief employ*
ment of the inhabitants of Lipari. The pofTeflion of

approach nearer to, or. remain at a fartlier dillancc. a few acres of land here gives a man great importance.

from, the fpring, aca>rding as tlieir phyfician direfla. Parcnt&,when they fettle their children, rather give thtiv

money than any part of their lands-
More than tAvo-thii-ds of the ifland is planted with
vines : tliree^fourths of the grapes which thefe produc:o
are dried, and fent moftly to London under the name o^
Pqffola* There are different forts of paffola : pne of
thefe, called the black pajfnrina^ is prepared from a pai -
ticular kind of gr«cpc, of which the berries are unconii
monly fmall $ and fold to . Marfeilles, Holland, and
Trieftcw The vines are^ in fmall arbours, which rife
only to the height of two feet and aii half above the
ground. Under thofe arbours there grow beans, gourds,
and otlier leguminous vegetables. In fo hot a dimatcj
the.fhade of the .vines does not injure but proteA the.
vegttables growing under.it: they would otherwifc be
withered by the heat of the. fun. .

The method of preparing paffola and paffolina is
curious enough:- They firft make a lixivium of common
afttes; after boiling this, they pafs it through a cloth
or .a ficvc) .they then put it agsiin on the fire j and

The place ferves alfo as a Itove. The hot \*apours a.*
rifij)g from the water communicate to the furround-
\xi^ atmofphere a confidcrable degree, of heat. It is
indeed not inferior to that of the hot baths of Ter-
mini, which owe their heat to a fimilar caufe. In
thefe baths, therefore, a perfbn can have the benefit
either of bathing in the hot water, or of espofing him-^
itlf to the vapour, the heat of of which is more mode-
rate. The bath before mentioned, under the appellar
tion ol dry hath^ is alfo a ftove ; but the hot vapour
with which it is filled iffues diredly from tlie vol«
cane. The place of the bath is, however, at fuch a
diftance from the volcaiuc focus, that the heat ia not
at all intolerable.

The -mountain at the foot of which thefe i>aths are
iituated is round, and terminates at the fummit in a
rock of petrified afiies, which are very hard and of a
very fine grain. Thia petrification confifU of pretty
regular flrata, and appears ta have been greatly prior

\vhaft«

LIP C 94 ]. L I QL

wlien it 18 obf<:r\'ed to boil hard, Aiddenl^' immerfe the itveittion» and appeared to have more of fimple flatme U^h

grapes, but inilantly bring them out^ again, and e2t« and truth in his compofitions than any other artift of i

pofe them to the fun to dry on broad frames of cane, that timr. At Florence Lippi painted many ^rand Llcpjda

When fufSciently dry, the raifins arc put into caiks defigns for the chapels and convents, by which he en-

and barrels to be fold and exported. The number of Urged his reputation ; and at the court of laijpruck,

cafks of different forts of raifins annually exported from he painted a gr^at number of portraits of the firft ao-

bility, which, were defervedly admired. Yet, altho'

Lipari are cflimated at 1 0,000.

This ifland likewife produces figs. There is fome
white malmfey and a little red wine exported from it*

About 60 or 80 years fince, fulphur was one of the
articles with which the inhabitants of this ifland fup^
plied foreign merchants. But that trade has been gi-
ven up ; from an idea which the Liparefe entertain,
that fulphur infers the air fo as to injure the ferti-
lity of the vines. The fame 'prejudice prevails in Si-
cily ; but it feems to be ill-founded.
' There are cotii-ts of juflice in Lipari, of the fame
powers and cliara6ler with thofe in the cities of Sicily.
•Caufes of more than ordinary importance are carried
to Palermo.

The ifland is entirely free from every kind of im-
pofition. The king receives nothing from it ; becaufe
Count Roger anciently beflowed on its biihop all his
rights of royalty over Lipari. The biihop there re-

he vns fond of imitating fimple nature without any
embellifhhients from invention, his works are held in
the higheil efleem for the graceful airs of the heads,
for the correiElnefs of his outline, and for the elegant
difpofition of the figures* He died in 1664.

LIPSIUS (Juflus), a loamed critic, was bom at
Ifch, a fmall village near Bruflels, in 1^47. After
having diftinguifhed himfelf in polite hterature, he
became fecretary to cardinal de Granvellan at Rome*
where the bcfl libAries were open to him ; and he
fpent much labour in collating the MSS. of ancient
authors* He lived 1 3 years at Leyden ; during which
he compofed and publifhed what he eHeems bis beii
works ; but fettled at Louvain, where he taught po-
lite literature with great reputation. He was re-
markable for unfleadhiefs in religion, • flu6iuating often
between the Proteilants and Papifts ; but he became

ccived annublly from the inhabitants a tenth part of finally a bigotted catholic. He died at Louvain in

the produfts of their lands. They afterwards, tQfpre-*
vent fraud, efli mated the value of that tithe for one
year; and on the condition of their paying in future a
fum of money equal to what that year's tithe was va-
lued at, he not only gave up his right to the tithe, but
alfo ceded to them a confiderable extent of land which
i>Llonged to him.

1606 ; and his works are coUcd^ed in fix- volumes folio.
LIQUEFACTION, an operation by which a fo-
lid body is reduced into a liquid ; or the adlion of fire
or heat on. &t and other fufible bodies, which putt
their parts into a mutual intefline motion. — ^Thc liquc
fadion of wax, &c. is performed by a moderate heat ;
that of fal tartari, by the mere moiflure of the air.

In the archiepifcopal palace, and in the palace of All falts liquefy ; fand, mixed with alkalies, becomes
-the Baron d^ Monizzio, there are fome noble pieces liquefied by a reverberatory fire, in the making of

^f painting by Sicilian painters: — A St Peter, a St
Ilofalia, Jcfus difputing .with the Jewilh do£lors, the
adulterous woman, the incredulity of St Thomas.

LI'POTHYMIA, FAINTING, may arife from feve-
ral caufcs ; as too violent exercife, fuppreffion of the
menfes or other accuflomed evacuations, 5cc. See (the
Jn(fe% fubjoined to) Medicine.
. LIPPA, a town of Hungary, with'i caflle^ It
was taken by the Turks in 1552 ; by the Impcrialifts
in 1688 ; and by the Turks again in 1691 ; who aban*
donedit in 1695, ^^^^^ having demolifhed the fortifi-
cations. It is feated on a mountain, in £. Long. 2i.
^^» N. Lat. 36. 5.

LIPPE, the capital of a country of the fame name
in Germany, and the circle of Weflphalia. It is feat-
ed on a river of the fame name, and was formerly the
refidence of the principal branch o£the houfc of Lippe.
It is now in the pofTcffion of the king of Pruffia, and
carries on a good trade in preparing timber for build-
ing vefl'els on the Rhine, with which it has a commu-*
nicatioD by the river Lippe. The country round it is un-
wliolefome and marfHy. E. Long. 8. 1 2. N. Lat.5 1 . 43.

UPPI (Lorenzo),a painter bfhillory and portraits,
was born in 1 606, and learned the principles of paint-
ing from Matteo Rofelli. He had an exquifite genius
for mufic and poetry, as well as for painting ; and in

glafs. In fpeaking of metals, inflgid of liqucfa&ony
we ordinarily ufc tlic vfOrdfifion,

LIQUID, a body which has the property of fluidi-
ty; and^ befides that, a peculiar quality of wetting
other bodies imnoerged in it, arifing from fome con-*
figuration of its particles, which difpofes them to ad"
here to the fur&ces of bodies contiguous to them*
See Fluid.

Liquid, among grammarians, is a name applied to
certain confonants oppofed to mUtes. Thus 1, m, n^
and r, are liquids*

LIQyiDAMBAR,swEfiT-GtTM-TREE, inbotany i
A genus of the polyai^dria order, belonging to the
moncecia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking with thofe of which the order id doubtful.
The male calyx is common, and triphylloUs ; there is no
corolla, but numerous filaments ; the female calyces
are coUcded into a fpherical form, and.tetraph)dlous i
there is nar corolla, but fevcn flyles ; arid many hi*
valved and monofpermous capfules • collefied into a
fphere. There "are only two fpecies, both decidu**
ouS| v/iK. I. The ftyracifiua, or the Virginia or
maple*!eaved liqoidambar ; a native of the rich moifl
parts of Virginia and Mexico. It will fhoot in a regu**
lar maxukr to thirty or forty feet high, having ita
young twigs covered with a fmooth, light-brown bark.

the latter, his proficiency was fo great, that fome of while thofe of the older are of a darker colour. The
his compofitions in the hiflorical ftyle were taken for leaves are of a lucid green, and grow irregularly on the
tht)fe of Rofelli. However, growing at lafl diffatisfied young branches, on long footflalks : They refcmblc
with the manner of that maStr, he chofe the manner thofe of the common maple in figure ; the lobes^re all
of Santi'di Titi, who was excellent botk indefigaaod ierratcd $ and fircm, the bafe of the leaf a ftpoog mid*

3 rib

-H

'iQuidam- nb nrnt to the extremity of each lobe that Mongs to
"■■^^ It. The flowenane of a kind of fafl&tm colour: They
are produced at the ends of the branches the begiiinin^
of Aprily and fometimes fooner ; and are fucceeded by
large round brown fruit, which lookft fingular^ but is
thought by many to be #o ornament to the tree.
2«Theperegrinuni9 Canada liquidambar, or fpleen wort-
leaved gale, is a native of Canada and Peafylvanla. The
young branchet of this fpecies are ilender, tough, and
hardy. The leavep arcv oblong, of a deep green colour,
haiiy imderaeath, and have indentures on their edges al«
temately.very deep. The flowers come out from the
fides of the branches, like the former ; and they are
fncceeded by finall roundifli fruit, which feldom ripens
in Englaod.

Profagatimu Thia may be performed either by ictdz
or layen ; but the £rft method is the beft. i. We re-
ceive the feeds from America in the fpring. Againft
their arrival, a fine bed, an a warm well (heltered
place, Should be prepared. If the foil is not naturally
good, and indined to be &ndy, it ihould be wholly
taken outJiear a foot deep, and the vacancy filled up
with earth taken up a year before from a frrfh paflure
with the fward, and all well rotted and mixed by being
often turned, and afterwards mixed vrith a fixth part
of drift or iea-^and. A dry day being niade choice of,
early in March, let the feeds be fown, and the finefl
of this compoft riddled over them a quarter of an inch
deep. When the hot weather in the fpring comes on,
the beds fhould be Ihadedt and waterings given oflen^
but in very ixnall ouantities, only affording themageatlt,
nay, a very fmall fprinkiing, at a time. Millar fays, the
feeds of theie plants never com^ up under two years.
But, continues Hanbiury, with this eafy management,
I hardly ever knew it longer than the end of May be*
fore the young plants made their appearance. The
plants being come up, fhading fhould ftill be afforded
them in the parching fummer, and a watering every
other night ; and this will promote their growth^ and
caufe them to become fbonger plants by the autumn*
In the autumn, the btds (hould be hooped to be co-
"vered with mats in the fevere frofts. Thel'e mats^ how-
ever, fhould always be taken off in ospexk weather ; and
this is all the numagement they will require during
the firfl vrinter. The fucceeding fummer they will re-*
^ ouire no other trouble than weeding ; though, if it
mould prove a dry one, they will find bencht from a
liftle water now and then. By the autumn they wiU
be grown ftrong enough to re^ft the cold of the fol*
lowing winter, without -demanding the trouble of mat*
ting, if the fituation is well (heltered ; if not, it will
be proper to have the bcops prepared, and the mats
Tcady, agaiad the black Northern froils, which would
endanger at leafi their loflng their tops. After this,
nothing except weeding wiU be wanted ; and in the
fpring following, that is, three years from their firfl
appearance, they fhould be uken up (for they fhOuld
not be removed before, unlefs fome of the Arongefl
plants be drawn out of the bed), and planted in the
Buriery a foot afunder, and two feet diflant in the
rows. Hoeing the weeds in the rows in the fummer,
»nd /digging them in the winter, is, all the trouble they
win afterwards occafioa until they are finally planted
out. a. Thefe phntt are eafily increa&d by layers.
The operation muft be performed in the autumn^ <»
the young fummer'a ftoota ; and thebcft wayieby flit^

05 ] L I Ct

-ting thcQl at-a joint, as is pradifed for carnations. In I>ii*»w
a flrong dry foU, they will be often two years or more . Jl .
before they flrike root ; though, in a fine light foil, Zf^^
they will be found to take freely enough. By this me-
thod good plants may be obtained ; though it is not
fo eligible as the other, if we have the convenieccy of
procuring the feeds.

^ Properties, The leaves emit their odoriferous par-
ticles in fuch plenty as to perfume the circumabient
air ; nay, the whole tree exfudcs fuch a fragrant tranf-
parent refin, as to have givqn occafion to its being
taken for the fweet florax f- Thefe tr^es, therefore, \^
are very proper to be planted fingly In large opens, ^'
that they may amply difplay their fine pyramidal
groAvth, or to be fct in places near feats, pavilion^
&c. The rofiu was formerly of great ufe as.a perfume,
but is at prefent a flranger in the (hops.

LIQUOR, a name for any fluid fubllance of tht
aqueous or f^rituous kind.'

The principal beverage amongfl the Jews, as well aa
the Greeks, and Romans, in their early ftatc, was wa-
ter, mtlk, and the juices of vai-ious plants infufedT
therein. For a long £imc, under the commonwcalta.
of Rome, wine was fo fcarce, that in their facrificer
to the gods the libations were made with milk only..
Wine did not become common there till A. tJ.G. 6oq^
whew vines began to be planted.

Li^vok ^ FlhUf. See Chemistry, n' icCg.
Smoking LisivoRofLibavius. See Chemistry, n'^B I c.
Mheral Jnodym Liquor of Hoffman. This is a
compoCtion of highly retftified fpirit of wine, vitriolic
ether, and a little of the dulcified oU of vitriol. It is.
inadc by mixing an ounce of tlie fpirit of wine, which
rifes firft in the diftilktion of ether, with as much of"
the liquor which is to be diflilled, and aftcnfc'ards by-
diilolving in the mixture which rifes next, and which*
contains the ether, 12 dropiiof the oil which rifes after
the ether is paffei This has the fame virtues with
the ctheir, and is now generally difufed, the pure ether
being fubfkituted in its pkce.

LIQUORICE, See Glyctrrhua.
LIiaODENDRON, the tulip-trbf, in bo-
tany : A genus of the polyginia order, belonging
to the polyandria clafs of pknts; and in the natu-
ral method ranking under the 5 2d order, Coaduna^^.
The calyx is triphyilous 5 there are nine petals; and
the feeds imbricated in fuch a manner as to form.
a cone.- — -There is but one foecies, viz. the tulipi>-
fera, a deciduoms tree, native of mofl part of America* -
It rifes with a huge upright trunk, branching 40 01 50
feet high. The trunk, which often attains to a cir-
cumference of 30 feet, is covered with a grey bark*
The branches^ which are not very numerous, of the
two-yearsKild wood, are fmooth and brown \ while the
bark of the fummer's fhoots is fmoother and fhining, ,
and of a bluifh colonr. They are very pithy. Their
young wood is green, and when broken emits a flrong
fcent. The leaves erow irrcgukrly on the branches,
on long footflalks. They are of a particular flruaure,
hcing compofed of three lobes, the middlemoft of which
is fhortened in fuch a manner that it appears aa if it
had been cut off and hoDowed at the middle i The two ,
others arc rounded off. They are about four or five -
inches lon^, and as many broad. They are of two c<^
lours ; their upper furface is fmooth, and of a ftronger
5it€n than the lowcn They fall o|F pretty early in au* •

IIS t 95

Lirioden- tunn ; and the buds for the next year^a fitoots foon
*[^"» after begin to fwell and become dikted, infomuch that,
by the end of December, thofe at the ends' of 'the
branches will become near an inch Igng and half an
inch broad. The outward laminae of thcfc leaf-buds arc
.of an oval figure, have fevcral longitudinal veins, and
are of a bluilh colour. . The flowers are produced with
•us in July, at the ends of the branches : They fome-
what refemble the tulip, which occafions its being cal-
led the Tulip-tree. The number of petals of which
each is compofedy lijce thofe of the tiAip, is fix ; and
thcfe are fpotted with green, red, white, and yellow,
thereby making a beautiful mixture. The flowers are
.fucceeded by large cones, which never ripen in Eng-
land.

Propagation, This is very eafy, if the feedi are
good '; for by thefe, which we receive from abroad,
they are to be propagated. No particular compoft need
be fought for ; neither is the trouble of pots, boxes, hot-
fceds^ &c. required'.: They will grow exceedingly well in
beds of common gardeji*mould, and the plants will be
hardier and better than thofe raifed with more tender-
r.efs and care. Therefore, as foon as you receive the
feeds, which is generally in February, and a few dry
days have happened, fo that the mould will work freely,
fow the feeds, covering them three quarters of an inch
deep ; and in doing of this, obferve to lay them length-
wife, otlierwife, -by being very long, one part, perhaps
that of the embryo plant, may be out of the ground
foon, and the feed be loft. This being done, let the
beds be hooped ; and as foon as the hot weather and
drying winds come on in the fpring, let them be co-
vered from ten o'clock in the morning till fun-fiet. If
little rain happens, they muft be duly watered every
other day ; and by the end of May the plants will
come up. Shade and watering in the hotteft fummer
muft be afforded them, and they will afterwards give
very little trouble. The next winter they will want
•no other care than, at the approach of it, flicking
fome furze-bufhes round the bed, to break the k^en
c^ge of the black frofls ; for it is found that the feed-
lings of this fort are very hardy, and feldom fuffer by
any weather. After they have been two years in the
feed-bed, they (hould be taken up and planted in the
nurfery, a foot afunder, and two feet diflant in the
rows. After this, the ufual nurfery care of hoeing the
,weeds, and digging between the rows in the wintery
willfuffice till they are taken up for planting out.
. Ufes. The tulip-tree, in thofe' parts of America
,whcre it grows common, affords excellent timber for
many ufes : particidarly, the trunk is frequently hoi-
lowed, and made into a canoe fufficient to carry many
people ; and for this purpofe no tree is thought more
proper by the inhabitants of thofe parts. With ns, it
may be itatloned among trees of forty-feet growth.

LIS or Lys (John Vander), painter of hittory,
landfcapes, and converfationd, w^as bora at Oldenburgh
in 1570, but went to Haerlein to place himfelf as a
difcipie under Henry Goltzius ; and ai he was endowed
with great natural talents, he foon diftinguiihed him-
felf in that fchool, and imitated the manner of his ma-
iler with great fuccefs. He adhered to tlie fame ftyle
till he went to Italy ; where, having vifited Venice
and Rome, he ftudied the works of Titian, Tintoretto,
Paolo Veronefe, and Domenico Fetti, fo effectually,
ihat he improved his .tafte aad judgment, and altered

] LIS

his manner entirely. He foon received marks of tpubllc
approbation ; and his compofitions became .univer&Iiy

admired for their good expreflion, for their lively and
natural colouring, and llic fweetnefs and delicacy of
his pencil : although it mufl be acknowledged, that he
could never totally diveft kimfelf of the ideas and taflc
peculiar to the Flemings. His fubjeds ufually were
jiiftories taken bom the facred writings, or the ivprc-
fcntation of rural fpofts, marriages, balls, and villagers
dancing, dreffed in Venetian habits ; all which fubje^a
he painted in a fmall as well as a large fize, with a
nuniber of figures, well dcfigned, and touched lyith a
great deal of delicacy. He was likewife accounted to
paint naked figures afhafrably, with natural and elegant
attitudes, and a very agreeable turn of tlie limbc
A capital pi<%ure of this mafter is, Adam and Eve
lamenting the death of Abel; which is extremely ad-
mired, not only for the exprefHon, but alfo for the
beauty of the landfcape : and in the church of St Nh-
cholas at Venice is another of his paintings, reprefent-
ing St Jerom in the deiart, with a pen in his.hand, and
hi& head turned to look at an angel, who is fuppofed
to be founding the laft trumpet. The colouring ^of
this pidure is rather too red ; but it is defigned in a
fine ftyle, and chajFmingly penciled. The paintings of
this mafter are very rarely to be purchafed. He died
in 1629.

Lis (John Vander) of Breda, hiftorical painter, was
bom at Breda about, the year 1691, and became a dif-
cipie of Cornelius Polemburg, whofe manner heimitated
withextraordinary exa6bie(iB,inthe tints of hiscoloi^nng,
his neatnefs of pencilling, and the choice of his fubjed&
There are fome paintings of this mafter's hand, which*
tho' they appear to have fomewhat lefs freedom and
lightnefs of touch, are nearly equal to thofe of Polem-
burg, and are frequently taken to JmJus. At Rotterdam*
in the poffeifion of Mr Biffchop, there is a delicate
painting reprefenting Diana in the Bath, attended by
her nymphs ; and his moft capital performance, in
England, is faid to be in the pofteflion of the Vifcount
Middletom The portrait of Vander Lis, painted by
himfelf, is in the poffeffion of Horace Walpole, Efq;
which, is defcribed by that ingenious gentleman, aa
being worked up equal to the fmoothnefs of enamel.

LISBON, the capital of the kingdom of Portugal,
fituated in the province of £ftremadura» on the banka
of the river Tagus, in W.Long. 9. z^^ N.Lat. 38. 25*
It was anciently called. 0^^ Olifippo^ and Ulyffipo^ ,
which arefuppoled to be derived from the Pheniciaa
URfabbo or Olifippo fignifying in that tongue a pUafant
bay^ fuch as that on which tliis city ftaods. It firft be-
came confiderable in tlie reign of king Emmanuel ; from
that king it hath been the capital of the kingdom^ the
relidencc of its monarchs, the feat of the chief tnbu-
nals, and oHices of the metropolitan, a noble univeriity,
and tlie receptacle of the hcheft merchandize of the
Eaft and Weft Indies. Ics air is excellent ; being re-
freft"cd by the delightfid fea-breezcs, and tb^e of the
Tagus. The city extends for about two miles along
tlie Tagus ; but its breadth is inconfideralile. Like old
Rome, it ftands on feven hills4 but the ftreets in gene-
ral are narrow and dirty, and fome of them are very
fteep ; neither arc they lighted at night. The churches,
in general, are very linji ; but the magnificence of the ^
chapel-royal is amazing. Here is one of the fincit
hiu1>ours in llie ^torld ; and there were a great number-
not

\M.

X r s^ I py li t I s

not bnljr of flue tlnirekes w3 contents h€ft, 1)01 il{^ to b« the fincffl in Europe, a» tireS as th^ befi foftiA^A.
of othct public buildings, tndittBticulaxly-df royal p»* l!*ke Urge f(foare» and tke public bailditigsy are veiy
lacet^aad others 'belobgiag to the grandees ; but th« handfome ; and they have manufadures of filks^ cam^

grtateft part df them^' and of th^ cky, wefe dedroyed
by a moft dveadfel taithquake, on Noy.^i. ^755^ from
whicii it win require a long time to recover. The
inhabkantit before the earthquake, nlid hot at mo'ft
exceed i50»ooo« The 'government of it is lodged in
a council^ confiftifig of a prefident, fix counfeQors, and
other inferior officers. The haa4)our has water enough
for the iargeft (hips, and roOm enough for 10,000 uil
'nHthout bekig crowded. For its fecnrity, there is m
'fort at the mouth of the rivci^ 5n eadi fide, and a bai^
•that nma tfcrofs it, and is tery dangerous to pafs with->

b)^cs> had oamblets, af w^ll 'as oth^r ftuffs, whichr
have been brought to great perfeftion. It was ta*
ken -by the duke of Marlborough, after three^montbt
fi^e and thclofe of many thdufands of men, in 17081
but refi<ored to the French by the treaty of Utfcebt,
in confideratioii of their demoli(hing the fortificatioof
of Dunkirk. It is feated on the river Duelei 14 miles
weft of Toumay, 32 fouth-weft of Ghent, 37 north*'
weft of MottB^ and 130- north of Piaris, £. Long. 3. 9*
N. Lat. 50. 38. ^

LISLE (Claudius de), a learned hiftoriographer#

out pilots. Higher 19, at a place where the river is bom at Vancookurs, in 1644. He ftudied among di«

oonfiderably contrai^edi there is a fort called Torre de' Jefuits at PontamoufTon ; took his deg^rees in -law^ and

Belem^ or the Tonnfer of BeJem^ under whofe guns all afterwards applied himMf intirely to the ftudy of hi*

ihips muft pafi in their way to the city ; and on the ftory and geography ; and to ■ perfeft himfelf in thofi!-

Other fide are feveral anore forts. Before the earth- feiences went to Paris, wliere the principal lords of -thtf

quake, moft of the private houfes were old and un^ court became his fcholars, and among the reft the dkske

nghtly, with lattice-wifldows ; sind the number of con- of Oi4eans, afterwards regent of the kingdom. He

teflts and •colleges amounted to 50, namely, 32 fot wrote, i. An hiftorical aceount of the kingdom of

monks and 1 8 for nuns. The king's principal palace Siam. a. A ^enesJogical and hiftoricai Atks. 3. A^

jftands on the river, and is large and commodious. Of abridgement of univerfal hiftory. He died at Paris ioF

the hofpitals, that called the Oreai is obliged to re- 1 720. -

eeive aU perfons, of what degree, nation, or retigton Lisle (William de), Ton of the former, and thi6

•foever, without exception. At the ifillage of Bdiem, itioft l^rned geographer France l^as produoed, wat

'near Lifbon, is a noble hofpftal for decayed gentlethen bom at Paris m 1*675. ^^ became firft geographev'

who have fcrved the king, and have not whefcwithaJ to the king, royal ccnfor, and member of the academy

to nr.iintain themfclves. That csUed the ioufe of mercy of fciences. He died in 1 726. He publifhed a greaf

is alfo a noble charity. In the centre of the cky,
upon one of the higheft hiQs, is the cafUe, which (:om-
' mands the whole, being large and ancient, and having
always a garrifon of tour regiments of foot. The
cathedral is a vaft edifice of the Gothic kind, but
heavy and clunrfy : . it contains, however, great riches,
and is finely adorned within. The fquare called I^ofio is
krge, and furrounded with magnificent bun(}ing8.
The tvhole city is under the ecdefiaftical jurifdi^ron
of the patriarch, who was appointed in the year 1 717.
Here is alfo an archbifhop, who has, or at leaft liad

number of excellent maps, and wrote niany pieces in
the memoirs of the academy ef fciences.

Lisle (Sir John), %^rave loyalift in the time oJP
the civil wan, was the fen of a bookfeller in Londoui
and received his education in the Netherlands. H^
fignalized himfelf upon many occafions in the civil war^
particularly in the laft battle of Newbury ; where, in
the duflc of the evening, he led his men to the charge in
his fiiirt, that his perlon might be more confpicuous.
The king, who was an eyc-witnefs of his bravery^
knighted him in the field of battle. In 1648, he rcfe

before the ercAion of the patriarchate, a revenue of for his majefty in Efiex ; and was one of the royalift^

40,000 crafadocs, or 6000 L The univcrfity, which who fo obftinately defended Colchcfter, and who died

Vas removed for fomc time to Coimbra; but afterwards for the defence of it. This brave man having ten^

veftored to its anc^ient feat, makes a confidcrabk figore, derly xmbraced the corps of Si^ Charles Lucas, his

though much inferior to that of Coimbra. * departed friend, immediately prcfented himfelf to the

LISBURN, a town of Ireland, in the county* of foldiers who ftood ready for his execution. Thinking

Antrim and province of Ulftcr, 73 miles from Dublin, that they ftood at too gre^t a diflance, he dcfired theni

It was burnt down about 50 years ago ; but is now

rebuilt in a neat and handfome manner, and has a Is^ge

linen maxmfaftory. It is feated -on the river Laggan,

in W. Long. 6. 29. N. Lai. 54. 31. It .gives title

of earl to the fiimiry .of Vaughan'; and it returns two

members to parliametrt, one hdf of the patronage of land, feated at the mouth of Loch Linrihe, a capfecS

this borough being in the e^rl of* Hertford. Fairs •us lake in Argyleftire, navigaWe for the largeft fhips

to come nearer : one of them faid, ** I warrant you}
Sir, we fhall hit you." He replied with a fmile;
" Friends, I have been nearer you- when you have mifi^d
me." He was executed Auguft 28th 1648. -

Irf SMORE, one of the Weftem iflands of Scot*

held 2tft of July and 5th Odober.

LISIEUX, a confiderdble town of France, in Up-
per Normandy, vrith a bifhpp's fee. The churches and
religious hoirfes, and the bi{hop*8 palace, are all very
handfome ftruAures. It is ^.trading place; and is feat-
"ed at the confluence of the rivets Arbcck and Gafii, in
E. Long. 0. io. N.'Lat. 4$. 11^.

Lf s£E; a larrgc, rich, htrmffomc, and ftrong town
t)f French Flanders, of which it is the capital, with a

to Fort William, which ftands in the country called
Loclmber. This ifiand is abovrieven miles in length
by one in breadth $ and contains 1500 inhabitants.- It
abounds in Hmeflone ; from which, however, it has hv.
therto derived little advantage^ owhig to the want of
good peat, the negled): of timber, and ftilf more lJi6
duty tipon coals. ThtWj whh the advantages oF navu
gation in every dire^ion, ahd of a foil lying npon thib
richeft manure,- the people are indigent, and frequently

ftrong cafUe,- and a citadel built by Vaubani and faid obliged to import meal for their fubfiftence. M^' d£
-Vert. X. Part I. N them

L I S

[ 98 1

L I S

Lifaidm tbem live a part of the year upon milk only. This
iOand was fbrmerly the idldence of the bifhojM of
Argylc. • %

LisMOREi a boroughy market, fair, aad poft town
of Ireland, iu the couoty of Waterford, and province
of Munfter, 100 miles from DubHn ; N. Lau 52* 5.
W. Long. 7. 50. It was anciently called Le/fmore or
Jjiot-mon^ u e. the great inclofure, or habitation ; it is
BOW a bilhopric, and formerly had an uoivcrfity. - St
Carthagh or Mochuda, in the beginning of the feventh
centiuy founded an abbey and fchool in this place,,
which ij^ a fhort time was much refbrted to, not only
by the natives, but alfo by the Britons and Saxons^
4tinng the middle ages. AccordtOj? to an ancient
writer of the life of St Carth^h, Limtore vras in ge-
neral inhabited by monks, half of it being an afylum
into which no woman dared enter ; confiiling intirely of
cells and monafteries, the ruins of which, with feven
churches, are yet viable. A calile was built here by
king John. The fite of Lilmore was in early ages
denominated maghfkiay or the '* cho£en ftueld," being
the fituation ^ a doa or fort,^ of the ancient chieftains
gf the Decies* one of whom granted it to St Carthagh
«n his eiq>uliion from the abbey of Ratheny in Weft-
meath. On becoming an univerfity. Math Sgiath ob-
tained the nanjfi of Dun/gtHnCy or the *^ fort of the.

of the fifft earl pf Cork. Oppofite to the entrance it »
modem portico of Bath ftone, of the Doric order^ de-
figned hj Inigo Jones. Moft of die buiMings have re*
mainedin ruins fince the era of tbe rebellion ; but the
feveral offices that make vp two fides of the fqnare-are
kept in repair. At each angle is a tower, the chief re-
mains of its former magnificence. In (Mober 1785,.
the late duke of Rutland, then lord-lieutimant of Ire-
land, whilil on a tour in Munfter, held a counotl in,
and iiTued proclamations from this caftle. The cathc--
dral is ftiU pretty well kept in repair. Here is a fine
bridge over the river Blackwater, ere^ed at a very great.
expence by the duke of Devonihire : this bridge is re-
markable for the extent of the principal arch^ the fpan
of it being 102 feet. Below the town is a rich fifhery
for falmon, which is thf greateil branch of trade here.
Though this place is at prefent much reduced, yet
Cambrenfis. informs us, that, not maay years after the*
conqucit, this >i^s a very rich city,, and held out foime.
timi: a^ioft the Englifh, who took it at laft by ftorm».
and gamed rich plunder here, enough to k>ad 16 fail
of ihips. It returns tvao members to parliament ; pa->
tron, the duke of. Devonihire, but the elci^iors.are call-
ed ^/«w//(i^/.. Fain held on 25 th May and Sep-^
tember, and 1 2th November.

JLISSAt an ifland in tlie Gulph of Venice, on the

l^k

Saxons,^? from the iiumber of Saxons which refocted coaft of Dalmatian belonging, to th^Venetians, where

thereto : but foon after, it was cHlcd. Ltos-mor or Lefi^ they have a filhery- of fiudines and anchovies. It pro—

morff and now Li/more ; the biftiopric of which was* duces excellent wine, and is 70 miles weft of. Ragufiu.

united to that of Watcrford in 13.53, being 730 years, £• Long^ 17. cu N. Lat. 43. 22. '
aher its foundation* The public road to Cork was. Ljssa, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Pof-

formerly through this place, and at that time it had ar na, of which, it is. the capital. £..I»ong.. 16. q. N^

better nice of bufinefs. St Carthagh,, who retired to Lat. 32. 1.5.

this place with fome of his religious in 636, to avoid
the fury of the then Iriih monarch,, tied his difciplea
to a moft ftrid rule of life ;. they never were allowed
the ufe of fleih, fifti, or fowl ; only the. vegetables that
the ground produced at the exi>ence of meir. own la^
bour. Father Daniel^ m his Hiftolre Mbnqftiquej men-
tions one on the lame foundation in France. The
* caftle here, which, as we haye formerly mentioned^ was
built by king John, was ere£ied in 1 195 on the ruins
of the abbey of St Carthagh ; it belonged to the duke
of Devonfhire, and gave birth to the great philofophei
Robert Boyle. In 1.189 it was demolifhed by the
Irifli, who took it by furprife^ Being afterwards re*-
edified, it was'for many years an. epiicopal refidence^
tin Myler Magratbi archbishop of Cafhel, and bi(hop

LissA, a vilhigc of'SiIefia,.i5 mil^s from.Breflau,
remarkaUe for a battle fought between the Pniffiaos
and the Auftrians on the 15th. of December I757»,
when the htter were entirely defeated*.

LJSSUS, (anc. geog.)„the laft town of Illyricum^,
towards Macedonia^ fituated on. the Orilo. It had a>
capacious port^ the work of Dionyfius the Tyrant^
who led the colony thither, enlarged and walled it.
round, (Diodorus Sxculus.) Now ^SktA.jiUffio^ in Al^
bania^ 00 the Drino, near the Gulph of Venice. £•
Loner. 20» N. Lat^ 421

1 -

LIST,.iaconune»ce,.the border of cloth or ftuff^^
fervihg not only to fhow their quality,, but to preferre
them from.being torn in the operations of fulUng, dye-
ing, &c. — Lift isufed on various occafions; but chiefly

^ this fee, granted the manor, of Lifmore to that not- by gardeners, for fecuring, their wall-trees.

«d fcholar and ibldier Sir Walter Raleigh, in the reign ' £ist, ia architedure, a little fquare moulding^.

of queen. Elizabeth, at the. yearly rent of L. 13 :. 6 : 8 ; otherwife caJki^JiiUi,&fie/, &c.. See Pkte XXXVXII.

kttt that eftate waa lopped off with his head in the fig. k.

icigB of king James I. After which it fell into the List, is alfo ufed, to fignify the. inc]bted.field or

hands of Sir Richard Boyle, who pitrchafed all Sir ground wherein the ancient knights held their jufta

Walter's lands ; he beautified the whole, and added and combats^ It was £0 caQed, as being heinmed

many buiUings to it, moft of which wtfre burned down
VI the Iriih rebellion ; at the breaking out of which,
it was dofely befieged by 5000 Iriih, commanded by
Sir Richard Beling, and was well defended^ by the
yoking Lord Brqghill» third fon of the e<^^l of Cork,
who obliged them to raife the liege. The caille is boldr
^ feated. on the ven^e of a rocky hill, rifing almoft.per,

round with pales, barriers, or flakes, as with a liiL
Some of thcfe were double, one for each cavalier; which
kept thein apaot, fo that they could not come nearer
each other than a fpear's length. See Just^.Tourt

NAMENT,.DUEL, ^CC,

ChU Z/rr, in the. Britifh- polity. The. expences
defrayed by the civil lift, are thofe that in any fhape re*

l^ndicularly toaconuderable height over the river Black- late to civil government ; as, the expences of. the houfe^

water. The entrance is. by an ancient and venerable hold ; aU falaries to officers of ftate, to the judges, and-

•SRcnuc. of trges. Qver the gate arc the yenerable aons every one of the king's fervants , tiie appointmenu to

foreign

X5ft.

LIS [99

"^foreign aittbaSuiors; the nuuntetiimce of die queen aud
royal family ; the king's private expencea, or privy,
purfe ; and other very numerous outgoings* as fecret-
'lervice money, penfions, and other bounties : which
fpmetnhes have so far exceeded the revenues appointed
for that purpofey that application has been made to
pariiiment to difcharge the debts contra£led on the d*
vil lift ; .as )iartictdariy in 1724* when one million was
granted for that purpofe by the ftatute 1 1 Geo. I. c* 1 7.
and in 17699 when half a miUion was appropriated to
the Hke ufes by the ftatute 9 Geo. III. c. 54.

The ciyil IHt is indeed properiy the whole of the

] LIT

lefs than what is now cftabliihed by pariia]|ient. See
Rbvenus.

To LisTf <fr enltftt Solders, to retain and enroll men
as foldiersy either as volunteers, or by a kind of compuU
fiott. Perfons lifted muft be carried within four dayip
but not fooner than i^hours after, before the next jufhce
of peace of any county, riding, city, or place, or chief
magiftrate of any city or town corporate (not being
an officer in the army) ; and if before fuch juflice or
magifbrate they difient from fudi enlifting, and return
the enlifUng-money, and alfo 20 fhiUings in lieu of all
charges expended on them, they are to be difchar<

lung's revenue in his own diftin^ capacity ; the reft ged. Butperfons refuftng of negledting to return and

being rather the revenue of the public, or its creditors, pay fuch money within 24 hours, ihall be deemed at

though coUeded and difbibutcd a^n in the name duly lifted as if they had aflented thereto before the

and by the officers of the crown : it now ftanding in proper magiftrate ; and they (hall, in that cafe, be

the fame place, as the hereditary income did formerly; obliged to take the oath, or, upon refiiial, they flmli

and as that has gradually diminiftied, the parliamen- be confined by the officer who hfted them till they do

tary appointments have increafed. The whole- revenue take it.

-of queen Elizabeth did not amount to more than LISTER (Dr Martin)^ an eminent Englifti phy-

tSoo,oool. a-year : that of king Char. I. was 800,000 1. ftcian and naturalift, was bom in 1658, and educated

and the revenue voted for king Charles II. was at Cambridge. He afterwards travelled into France i

* i,2oo,oool. though complaints were made (in the ftrft and at his return pra6tifed phyftc at York, and aftm*
years at leaft) that it did not amount to fo much. But wards at London. In 1683, he was created doAor of
it muft be obferved, that under tbefe fums were inchi- phyfic, and became fellow of the coUcm of nhyficiana
ded all manner of public expences; among which Lord in London. In 1698, he attended tkt ean of Port-
Clarendon, in his fpeech to the parliament, computed, land in his embafTv from king William III. to the
that the charge of the navy and land-forces amounted court of France ; of which journey he publifhed an

' annually to 8oo,oool. which was ten times more than
' before the former troubles. The fame revenue, fubje6^
to the fame charges, was fettled on king James II. :
but by the increafe of trade, and more frugal manage-
ment, it amounted on an average to 1,500,000!./^
Ofimtntj (befides other additional cuftoms granted by
parliament, which produced an annual revenue of
400,0001. out of which his fleet and army were main-
'tained at the yearly expence of t, 1 00,000 1. After
the revolution, when the parliament took into its own
hands the annual fupport of the forces both maritime
and military, a civil-b'ft revenue was fettled on the new
king and queen, amounting, with the hereditary du-
ties, to 700,000 1. fier annum ; and the fame was con-

count at his return, and was afterwards phylician to
queen Anne. He alfb publiffaed, !• ffpkria amma*
Bum jfnglUf quarto* t. ComchyUorum Jyno^s^ folio.
3. C9chUarum tf Rmachum escercitatio anatomical 4 vols
8vo. 4* Many pieces in the Philofophical Tranfac*
tions ; and other works*

LISTOWEL, a parifli» aUb a poft and fair town^
of Ireland, in the county of Kerry and province of
Munfter, 131 miles from Dublin, anciently LU Tua*
thaly i.\r. ^'the fortof Tuathal,'' who was exiled in the
I ft century, but returned; and his life forms a brilliast
era in Irifh hiftory. Near this are the ruins of a
caftle, pleafantly fituated on the river Feale : it was
taken in November 1600, by Sir Charics Wilmoti

tinued to queen Anne and king George I. That of being then held out for the Loid Kerry agalnft Queen

king Geo. II. was nominally augmented to 800,000* I.
and in fa^ was conftderaoiy more : but that of his
prefent majefty is exprefsly limited to that fum ; tho*
ioo,oooL hath been fmce added. And upon the whole,
h is doubtlefs much better for the crown, and alfo for
the people, to- have the revenue fettled upon the mo-
dem footing rather than the ancient. For the crown>
becaufe it is more certain, and c6lle6ied with gmrater

Elizabeth. ~ Five miles beyond Lifh>wel are the ruinv
of a church* The fairs are three in the year.

LIT ANA SiLVA (anc. geog.); a wood of the
Boil, in ^he Gallia Togata^ or Cifpadana, whQ!e the
Romans, under L* Pofthumius Albinus (whofe head
the Boii cut off, and carried in triumph into their moft
facred temple), had a ^at defeat, of twenty-five
thoufand fcarce ten efcapmg (Livy). Holftvnius con-

eafe : for the people; becaufe they are now ddhvered je6)^ures, that this happened above the fprings .of the

from the feodal hardihips, and other odious branches
of the preiogative. And though complaints have fome»
tiroes been made of the increafe of the civil lift, yet if
we confider the fums that have been formerly granted>
the limited extent under which it is now efbLbli/hed,
the revenues and prerogatives given up in Ueu of it by
the crown, the numerous branches of the prefent royal
family,' and ^above all) the diminution of the value of
money compared with what it was worth in the la'ft
Century, we muft acknowledge thefe complaints to be
void of any rational foundation ; and that it is impof-
fible to fupport that dignity^ which a king of Great
BritaiA fliould maintain^ with ^ki inoome in ^ny degree

Scultenna, in a part of the Apennine, bctween'Cer-
finianumand Mutina* Now Silva £ Lugo* *
• LITANY, a fdemn form of fupptication to Go(^
in which the prieft utters fome things fit to be prayed
for, and the people join in their intcrceffion, faying,
fve hefefch thee to hear us^ good Lord^ &c. The word
comes from the Greek M^«tt«*, " fupplication ;" of
xilarfw, M I befeech."

At firft the ufe of Htanies was not fixed to any fta«
ted time, but were only employed u exigencies re«
quired. They were obferved, in imitation of the Ni«
nevites, with ardent fupplications and faftings, to avert
the threatening judgments of fire^ earthquakes, imu«
, N 2 datioAS^

LIT [

VtA U&. datjoni, or, hoftik iaimfioitt. Ahoiat the fenr 460^ U*
» tanies began to be ufed in proceffiont, the people wiK-
inglNurefooty «nd repeating them with gre^t devotion;
aibd it is pretended* that bf thia meaas feyeral cou4^
tries were delivered from great calamities. The days
on which the& were afed were called rogation d^jt':
y thefe were appointed by the canons <)f different ooun-
cibi tiU it was decreed bj the council of Toledo, that
they ftkouU be ufed every month throughout the year;
and thus by deg^rees they came to be ufed weekly on
Wcdnefdays and Friday s^ the ancieat ftationary days
for fafting. To thefe days the xubrlc of our church
bas added Sundays, as being the greateft days fpr ^f-

10© 3 LIT

It is 450 fcfetio^ft of which the cboir is nOt aod tlie LasdA
breadth in the broadcft place So. Ita portico is hard-
ly to be paralleled in E^gkuid* Tb^ were till lately
a6 fiatues of the prophet6» appftles, king4 of Jodab*
and iome ki^s of this iandf vb^ a row above it» aa big^
as the ,lifc \ and on the topi* at eacii cptrncr of ihc por*
tico, is a ftately fpire, befides a fine high ftccplc on the
middls of the churc^h. The choir is paved in great
p^rt with alabailtr and ^hanoel-coal, in inutation oF
black and white marUe. la I7£i9 it went under a
general repau*, ift^en the mai&ve groined arch betwi^^t
the ^cft en^ of the church and the ttanibipt* which
liad fprced the dde vrall out pi i^ fterpendicular, wns

JemUing at divine fervice. Before the laft review of reaov^ad. .Th? pnebendariea ftaP^ which are thought

jthe common prayer, the litany was a diftind ferviee
by itfclf, and ufed feme time after the morning prayer
was over ; at prefent it is made one office with the
■noming-fervice, being ordered to be read after the
third colle6l for grace, inflead of the intercefliondi
{liters in the daily ferrice.

. llTCHFIELD, a city of Staffordflire, in Eng-
land, 117 milea from London* It ftanda lo^, about

to bie the beft in Enjg^land, were mo^ of them ie-ereci«
fsd at the charge of tlie country gentlemen, whofe
names and arms are painted at the top of the ftalU.
The north door is extremely rich in fculpture, but:
much injured by ^me. The hody^ which is fupporteU
by pillars formed of numbers of (lender columns, has
lately bad its decayed kaden roof replaced h^ a ne«t
ilate(i covering. The choir merits aUention on ac-

^hpec miles fnim the Trent ; and its ancient name is count of the elegant fculpture about the wmdowa
fisid to have been Lidc^U^ fignifying» ^ a fidd of and the enabattlod gallery that runs beneath them ; to
carcaffes,'* from a great number of Chriftians having, whf^ tlt^ akar*piece of Grecian archite£i;\^rc but ill
«i it is pretended, fuffinid martyrdom here in the per- comeiponds ; behind which is Mary*s chapel, divided,
facution under Dioclcfiaa. In the Saxona time, it ^fromtthy a moft elegant ftoneflcreen of beautiful work-
«nis a bifhoprick for a ihort ^acc ; and is now, toge- manihip.. Here flood St Chad's ibane, which coil
iber with Goventry^ a bt(h<»prick. It is divided into aooo L The charter-houfe is an odag^n-room. Xo
two parts by a xivvdet and a kind of (hallow lake, over the fame dofe are the palaces of the bimop and dean*
which are two caufewa^s with fluieea* It is a long and the prebendaries houfes in a court on the hilL

Here are three other churches ; one of which, St Mi-
chael's, has a church-yard of 6 or 7 acres* There. was
a caiUe here, long iiace deftroyed: and ancient camps
have been difcovered in its environs. In the neig^h-
bourhood are frequent horfe-races. The markets there
are pn Tuefday and Friday, and fix fairs in the year.
By the late izUand navigation, this place has commu-
nication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Hmnber, Thames, Avon,
&c. which navigation, including its windings, extends
above 500 miles in the counties oi Lincoln, Notting^
ham, York, LancaAer, Weilmoreland^ Chefter, War-
wick, Leioefter, Oxford, Worceiler, ^c^ litchficld
fends two members to parliament.

LITERARY, any thing belonging to Litssla-

TUaB.

LiteHj^rt Property p or Cofy*Rigbi. SecCoFi'-Rtg&U
LITERATI {iaradatt "lettered"), an epithet gi-
ven to 'fuch perfons among the Chinefe as are able to
read and write their language. The literati alone are
capable of being made nuuidarins.

LiTfftATi is alfo the name of a particular fed^
cither in religion, philofophy, or poUtics^ conMin^
principally of the learned men of that country; amoii^
whom it is called ^Wmo, i. e. <' learned."

It had its. rife in tlie year of Chrift 1400, when the
emperor, to awaken the native afiedion of the people
for knowledge, which had been quite baoifhed by the
preceding civil wars among them, and to (Ur .up emu-
ion among the mandarins, choie out 4a of the abled

ftraggling place ; but has fome very handfome houfes,

and well-paved clean ftrects. Hiat part on the fputh

fide of the rivulet is called the eiiy, and the other the

4h/i* The eky is mtich the largeil, and aontains feve-

fal public fkru&ures. It was incorporated by £dw. VI.

with the name 0^ baiHfiii and bnrgefies ; and is both a

town and county, governed by a bailiffs chefen yearly

•lit of 24 burgeiTes, a recorder, a (heriff, a ftevrard, and

•ther officers. The city has power of life and death

within their jurifdi^lion, a court of record, and a pie-

powder«court. Here is a gaol both for debtors and

Jelon^ s free fchool, and a pretty large well endowed

holpital for a mafi'er and 1 2 bsethren. The county

of the city is to or 12 miks in compafs, which the

(kcriff rides yearly on the 8th of September, and then

feafls the corporation and neighbouring gentry. The

da/e is fo cdled from i{s being indofed wilh a wall

and a deep dry ditek- on all (ides except towards the

•ity, vidiere it is defended by a great lakeormarih

fenned by its brook. The cathedral, which (lands io

^ dqfe, was originaily built by Qfwiits king of Norr

thum1>criand about 500* It was rebuilt and enbfged

by Ofia lung of Merda in 766. In 11 48 was rebuilt,

and greatly enlarged in 1296. At the reformation,

Coventry was- divided fixmi it. In the civil wars it^

i^ire was d^fboyed, and it converted to a iUble. In

17 76 a beautifid painted window, by the benefafiion

of Dx Adenbrook, has been fet up at the weflern end

of the cathedral: In the civil wars it vras ieveral times

taken and retaken, and thereby fufiPored much ; but

was fo repjsired aftov the reftoeation, at the expenxre of among thdr dediors, to whom he gave a commiilion to

20,000 L that it was one of the faireft and noble^ compofp a' body of dodrine agreeable to that of the

ftm&ures of the kind in England. It is walled in like ancients, which was then become the rule or ftandard

acaftle^ and ftanda £b high as tobe feen xo milesimmd. of the karned* The delegates applied themfclves to

the

I. F T t w«

'-*^*^^ the im&aeft wkh vfry ffmpt at^nti^tt > k«4 feme fko-
* . tt : cied them rather to have wneiled the do^iinc of tb^
..n an- sclents, tp miakt k coafiA wuh theirs^ tbieia to have
built up theirs on the mpddi of the aacu:nt«*

Tbfy i^oak 9f the I>^iX]r» a» if it wore ao apore than

LIT

^Khr«3c«

iixticrga w O/enxi^jk Smil^r to- that by which char* ^'^^'^^'l®
coal ia made. By thif opcrauoo coals are dcpriyed ^ , . I! ^
their phlegm^ their acid Uq/notf and the gneattU part pf ^^^
their fluid oiL Coakt therefore CQOuft of the tvo
moft fi}(ed conilitveQt p^t^ Jthe heavy oil and the

maitfMU

mr^ n^ti^re or th^ oaturai power or virtue that pro- «?irth, to|^ether witji the 9cid concrete fait, which iho'

ihicesy difpofoa, ^^d preicfve^, the fevcral parta of the
vaivfirfe. It isy fay they, a pure, perfeft principlct
«rjthout beginaii)g pr end; it is the fource of all things^
t^e efleoce of every being,, and that which detenniiK^
M to be .what it i^. They B»ake Gpd tlie £b)d of th<:
world ; they fay« he i« diffufed through all matter,
And produces ^ the change* that happen .jthere. In
(hort, it is oat eafy 19 detcrntioe, whether they reiblvc

volatile is dctaiped by the oil ajid eartji*

LITHARG£, a preparation of lead» ufually in
form of fofc flakes, of a yellowifli reddiih colour. If
calcined lead be urged with « hafty fire, it meks into
the appeaiaoce of oil, and on cooling concretes into
lithai^e. Greatcil part of the litharge met with in
the /hops is produced in the purification of fllver from
lead, and the refiniiJg of gold and filver by means of this

God into aature,. or lift up nature into God ; for ' metal: according to the degree of Arc and other cir-

thjey afcribe to it n^any of thofe things which we at-
tribute to God«

This'' doflriqe, ia liep of the idolatry that prevailed
b^one, introdjiccd a refined kind of atheifm. The
work, . being fx>nBpof«d by fo many ptribas o{ learning
and parts, apd approved by the 6ii^>eror himfelf, was

cumiUnces, it proves of a pale or deep colour ^ the firft
has been commonly callea litharge &fjilver^ the other
iibarge ofgolJ* See Chemistv- Inacx^

LJTHGOW (William), a Scotfman, whofc fuffe-
rings by imprifonment and torture at Malaga, and
whofe trav<ls^ on foot, over Europe, Aiia, and Airi^

ireceived with infinite applaufe by all the people. Many ^ ca, feem to raife him almojl to the rank of a martyr

were pleafed with it, becaufe it feemed to fubvert all
religion { others approved it, becaufe the little religion
<hat it left them eould not give them much trouble.
And thus was formed |he feS of the X'iteratij which
coiififl^ of ihe SMuntalners ^nd adh«rcfits to this doo-
trine.

The court, the mandarins, and the peribps of for-
tune 9nd qukility, &€• arc generally retainers to it ;
but a grest' part of the common pepple ftill bold t^
th^r worihip of idols.

Ths h'terati freely tolerate the Mahometans, becaufe
they adore, with thefi|,.the king of heaven, ^nd author
9f nature ;. but dvey bear a perfe6i iiverfioa to all forts
of idolaters ajyiong-them : and it vfras once refolved tp
extirpate them» Sut the diforder this would have 00
^afiQ^ed in the empire prevented it 2 they now content

and a hero, publiihed an accoufit of his peregrinations
and adventures. Though the author deals much i»
the marvellous, the hornd account of theflrange cnicl-
ties of which, he tells us, he was the £ubje<^ have,-
however, an air of truth. Soon after bis arrival in .
£ngland from Malaga, he was carried to Theobald's •
op a feather-bcd» that King James might be an eycr
witneis of bis martyred amaiomy^ by which he means
his wretched body, mangled and reduced to a> flceleton*
The whole court crowded to fee him ; and his majefty
ordered him tp be taken care of, and be vras twice
fent to Bath at his expence. By the king's command^ .
be applied to Xlondamor, ,the Spanifli ambafiador, for
the recovery of .the money and other things of value
which the governor of Malaga had. taken from him, .
and &>r L. 1000 for his fupport. He was promi<

tbemfeli^es with condemning them, in general, as he- Jed a iiill reparation for .the damage he had fuibained ; .

feiies ; which they do folemnly every year at Pekin.

LITERATURE denotes- learning or ikili il^ie^-
te«-

LITERNUMi. See LiHTSRMUM.

LITHANTHRAX, or Pi^-CmI, i« a black w
brqwQ, laminated, bituminous fubilance ; not very ea^
fily inflammable, but* when once inflamed, burns long.-

but the perfidious minifler never performed his promife.
When he was upon the point of leaving England^
Lithgow upbraided him with the breach of his word
in the pipcsfeiict-chamber, before fevcral gentlemen of
the court. This occafloned dieir fighting upon the
^ot ; and tlue ambaflador, as the traveller oddly cx-
prefles it, had his fiftida (with which diforder he wqs

^ and more intealelv than any other fubilance. Of afliided) cpntrabanded with his fift. The unfortunate
-j.«_ i-„i_ii .»^ . 1 1 ,•/!• ./I jv 1 Jvithgow, who was generally condemned for his fpi-

rited behaviour, was Tent to the Marfhalfea, where he
continued a prifbner nine months.. At the conclufion
of tha oftavo edition of his Travels he informs us^,
that, in his three voyages, ^^ his painful feet have tnu
ced over (befidcs paflages of feas and rivers) 36,000.
and odd miles, which draweth ne^ to twice the cir-
cimiference of the whole eartb/' Here the marvellous
feems to rife to the incredible i . and to fet him, ia
point of vcmcity, below Coryat, whom it is neverthe* -
lefs certain tbat he far outwalked. His defcription :
of Ireland is whimfical s^nd cuiious* This,^ together
witb the narrative of. lus fuflerings, .is reprinted in Mor* •
gan's Pifomx Briuuinicus*.

LITHJASIS, or Stomc. &ceM£OKCiNS./;iJtx..

LITHOMANTIA, in totiquity, a fpecicsof di.
vination performed with ftones* Sometimes the flonc
csikdJid^ritMYii* ufed; this they waflied in.fpring*

water.

ihis fubftaaee three kinds are diilinguifhed by authors.
Tlie refiduuro of the flrft after combuflion is black ;
^M refiduum of the fecond is fpongy» and like pumice
AoAe; and the refiduum of die th^rd iswhitifh afbes.
Some tb|SI coal, by long expofure to air* falls into 9
ffcyiih powder,, from which alvm nK^ be eytni^d.
Fo&l coal by diiliDation yields^ i.a ph}egm or water ;
2. a very acid liquor 1^ 3. a thin oil like naphtha ; 4. 9
Ihicker ofl, idembling' petroleum, which faHs to the
bottom of the former, and which riies with a violent
irt ; f . an acid concrete (alt ; 6. 9n uninflammable
earth remains in the retort. Thefe eonfl:ituent.par^
flf fofiO'Coal are very fimilar to thofe of amber and
other bitumens* For the exciting of intenfe heats, s^
of furnaces for fisiching iron-ore, and for operations-
vheretheadd aad oily vapours would be detrimental,
as the drying of malt, fpffil-coals are previoufly char^
Bed, or reduced to coahs that is^ they arc made to

LIT

I/ithon
tripticuf

■ u

.Litliofiro-
tcfn.

[ ibi ]

L I T

water in the nigfat by candle-light ; i3ie perfbn that
confultcd ittvas to be purified from all manner of pol'
lution, and to have his ^cc covered': this done» he
repeated divine prayers, and placed certain charaflers
in an appointed order ; and then the ftone moved of
Itfdfy and ia a foft gentle murmup^ or (as fome fay)
in a voice like that df a child, returned an anfwer. By

prefentatiottt of nature, with all the exa6befs of tire
fineft painting.

LITHOTOMY, in furgery, the operation: of cut-
tiqg for the ftone. SeeSvad^Rr,

LITHUANIA, an exten£ve province of PoJainL
By the natives it is called Letwa^ and has Great Po-
-land ai/d Ruffia on the weft ; part of Mufcovy on tkc

a ftone of this natun*, flelenaSs reported to have fore- •eaft; Livonia, the Baltic Sea, and part of Mufcovy^

told the dcftnf£^]on ofTrqy,

LITHONTRIPTICUS (from a.6#. « a ftone,*'
and 6ft/»l» * to break"); an epithet for medicines that
are fuppofed to break the ftone in the 'bladder. Though
the different ftones that are generated in the human

t«n the noith ; Red Ruffia, Volhinil^ and Padolia, on
the fotith; and the Ukraine on the fonth-eaft. Its
length is (aid to 1>e about 5601 and its breadth 340
mOes; but it is much indented bdth ways. Lithuanhi
was anciently over-run with (wood*$ and there' are ftiU

bladder require different folvents when out of tbe bo» many forefts in it, indiidi yield a -greaft deal of honey^

dy; and though art hatb not yet afforded a medicine 'wax, pitch, tar, and timber ; and abound with wild

which, when mje€^ed into the Uadder, wffl, without "boars, buffidoes, elks, wild horfes, wild affes, im, and

injury thereto, diffoWe the ftone therein lodged ; ft woodcocks. The UJces are alfo numerous, and wtll«

cannot thence be concluded, that there are no lithon- ftored witli iifh : but the air, by reafono^ tbefe forefts

triptic medicines. It may be here obferved, that one and lakes, is faid to be thtck and foggy. The countrf

folvent affeds one Tiibje^, but haOi no effeiEi on ano* produces a great deal of buck-wheat attid other com^

ther ; fo a folvent may yet be met with that will de- the paftures are luxuriant^ and the ftodcs and herds nu*-

Uroy the ftone, and not buit the human body. The merous : fo that, notwithftanding agricukute is much

'water into which the boiled white of t^ diffolves will
liquefy myrrh, but may be put into 5ie human eye
.without caufing any uneafine'Si. _

Soap ley taken at firft in '(mall dofes in broth diat
is freed from sill its fiat, fucceeds in moft t:afes which
require an alkaline folvent. The patient may begin
with to drops, and gradually increafe the dofe as he
is able ; and by repeating it three times a-day for fix,
eight, or twelve months, the wiflied for effc^s often
follow.

LiTHOPHYTA, the name t* Linnaeus's third
•order of vermes. Sec Zoology.

negle6led, provifions are exceeding^ cheq>, but monejr
fo fcarce, that i6j>ercent. is the common intereft. The
-principal nobility have large eftaten, nnd live in greal
pomp and fplendor^ generally retaining fome hundreds
ef thofe that are poor, ia quality of domeftics. The
eftabhfhed religion is Popery ; but Lutherans, Calv»^
nifts, Jews, Turks, Greeks, and Socinians, are very
numerous. Lithuania was gcyvemed by its own duk^
till it was united to Pplandy towards the end of the
14th century, when the great Duke JageUo married
Hedwjgy the dowager of L.ouis king of Poland and
Hungary. It had even dukes after that, but they

LITHOSPERMUM, gromwell: A genus of vere fubordmate to the king) and at this day; tho'

the monogynia order, belonging to tlie pentandria claia t>ne diet ferves for both countries, yet each has its

nf plants ; and in the natural method ranking under -peculiar laws, cuftoms, dialed, and privileges. In a

the 41ft order, Afpertfohe, The corolla is funnel- -diet held at Lublin in. 1569, it was more aofely un£^

Shaped, with the throat perforated and naked; the ca- ted to Poland than it' had been before; and it was en-

lyx quinquepartite. There arc fevered fpecies ; but ad^ed, that both countries, for the future^ ftiould form

the only remarkable ones are the officinale or common
gromwell, and the arvenfe or baftard alkanet. Both
thefe are natives of Britain ; the former growing in
dry gravelly foil, the latter in corn-fields. The feeds

but one .ftate under the fame prince. As to their
courts of ju^ice, the tenth part of what is adjudgel
in all real a£liotts goes always to the judge's box, and
is*immediately paid in comt ; and in penonal a6Uons

of the fiiil are reputed to be of fervice in calculous "he claims half the damages griven. A noUeman it
cafes. Dr Grew fays, that they have . fo much earth t>nly fined for murd^, as in Poland. The common pco*

in their compoiition, that they effervefce with acids ^
but if this is the cafe, it muft be attribiAed -rather to
an alkaline than an earthy quality.

L ITHOSTROTION, in natural hiftory, the name
of a fpecies of fofiil coral, compofed of a great num-
ber of long and (lender columns, Sometimes round,
fometimes angular, jointed nicely to one another, and
of a ftarry or radiated furface at their tops. Thefe are

pk here, excepting the burghers in the royal townt»
and the Germans, are Ha^s; and, in many places^
the ignorant vulgar ftiU retain fome remains of idola-
try. The poor people have only Mondays to them*
felves ; and if their lords have occaiion for them even
on that day,. the peafant muft work for himfelf oa
■Sunday. If any of them is condemned to death by
his lord, he muft execute himfelf, or fuffer greater

found in confiderable quantities in the northern and cruelty. The dialedl is a language of the Sclavonic ;

weftem parts of this kingdom, fometimes in fingle,
fometimes in complex fpecimens. See Plate CC.

LITHOSTROTON, among the Romans, was a
pavement of Mofiaic work, con fitting of fmall pieces
of cut maible of different kind^ and colours. The i?-
thoftmta began to be ufed in the time of Sylla, who
made one at Prxnefte in the temple of Fortune. At
laft they were ufed in private houfes; and were brought
to fuch perfeftion, that they exhibited moft lively re-

and they fpeak here, as in Poland, a barbarous kind
of Latin. Lithuania is divided into nine palatinates*
Another divifion is into Lithuania properly fo ca!]»
ed, and Lithuanian Ruliia. Some, alfo comprehend
under it Samogitia and Courland, which is a fief ot
Poland.

LITMUS, or Lacmus, in the arts, is a blue pig^
ment, formed from wrchtU It is brought from Hol-
land at a cheap rate \ but may be prepared by adding

quick

1, 1 T [ 103 1 LIT

quick Kme and pmnfied urine, or fpint of imte ditdir thud of that reigti» he was appointed king's ferjeaaty LictleMrv
kd&omlinie» to the archil pcetiou^ bniifedby grind- and rode the nomiem drcult at judge of affize. In ;^^^^^f'
ing. The nuztare having cookd» wA the fluid fuffer- 146x9. the fecond of Edward IV. he obtained a par-i '^^
cd toev^otatei beoometa nalii of the confifteace of a don from the crown ; and, in 14669 was appointed

one of the judges of the comxnon-pkaS) and rode the

pafte» which is laid on boards to dry ia£i|uare lumps. It
la only uCed in mioiatuie paintingSy and cannot be well
4^>ended on, bccauie the leaft approach of acid changes
it inftantly from Uue to ved» The beft litmus h vary
apt to change and fty*

LITT£R {/eaica), a kind of vehicle borne upon
frafts ; anciently efteemed the moft eafy and genteel
way oif carriage. Du-Cange derives the word from the
barbarous Latin /«rfi«ria ^ ftraw or bedding for beailsk'*
Other will rather have it come from kSus '* bed ;" these
being ordinairily a quilt and a pillow to a litter in the
fame manner as to a bed*

Pliny calls tlie litter the trawBer^i chamber: it was
much^in ufe among the Romans, among whom it was
borne by Haves kept for that porpofe ; as it flill conti-
nues to be in theeafty where it is^calleda/aZan^KiR.— -The
Roman k£Uca» made to be borne by four men, was
called ieiraphonm; that borne by fix bexapborum; and
that borne by eight oaaphorum*

The invention of Utters, according to Cicero„ was
owing to the kings <^ Bithynia : in the time of Tiberius
they were become very frequent at Rome^ as appears
from Seneca ; and even flaves themfclves were borne in

Northazx^tonHire circuit. In the year 4474 he was,
with many of the firft nobility, created kn^ht of the
Bath. He died in 1481 ; and was buried in the ca*
thedral church of WorceHer, where a marble tomb,
with his flatue upon it, was ereded to his memo*
ry. As to his chara£ier as a lawyef, it is fufiicicnt
to inform the reader, that he was the author of the
Treatife upon Tenures^ on which Sir Edward Coke
wrote a commenti. well known by the title of Coh
upon Littleton.

LiTTLETOH (Adam), defcended from an ancient
family in Shropfhire, was born in 1617, educated at
Weftminiler-iichool, and went to Oxford a ftudent of
ChriA-church, whence he was ejeded by the parlia*
meat vilitors in 1648. Soon afrcc^ he became ufhcr*
of Weftnunfter-fchool, and in 1658 was made fecond
mailer of Weftminftei^fchooL After the reiloration
he taught » fchool at Chelfea in. Middlefex, of which
church he was admitted re£tor in the year 1 664. In
1670 he accumulated the degrees in divinity, being
then diaplain in ordinary to his majefly. . In 1674, ^^
becapac prd>endary of Weftminiler, of which church

them, though never by more than two perfons^ where- he was afterwards fub«dean. Befide the weU-known

as men of quality had fix or eight

Litter alfo denotesa parcel of dry c^ ftraw put on
the floor of a horieVftali for him to lie down and reft
i^)on« When a horfe comes tired into a ftable, fre/h
litter has the virtue o£ making him ftale inmiediately.
This is known to be a very great advantage to a horie
in a tired ftate ; and when the litter is old and dirty, it
never has any fuch effe^ upon him. If the owners knew
how refreftiing it is for a horfe to (Hfcharge his urine
•nhis returafrom labour, they would be more care*
£il of giving them all means and occafions of it than
they are. This ftaling after £ttigue prevents thofe ob*
ftrudions in the neck of the bladder or urinary paC-
iiges which horfes are too fubjed to* The bladder be-
in^ often inflamed by the long retention of the heated
iirme in it, the creature is thus in danger of perilhing;

LITTL£ (William), an ancient Englifh hiftonan.

Latin and EngUfh Di£Uooary, he publiihed feveral
other works. He died in 1694^ and was interred ^
at Chelfea. He was an univerfol fcholar; and ex-*
tremely charitable, humane, and eafy of acceis*

LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies in general
belonging to divine iervice.

The word comes from the Greek yttU^y^ «« fervicei^
public miniftry ;." formed of ^<'?»f *' public," and <r^«v
" work."

In a more reftrained iignificatioB, liturgy is ufed a-
mong. the Romanifts to ugnify the mqft ; and among
us the commTn-pra^*

All who have written ot> liturgies agree, that in the
primitive days divine fervice was exceedingly Ample,
only clogged with a very few ceremonies, and conHft-
ing of but a fmall number of prayers ; but, by degrees,
they increafed the number of external ceremonies, and

known alfo h^ the name of GuSelmus Neubr^en/uf^ added new prayers,, to make the office look more awful

was bom at Bridlingtoa in the coanty of York, in the
j^ar X 136 $ and educated. in. the abbey of Newborough
m the hmt county, where he became a monk. In
his advanced years,, he compofed a hiftory of England,
in five books, from the Norman conqueft to A. D.
1x97 ; which, for veracity, reguburity of difpofition,
and purity of language,, is one of the moft valuable
pfodu^ons of this penod.

LITTLETON (Sir Thomas), judge of the com-
moa*pleaa, was the eldeft Ibn of Thomas Weftcote,
ef<|^ of the county of Devon, by Elizabeth,, fole
keirefr of Thomas Littleton of Frankley in Wor-
cefterfhire,. at whofe requeft he took, we name and
arms of that fiunily. He was educated at one of our
univerfities, probably at Cambridge. Thence he re*

and venerable to the people. At length things were
carried to fuch a pitch, that a regulation became ne-
cefTary ; ^d it was found proper to put the fervice,
and- the manner of performing it, into writing; and
this was what they called a liturgy.

Liturgies have been different at different times, and
in different countries. We have the liturgy of St CLry-
foflom, that of St Peter, of St James, the liturgy of.
St Bafil, the Armenian liturgy, the hturgy of the
Maronites, of the Cophtx, the Roman litur^, the
Gallican liturgy^ the Englifh liturgy, the Ambrofian^
liturgy, the Spanifh and African. lituigies, &c.

In the more early ages of the church, . eveiy biihop •
had a power to form a liturgy for his own diocefe ;*
and if he kept to the analogy of faith and do£lrine, all

lK>ved to the Inner. Temple^ where he became one of circumftances were left to his own difcretion. After*

the readers ; and was afterwards, by Henry VI. made wards the pradice was for the whole province to fol«-

Seward or judge of the court pf the palace, or mar- low the metropolitan church, which alfo became the ge«-

Aalfca of the £ng's houfchold^ In 14551 the thirty^ neral rule of the church : and this Lmdwood acknow«.

6 Icdgea.

kdg^ to ht iht coititttori Ikvr of th^ cl^ufth ; kiftmft^ gfolf of L<^2iift6 ; and oA t^ wvft; by Hmt Sifttui iiasi

tingy that the life of fevtral f&i^bes in tlire fame pto» Itnd {>aft of Efyn^. Iff At«ne ^8 about 1$^ mUm

Vinee, wliich was the ctife in Engkml, ^rAs not to b6 from north -^ed to fottth-elrft f btit iZi gfcAoft WeaM

trarrsiHed but by long cuftom. The ^tvrrgy of the h not dho^e 36 miles. It is in geiMral t mcmAtAxnovf

chtirch of England was compofed in the year 1 547, country ; bat neither tfnpleai&nt nor vnfiKiitful. The

and eftabh'fiied in the fecond year of King Edward VL principal mountains avCy Aottnt Octt m Bcftotia^ wkert

ftat. 2. and 3 £d. VI. cap. i. is the femous pafs of Tliennopylfle» if^t above 15 fccC

In the fifth year df this king it was reviewed ; be* broad; and Pamafus, Nelicon^tildCythsron in Phodii

'Caufe fome ^hings were contained in that liturgy which which were facred to Apollo and the mufesy and con*

fliowed a compliance with the fuperftition of thofe fequently much celebrated by the poets. The riven

of moil note are, th^ Sionaprot anciently the Acheloas»
the Cephiffus* the IfmcnnSf and the.Afopua. Tht
province is at prefent divided into Livadia propert
Stramulfppay and the duchy of Athens.- The prin«
cipal places are, Lepanto, anciently Naupa^tos ; JLiva-
dia» anciently Libadiaor Lebadia ; the cekbrated city
of Athens, now Setines'^ Thebes, now Stibes ; Lcp-
Una, anciently Eleufis ; Caftri, formerly Delphi | and
Megara.

Livadia, an ancient town of Turky in Curope^
and capital of a province of the fami^ name in Oreece.
It is a large and populous place, Heated on the gulf of
Lepanto, about 25 miles from the city of th«t name.
It has now a coniiderable trade in woollen ftufft and
Anciently it was celebrated for the oracle of

ncc.

times, and foma exceptions were taken againil it by
fome learned men at home, and by Calvin abroad.
Some alterations were made in it, which conMed in
adding the general confeifion and abfolution, and the
communion to begin with the ten commandments. The
life 6f oil in confirmation and extreme undtion were
left out, and alfo prayers for fotils departed, and what
tended to a belief of Chrift*s real prcfence in the eUcha-
rift. This liturgy, fo reformed, was eftablifhed by the
aft 6f 5 and 6 Ed. VI. cap. i. Howevet^, it Was abo-
liihed by Oneen Mary, who enafted, that the fervice
(hould ftanoas it was moft commonly ufed in the lafl
year of the reign of King Henry VIII. The liturgy
of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. was re-cftablifhed with fortie few
alterations and additions, by i Eliz. cap. 2. Some

farther alterations were introduced, in confequence of Trophonius, which was in a cavern in a htfl aboyp the

\the review of the common prayer-book, by order of town. E. Long. 23. 29. N. Lat. 38. 40.

.King James, in the firft year of his reign ; particular- LIVER, in anatohiy. -Sec there, n** 96k— Pkto^

ly in the office of private baptifm, in ieveral rubricks and other of the ancients, fix the principle of love in

and other paflages, with the addition of five or fix new the liver ; whence the Latin proverb, Cogk amare

prayers andthankfgiving^, and all that part of the ca^ jecur: and in this fenfe Horace frequehtly nfcs the

techifm which contains the doftrineof the facraments. word, as when he fays, Si torrerejeeur quartf Idomfm.

The book of common-prayer, fo altered, remained in —The Greeks, from its concave figure, called it »**fj

force from the firft year of King Jlfties to the four- ** vaulted, fufpended f^ the Latins call it keur^ q. A

' teenth of Charles II. But the hft review of the li- juxta cory as being "near the heart." The French call

turgy was in the ye^tr 166 1, and the laft aft of unifor- itfoye, from foyer^ fccus^ " or fire*place ;" agreeable to

mity enjoining the obfervance of it is 13 and 14 Car. the doftnneof the ancients^ who beh'eved the blood to

II. cap. 4* Stt Co\fMoif-'Prayer, Many applications be boiled 'and prepared in it* -» Erafiftratos, at firft^

hate been fince made for a review, but hitherto with- . called \t parcnchymay i. e. effnftm^ or mafi fifbhod; and

out fuccefs. Hippocrates, by way of eminence, freqtiently calls it

LITUUS, among the Romans, was the ftafF ntade ihtlypochmdrlum.

life of by the augurs in quartering the heavens. It
"bore a great refcmblance to the croficr of a bifliop, but
was fhorter. It was crooked at one end, and thickeft
in the curved part, according to A. Gellius. We fre-
quently meet with a reprefentation of it upon medals,
amongft other pontifical inftruments. It was called
JLltuus ^irindUs^ from Quirinns, a name of Romulus,
who was {killed in all the myfteries of augu»y.

LiTUUS, was alfo an inftrument of mufic in ufe in

L'lr

LitTRR of Antimony^ See Cn BM 1 str Y«-/ii^fy.
LivEit of Arfmicy is a combination of white arfenfc
with liquid fixed vegetable alkali, or by the humid
way. Arfenic has in general a ftrong difpofition to
unite with alkalis. Mr Macquer, in his Memoirs upon
Jit feme y mentions a fhngiihir kind of neutral fait, ivhich
rcfults from the union of arfenicwith the alkaline bafis
of nitre, when nitre is dccompofed, and its acid is dif*
engaged in clofe veffcls, by means of arfenic. To this
the Roman army. It wis ftraight, excepting that it fait he has* given the name of neutral orfrmeaf falt\*\^^
had a little bending at the upper end like a Ktuus or The liver of arfenic, mentioned alfo by that chenuft,^^'
laced ftaff of the augurs ; and from the fimilitude it ahhotrgh compofed, like the neutral arfenifral fait, of
derived its name.' The lit ous, as an inftrument of mar* arfenic and fixed alkali, is neverthelefs very difimnt
tial mufic, was of a middle kind, betwixt the cornu from that fait.

The operation for making liver of arfenic is eafy and
fimple. To ftrong and concentrated liquid fixed sdkalii
previoufly heated, fine powder of white arfenic muft
be added. This arfenic eafily difappears- and diffolves,

Xi^

and the tuba.

LIVADIA, anciently Achaia and Hellas ^ or Greece
properly fo called; a province or Turky in Europe,
bounded on the north by Epirus and Theftaly, from

which is is feparated by moUnt Oeta, now Banina, and and as mnch of it i^ to be added tiU the alkali is fattt*

by the Euripus, now the 'ftrait of Negropont ; on the rated, or has loft its alkaline properties, although it il

eaft, by the Archipelago ; on the fouth, by the gulf of ftill capable of diflblving more arfertic fuperabnndantiyi

Engia or Egina, the iftbmus of Corinth^ and the While the alkali diflolves the arfenic in this operation^y

N^i8s. it

It ncquire^ « browniAi colourf and a fiogiilar and dsf.

^^^] agreeable fnjcU ; which, however, i$ not the fmcU of

pure arfenic heated and volatilized. Laftly, this mix*

tore becomes more and more thick, and at leneth of

a gluey confidence. This matter is not crjrftamzable

as the neutral arfenical fait is. It is eafily decompofed

by the action of fire, which feparates the arfenic.

This does not happen to the arfenical fait* Anv

pure acid is capable of feparating arfenic from the h*

ter of arfenic, in the fame manner as they feparate

fulphur from liver of fulphur: whereas the neutral

arfenical fait cannot be decompofed but by means of

the united aflinities of acids and metallic fubftances.

Thus we fee that arfenic may be combined with fixed

lllkah* in two very different manners.

The author has given to this combination the name
of liver of arfetitc^ to diilinguifii it from the neutral
arfenical falt> and in imitation qf the name of the //•
<tvr of fulphur^ given to the combination of the fixed
mlkaii with fulphur.

LirEJt of Sulphur, Sec C H e m i s tr y , Index,

JLirsR'iFoHf in botany. See MaHchantia and
Lichen.

LiysR'Stofttf (lapis hepaticus) ; a genus of infiam*
mable fubftances, containing, befides its phlogifton, ar*
gillaceous, ponderous, and filiceous earth, united with
Yitnolk acid. See Earths, §• i. n"" 4.

Mr Bergman, in his Sciagraphia, informs us, that
100 parts of this ftone contain 53 of filiceoui earth, 39
of cauftic ponderous earth, almoft 5 of argillaceous
'earth, and 3.7 of lime, befides the vitriolic acid and
watier of eryflallifation : but Mr ^irwan quotes ano-
ther analyfis of the fame author, where it is faid that
106 parts of it contain 33 of baro-felenite, 38 of fili-
i:eous earth, 22 of alum, 7 of gypfum, and 5 of mine«>
raloiL

LIVERPOOL, a lai^e, flourifhing, and populous
town of England, in the county of Lancafter, fituated
at the influx of the river Meiiey into the fea. This
town has fo much increafed in trade fince the com*
roencement of the prcfent century, that it is now the
{rreateil fea-port in England except London, having
t^ceeded Briilol confiderably of hite years ; which will
appear by the following account of the cuftom-duties,
received in the feveral ports of London, Liverpool, and
Briftol, ip the year 1 784, taken from the report of the
commiflioners for infpe6iing the ftate of public ac*
counts.

London,

Liverpool^

Brillol,

L. 5,187,05a 9
640,684 2

• 334^9^9 19

Liverpol exceeded Briftol, L. 505,774 2 11

The following (hows how much the trade has increafed

fince the above period :

Duties received in the port of Liverpool from July 5th

1787, to Of^ober icth 1787. L. 298,361 9 lof
.The merchants here trade to ail parts of the world ex*
cept Turky and the Eaft Indies ; but the moft benefi-
cial trade is to Guinea and the Weft Indies, by which
many of them have acquired very large fortunes.

Liverpool,''during the laft war^ carried on more fo*
Vol. X. Part L

05 1 L I V

reign trade than any town in England ) and fuch ia Literpdof.
the ftate of it at this time, that there are near three "

thoufand veflels cleared from that port in one year to
different parts of the' world. Here are feveral manu-
fa^ories for China-warr, and pot-houfes which make
very fine ware, fome falt-works, glafs-houfes, and up-
wards of 50 breweries, from fome of which large quanti*
ties of malt-liquor are fent abroad. Many of the build-
ings are formed in the moft elegant manner ; but the
old ftreets are narrow ; which defeat will foon be re-
moved, as the corporation have lately obtained an a6t
^ of parliament for the improvement of the town^ which
they have already begun to put in force with great fpi-
rit, having taken down the principal ftVeets in the
centre of the town, and rebuilt them in a Q)aciou8 and
moft magnificent manner ; fo that in a few years it will
be one of the handfomeft towns in England. ' This
town contains ten churches, namely, St Peter's, St
Nicholas's, St George's, St Thomas's, St Paul's, St
Ann*8, St John's, 8t James's, St Catharine's, and St
' Mary's. There are alfo meetings for independents,
anabaptifts, quakers, methodifts, and preibyterians.
The exchange is a noble ftru6lure, built of white ftone
in the form of a fquare, and round it are piazftis where >
the merchants aifemble %o tranlad bufinefs. Above it
are the niayor's offices, the £efiions-hall, the council**
chamber, and two elegant ball-rooms. The expence of
eredting this building amounted to L. 30,000. The
cuftom-houfe is fituated at the head of the old dock;
and is a handfome and convenient ftru^ure. Here
are many charitaUe foundations, among which is an
excellent grammar-fchool well endowed, and many of
"the youth taught in it have exhibitions in the univer-
fities. The infirmary is a large edifice of brick and
ftone, fituated on a hill in a very pleafant airy fituation,
at one end of the town.

In the town is a charity-fchool fupported by volun-*
tary fubfcriptions and contributions for 50 boys and
1 2 girls, who are not only clothed and educated, but
alfo provided with food and lodging : likewife feveral
alms houfes for the widows of feamen ; and an excd*
lent poor-houfe, fuperior to any in the kingdomt
where upwards of 80c men, women, and children, are
fupported, many of whom are employed in fpinning
cotton and wool. There are fivt large wet docks,
three dry docks, and feveral graving docks for the re-
pairing of (hipping ; which renders it the moft com-
modious fea-port in the world. The quays which
bound thefe docks are covered with Warehoufes ; whicli
is a convenience that enables the merchant to difcharge
his Ihip at a very fmall expence. The new prifon
lately finifhed is a noble edifice, being built entirely
on the pkn of the great and benevc^ent Mr Howard,
for folitary confinement ; and is perhaps the moft con-
venient, airy, magnificent budding of the kind in £u«
rope ; being upon a very extenfive fcale.

Liverpool received its charter from king John : it
is under the government of a recorder, mayor, and an
unlianited number of aldermen, two bailifis, and a com-
mon*council of forty of the principal inhabitants, with
a town-clerk and other proper officers. ' The town
has a weekly market on Saturday, and is diftant from
London 204 miles. • The progreffive rife of popula-

O tioa

L 1 V

[ io6 ]

L I V

L-fverpottl, tion in Liyerpooi, may be conceived by perufing the
*'*^- fallowing table :

Year.

Chriftened.

Buried.

1
1

Married.

i66p

^.-

■— .

1680

106

5»

1700

132

124

1720

410

293

1740

485

608

137

1760

986

599

408

1780

1709

1 544

606

1787

2267

1773

804

By the late inland navigation, Liverpool has com-
fnunication with the rivers Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent,
Darwent, Severn, H umber, Thames, Avon, &c. which
navigation, including its windings, extends above 500
miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York,
• Weftmorcland, Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter,
Oxford, Worccfter, &c. The Merfey, upon which
the town is iituated, abounds vnth. falmon, cod, floun-
ders, turbot, plaife, and fmclts ; and at full fea it is
above two miles over. In the neighbourhood are fre-
quent horfe-races, on a five-mile courfe, the fineil for
the length in England. The foil in and near the
town is dry and fandy, and particularly favourable to
the growth of potatoes, on which the farmers often
depend more than on: wheat or any other grain. Frefh
water is brought into the town by pipes, from fome
fprings four miles off, purfuant to an a6l of parliament
in the reign of Queen Anne. Liverpool fends two
members to parliament.

LIVERY, in matters of drcfs and equipage, a
certain colour and form of drefs, by which noblemen
and gentlemen choofe to difUnguiih their fervants.

Liberies are ufually taken from fancy, or continued
in families by fucceflion. The ancient cavaliers, at
their tournaments, diffinguiHied themfelves by wearing
the liveries of their miflreffes : thus people of quality
make their domeftics wear their livery.

Father Meneftrier, in his Treatife of Caroufals, has
given a very ample account of the mixtures of colours
in liveries. Dion tells us, that Oenomaus was the firft
who invented green and blue colours, for the troops
which, in the circus, were to reprefent land and fea-
(Ights.

The RomiHi church has alfo her feveral colours ^n^
liveries ; white, for confeffprs and virgins, and in times
of rejoicing ; black, for the dead ; red, for the apofUes
and martyrs ; blue or violet, for penitents ; and green,
in times of hope. ""

Formerly^ great men gave liveries to feveral, who
were not of their family or fervants, to engage them
in their quarrels for that year ; but this was prohibited
by the ftatutes i Rich. 11. x Hen. IV. cap. 27. a and
7 Hen. IV. 8 Hen. VI. cap. 4. 8 Ed. IV. cap. 2 j
and no man, of whatever condition, was allowed to
give any Kvery, but to his domefUc officers, and coun-
iel learned in the law. However, mod of the a^Ove
ftatutes are repealed by 3 Car. I. cap. 4.

Liytkr of Selfm^ in law, fignifies delivering the

poffeffion of lands, Sec, to him who has a right toL^ipf
them. , ^'^

LIVERYMEN of London, ate a number of men
chofen from among tlie freemen of each company. Out
of this body the common-council, fheriff, and other
fuperior ofiicers for the government of the city, are
^le&ed ; and they alone have the privilege of giving
their votes for members of parliament, from which the
reil of the citizens are excluded.

LIVIUS (Titus), the beft of the Roman hiftori-
ans, as he is called by Mr Bayle, was bom at Patavi-
um, or Padua. Few particulars of his life have been
handed down to us. Coming to Rome, he acquired
the notice and favour of AuguHus, and there he long
refidtd. Some have fuppofed, (for there is not any
proof of it), that he was known to Auguftus before,
by certain Philofophical Dialogues which he had de-
dicated to him. Seneca fays nothing of the dedication :
but mentions the dialogues, which he calls hiiioricd
and philofophical ; and alfo fome books, written pur-
pofcly on the fubje^ of philofophy. Be this as it will,
it is probabl'e that he began his hi dory as foon as he
was fettled at Rome ; and he feems to have devoted
himfelf fo entirely to the great work he had under-
taken, as to be perfe^y regardlefs of his own advance-
ment. ^ The tumults and dillra^lions of Rome frequently
obliged him to retire to Naples ; not only that he might
be lefs interrupted in the purfuit of his dellined taik,
but alfo enjoy that retirement and tranquillity which
he could not have at Rome, and which' yet he feems
to have much fought after : for he was greatly dif-
fatisfied with the manners of his age, and tells us, that
" he ihould reap this reward of his labour, in compo-
iing the Roman hiftory, that it would take his atten-
tion from the prefent numerous evils, at lead while he
was employed upon the firll and earlieft ages. ' ' He ufed
to read parts of this hillory, while he was compofing it,
to Mecsnas and Auguftus \ and the latter conceived fo
high an opinion of him, that he pitched upon him to fu-
perintend the education of his grandfon Claudius, who
was afterwards emperor. After the death of AuguRus,
Livy returned to the place of his birth, where he was
received with all imaginable honour and refpeiS^ ; and
there he died, in the fourth year of the reign of Ti"
berius, aged above feventy. Some, iky, he died on
the fame day with Ovid : it is certain that he died
the fame year.

Scarce any man was ever more honoured, alive at
well as dead, than this hifiorian. Pliny the younger
relates, that a native gentleman travelled from Gades,
in the extremeft parts of Spain-, to fee Livy : and,
though Rome abounded' with more ftupendous and cu-
rious fpedacles than any city in the world, yet he im-
mediately returned 5 as if, after having feen Livy, no-
thing farther could be worthy of his notice. A mo-
nument was ere6bed to this hiilorian in the temple oi
Juno,,, where was afterwards founded the monaftery of
St Juftina. There, in 1415,^ wafi di&overed the fol-
lowing^ epitaph upon Livy t. OJfa Titi LivU Patavmi^
omnium morialiumjudicia Sgm^ cujusprope woiQo calame hf
viSlpofuU Romani res gefi£ confcriberentur ; that is, *'Thc
bones of Titus Livius of Patavium, a man worthy to
be approved by all mankind, by wbofe almofl invio-
cible pen the a&s and exploits of the invincible Ro-

mao<

L I V

LaWiu.

mans were written.*' Thefe bonee are laid to be pre*
fervcd with high reverence to this day, and are fhown
by the Paduans as the moft precious remains. In
X451, Alphonfus, king of Arragon, fent his ambafla*
dor, Anthony Panormita, to defir^ of the citizens of
Padua the bone of that arm with yMch this their fa-
mous countryman had written his hiftory ; and, ob-
taining it, caufed it to be conveyed to Naples with the
greateft ceremony as a moft invaluable relic. He is
£ud to have recovered from an ill ftate of health by
the^leafure he found in reading this hiftory : and there-
fore, out of gratitude, put upon doing extraordinary
honours to the memory of the writer. Panormita alfo,
who was a native of Palermo in Sicily, and one of the
ableft men of the 15th century, fold an eftate to pur-
chafe this hiftojrian.

The hiftory of Livy, like oth«- great works of an-
tiquity, is tranfmitted down to us exceedingly mutilated
and imperfe6l. Its books were originally an hundred and
forty-two, of which are extant only thirty-five. The
epitomes of it, from which we learn their number, all
remain, except thofe of the 136th and 137th books.
Lfivy's books have been divided into decades, which fome
will have to have beei^ done by Livy himfelf, becaufe
there is a preface to every decade ; while others fuppofe
It to be a modem contrivance, (inpe nothing about it can
be gathered from the ancients. The firft decade, begin-
ning with the foundation of Rome, is extant, and treats
of the affairs of 460 years. The fecond decade is loft;
the years of which arc feventy*five. The third decade
is extant, and contains the fecond Punic war, inclu-
ding eighteen years. It is reckoned the moft excellent
part of the hiftory, as giving an account of a very long
and ftiarp war, in which the Romans gained fo many
advantages, that no arms could afterwards withftand
them. The fourth decade contains the Macedonian
war againft Philip, and the Afiatic war again ft Antio-
chus, which takes up the fpace of about 23 years. The
£ve firft books of the fifth decade were found at Worms,
by Simon Grynaeus, in 1431, but are very defedlive ;
and the remainder of Livy 's hiftory, which reaches to
the death of Drufus in Germany in 746, together with
the fecond decade, are fupplicd by Freinfhemius.

Never man perhaps was fumifhed with greater ad-
vantages for writing a hiftory than Livy. Befides his
own great genius, wRich was in every refpedl admi-
rably formed for the purpofe, he was trained as it were
in a city, at that time the emprefs of the world, and
in the politeft reign that ever was ; having fcarcely had
any other fchool dian the eourt of Auguftus. He had
accefs to the vety beft materials, fuch as the Memoirs
of Sylla, Caefar, Labienus, PoUio, Auguftus, and o-
thers, written by themfelvcs. ** What writers of me-
morials (fays Lord Bolinbroke), what compilers of the
Materia Hiftorica, were thefe ! What genius was ne-
c^ffary to finifti up the pi^bures that fuch mafters had
fketched I Rome afforded men that were equal to the
tafk. Let the remains, the precious remains, of Sal-
lufl, of Livy, and of Tacitus, witnei^ this truth.—
What a fchool ef public and private virtue had been
opened to us at the refurredion of learning, if the lat-
ter hiftorians of the Roman commonwealth, and the
firft of the fucceeding monarchy, had come down to us
entire ! The few that are come down, though broken
and imperfcd) compofe the beft body of hiftory that

07 ] L I V

we have ; nay, the only body of ancient hiftory that
deferves to be an obje6^ of fbidy. It fails us indeed
moft at that remarkable and fatal period, where our
reafonable curiofity is raifed the higheft. Livy cm-
ployed forty-five books to bring his hiftory down to the
end of the fixth century, and the breaking out of the
third Punic war : but he employed ninety-five to bring
it down from thence to the death of Drufus ; that is,
through the courfe of 120 or 130 years. Appian,
Dion Caflius, and others, nay, even PJutarch included,
make us but poor amends for what is loft of Livy."
Speaking then of TuUy's orations and letters, as the
beft adventitious helps to fupply this lofsj he fays, that
** the age in which Xivy fiouriftied, abounded with
fuch materials as thefe : they were frefh, they were au-
thentic : it was eafy to procure them ; it was fafe to
employ them. How he did employ them in. executing
the fecond part of his defign, we may judge from his
execution of the firft ; and, I own, I fhould be glad
to exchange, if it were poflible, what we have of this
hiftory for what we have not. Would you not be glad,
my lord, to fee, in one ftupendous draught, the whole
progrefs of that government from liberty to fervitude ;
the whole feries of caufes and effe^ls, apparent and real,
public and private ?** &c.

The encomiums b^ftowed upon Livy, by both an-
cients and moderns, are great and numerous. He not
only entertains like Herodotus ; he alfo inftru£^s and
interefb in the deepeft manner. But the great probity,
candour, and impartiality, are what have diftinguifh-
cd Livy above all hiftorians ; for neither complauance
to the times, nor his particular connections with the
emperor, could reftrain him from fpeaking well of Pom-
pey ; fo well, as to make Auguftus call him a Pom^
fetan* This we learn from Creinutius Cordus, in Ta-
citus; who relates alfo, much to the emperor's ho-
nour, that this gave no interruption to their friend-
fhip. But whatever elogies Livy may have rcceiv^
as an hiftorian, he has not efcaped cenfure as a writer.
In the age wherein he liyed, Afinius Pollio charged
hfm with Patavinity ; which Patavinity has been va-
rioufly explained by various writers, but is generally
fuppofed to relate to his ftyle. The moft common
is, that this noble Roman, accuftomed to the delicacy
of the language fpoken in the court of Auguftus,
could not bear with certain provincial idioms, which
Livy, as a Paduan, ufed in divers places of his hiftory.
Pig^orius is of another mind, and believes that this
Patavinity regarded the orthography of certain words,
wherein Livy ufed one letter for another, according
to the cuftom of his country j^ writing ^^r and quafi
for Jihi and quqfi ; which he attempts to prove by fe-
vcral ancient infcriptions. The expreflions, however,
or the orthography of words, arc not loaded with ob-
fcurity, and the perfedl clailic is as familiarly acquaint-
ed with thofe fuppofed provincialifms as with the pureft
Latinity. — Livy has been cenfured too, and perhaps
with juftice, for being too credulous, and burdening
his hiftory with vulg^ar notions and fuperftitious tales.
He may difguft when he mentions that milk and blood
were rained from heaven, or that an ox fpoke or a wo-r
man changed her fex 5 yet he candidly confeffes that
he recorded only what nnade an indelible impreiEon
upon the minds of a credulous age.

Is it worth while to mention here the capricious

O z and

\m%

L I V

[ I

Livitttf. and tyrannic humour of the emptror CiUguli« who
gccufed Livy of being a negUgent and wordy writer,
and refolved therefore to remove hiB worka and ftatuea
out of all libraries, where he knew they werecurioufly
preferved ? Or the fame humour in Pomitian* another
prodigy of nature, who put to death Metiui Pompo^
iianus, becaufe he made a coUedtioq of fome orationi
pf king9 and generals out of Livy's hiftory i Pope
Gregoiy the Great, alfo. would not fuffer Livy in any
Chrtllian library, becaufe of the Pagan fuperftition
wherewith he abounded: but the fame reafon held
good againil aD ancient authors ; and indeed Gregory^s
yeal was far from being levelled at Livy in particular,
the pontiff having decWed war againft all human learn-
ing.

Though we know nothing of Livy's family, yet we
Icarn from Quintilian, t}iat he had a fon, to whom he
addreffcd fome excellent precepts in rhetoric. An an-
cient infcription fpc^ks alfo of one of his daughters,
pamed Lirh ^aria •* the fame, perhaps, tliat efpoufed
the orator Lucius Magius, whom Seneca mentions $
aud obfervev, that the applaufes he ufoally received
from the public in his harangues, were not fo much
on his owu account, as for the fake of bis father in
law.

Our author's hlftorv has been often publiihed with
and without the fupplement of Freinmemius* The
bcti editions are, that of Gronoviits, cum iw/ir waio^
rum ^ fwif Lugd. Bat. 1679, 3 vol 8vo; that of
J^e Clerc, at Axnilerdam, 1709, 10 vol, l^mo; and
that of Crevier, at Paris^ 17559 6 vol, 4to. Theft
bave the fupplements.— -Learning perhaps never fu«
Jtained a greater lofs, in any iingle author, than by the
dcftrudion of the latter and more interefting part of
Livy. Several eminent modems have indulged the
pleafing expe^ation that the entire work of this noble
hiitorian might yet be recovered. It has been bid to
txxii in an Arabic verfion ; and even a complete copy
uf the original is fuppofed to have been extant aa late
a^ the year 1631, and to have periihed at that time
, in the plimder of Magdebuigh. The munificent pa«
tron of learning, Leo X% exerted the moft gencroui
^eal to refcue from ol>livion the valuable treafure,
which one of hit moft bigotted predeceObrs, above
mentioned, had expelled from everv ChriftiaA library,
Baylc has prefervedi, under the article Leo, two curioua
original letters uf tliat pontiff, concerning his hopea
i4 recovering Livy } which afford moft honourable
proofs of his liberality in the caufe of letters, — A lately
difcovered fragment of Lily's hiftory was publiihed
in 1773 by DrBruns.

Livius (Andronicus), a comic poet who flourilhed
at Rome about 240 years before the Chriftian era. He
was the firft v/ho turned the perfonid fatyrs and fefcen«<
nine vcrfes, fo long the admiration of the Romans, in-
to the form of a proper dialogue and regular play.
Though the charader of a player, fo valued and ap-
plauded in Greece, was reckoned vile and defpicable
among the Romans, Andronicus a^ed a part in hia
dramatical compofitions, and engaged the attention
of his audience, by repeating what he had laboured
after the manner of the Greeks. Andronicus was the
freedman of M. Livius Salinator, whofe children he
educated. His poetry was grown obfolete ia the age

08 ] L I X

of Ciceroy whoCi nicety and judgmcat would not
reeommeod the reading cf it*

LIVONIA, a large province 'of the Ruffian eo^-
pirc, with the title of a^ duchy. It ia bounded 09 the
north by the gulph of Finland, on the weft by that
of Riga* on the fouth by Courland, and on the eaft^
partly by Plefcow, and partly by Novogorod, It £•
about 350 miles from north to fouth, and 150 frois
eaft to weft. The laud is fo fertile in com, thar
it is called the granary of the n&riht and would pn»-
duce a great deal more, if it was not fo fxXi of lalken.
The fi(h that abound here are falmons, carps, pikca,
flat fi(h, and many others. In the forefts there are
wolves, beats, elks, rein-deer, ftags, and hares. The
domeftic animals are very numerous } but the fheep
bear very bad wooL Here are a great number of fo*
rcfts, which coniiil ^f birch-trees, pines, and oaks $
and all the 'houfes of the inhabitants are built with
wood. The merchandizes which they fend abroad are
flax, hemp, honey, wax, leather (kins, and potafhei^
The Swedes were formerly poffeffed of this province,
but were obliged to abandon it to the Ruflians after
the battle of Pultov^ ; and it was ceded to them by
the peace of the North, concluded in 1732, which wa»
confirmed by another treaty in 174a. It is divided in«
to two provinces, vis, Letonia and Eftonia ; and two
iflands called OiftI and Dagiot which are again fubda-
vided into feveral dUUids.

LIVONICA-Ttaaa, a kind of fine bok ufed in
the fhops of Gennany and Italy, it is found in Li^fi*
nia, from whence it takes its name, and alfo in foiae
other parts of the world* It is generally brought to
us in little cakes, fealcd with the impreffioo of a chioch
and an efcutcheon, with two crofs keys,

LIVRE, a French money of account, conftniag
to fob. See Monsi'^TM.

LIXA, or Lizos (ancgeog.) a town on the At-
lantic near the river Lixua 1 made a Roman coloay
by Claudlas Cssiar; famous in mythology for the
palace of Aateus and his encounter with Hercule%

J Pliny). Now Leratbe^ fixty**five leagues to the
outh of the ft raits of Gibraltan

LIXIVIOUS, an appeUation given to fidta ob-
tained from burnt vegeuJbles by pouring water on their
aihes*

LIXIVIUM, in phamacy, fee. a ley obtained by
pouring fome liquor upon the aflies of plants ; whick
is more or lefs powerful, aa it has imbibed the fixed
falts contained in the afhes.

LIXNAW, a barony in the county of Kerry and
province of hf uafter in Ireland, whidi gives title of
Baron to the earla of Kerry ; the village here of thia
name being their ancient feat» where the caftlc waa
• eroSied* This feat ftands agreeably on the river Brick,
which is here cut into feveral pleafant canals, that a-
dom its plantations and gardens; the improvementa
are extenfive, moft of the viftoes and avenues termi-
nating by different buiUinga, feats, and farm-houfes.
The tide flows up to the gardens, whereby boats of a
confiderable burden may bring up goods to the bridge
near the honfe : here are two ftone-bridges over the
Brick, the oldeft of which waa built by Nichobs tbe
third baron Lixnaw, who was the firft perfon that
made caufeways to this place^ the land being naturally

vet

LOA [109] LOA

tsmrd wet and maWhy* W. Long. 9* 15. N. |E<at« 52. a vein of earth or ftone, or feme other metalline fub* L'^td

15* (lance ; in which cafe it generally happens, that one H

LIZARD} in zoology. Sec Lacerta. part of the load is moyed to a confiderable diftance on ^^^"S^*

LiiARD/. ia geography* a cape or promontory of one tide. Tbit tranfient load is» by the mi ners*. termed

Cornwall^ fituated^ according to the moll common zjlooktng ; and the part of the load which is moved.

eomputation, in W. Long. 5. 47. N. Lat. 49. 50.

LLANDAFF. See Landaff.

LLOYD (Nicholas), a learned Englifli writer in
the 17th century, was bom in FltntOiire in England,
and educated at Wadham college, Oxford. He was
re6lor of Newington St Mary near Lambeth in Surry,
till his death, which hhppened in 1680. His Diffh^
narium H't/hrifum is a vduable work, to which Hoff-
man and Moreri are greatly indebted.

Lloyd (William), a moil learned Englifh writer
and biOiop, was bom in Bei'kfhirc in England in 1627.
lie was educated under his father, re6lor of Sonning,
and vicar of Tyle-hurll in Berkfhire ; then went to
Oxford, and took orders. In 1660 he was made pre-
bendary of Rippon ; and in 1 666 chaplain to the king.
In 1667 he took the degree of doflor of divinity ; in
1672 he -was inftalled dean of Bangor; and in 1680
wasconfecrated bifhop of St Afaph. He was one of
the fix btihops wko» with archbiihop Sancroft, were

is by thcin faid to be ieavetL This fra£lure or heave
of a load, according to Mr Price, is produced by a
fubiidence of the itrata frOm their primary potitions,
which he fuppofes to have been horizontal or parallel
to the furface of the earth, and therefore (hould more
properly be called, a depreflHon than a heave. This
heaving of the load would* be an inexpreffible lofs to the
miner, did not experience teach him, that as the loads
always mn on the tides of the hills, fo the part heaved
is always moved toward the defcent of the hill ; fo that
the miner, working toward the afcent of the hlU, and
meeting a flooktng, confiders himfelf as working in
the heaved part ; wherefore, cutting through the
flooking, he works upon its back up the afcent of the
hill, till he recovers the load, and vice verja*

Load is alfo ufed for nine difhes of ore,, each dlfli
being about half a hundred weight.

LOADSTONE. See Magnet.

LOAMS, in natural hiflory, are defined to be earths

coxiunitted prifoners to the Tower of London, for fub- conipofed of diflimilar particles, lliif, denfe, hard, and

{bribing a petition to the king aeainft diflributin? and
jpublifhing hid declaration for hberty of confctence.
Soon after the revolution he was made almoner to king
William and queen Mary: in 1692 he was trantiatedto
the bifhopric of Litchfield and Coventry; and in 1699,
to the fee of Worcefter, where "he fat till his death,
which happened in 1 7 1 7, the 91ft year of his age. Dr
Burnet gives him an exalted chara^ier, and his works
are highfy efteemed.

LOAcH, in ichthyolojjry. See Cob in a*

LOAD, or LoD£, in mining, a word ufed efpe*
cially in the tinomines, for any regular vein or courfe,
whether metallic or not ; but moil commonly load means
a metallic vein.

It is to be obferved, that- mines in general are veins
or cavities within the earth, wliofe (ides receding from
or approaching to each other, make them of unequal
breadths in different places, fometimes forming large
fpaces, which are cafied holei; thefe holes are filled
like the reft with fubftances, which, whether metallic,
or of any other nature, arc called /oaJt. When the
fubftances forming thefe loads are reducible to metal,
the loads are by the EngliQi miners faid to be alive,
etherwife they are termed dead loads.

In Cornwall and Devonfhire the loads all hold their

rough to the touch ; not eafily broke while moiil, rea-
dily diffufible in .water, and compofed of faad and a
tough yifcid clay. Of thefe loams fome are whitifli and
others brown and yeUow.

LOAN, any thing given to another, on condition
of return or payment.

PtMe LoANu See Funds, and N action ai Debt.

LOAND A, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa. It is an ifland about 1 5 miles in lengthy
and three in breadth \ remarkable chiefly for the capi«
tal of Angola fituated upon it, in £. Long. 1 2. 25.
S. Lat. 8. 45. This town was built by the Portuguefe
in 1578, under the dire^ion of the fir ft Portuguefe
governor in thefe parts. It is large, populous, and
pleafantly feated on the declivity of a hill near the
fea-coail, and facing the fouth-Weft. sThe itiand is
fupplied with frelh water from wells dug in it ; sCnd
which are not funk below the depth of three feet when
they are filled with excellent water. It is remarkable,
however, that the water of thefe weDj continues good
only daring the time of high-tide ; for, as that hnks,
the water becomes more and more brackifh, till at laft
it is quite £sdt, almoft as much as the fea itfelf. On
the coaft of this itiand are fiihed the zimbis, or (helb
ufed in feveral parts of Afi'ica inftead of money ; and

courfe from eaftward to weft ward, tho' in other parts of with thefe (bells, inftead of coin, is carried on a girat
England they firequently run from north to fouth. The part of the traffic of this country.

miners report, that the fides oli the load never bear in
a perpendicular, but always overhang either to the
north or fouth above. The mines feem to have been
b many channels through which the waters pafs with-
in the earth; and likf rivers they have their fraall

LOANGO, a kingdom of Africa, extending itfeCT
about 1 80 geographical miles in length from fouth to
north ; that is, from cape St Cathacine under the fe~
cond degree of fouth latitude, to ,a finall river called
Lavanda Lotij/Sny on the 5th degree of the fame. From

bnmches opening into them in ail dire6lions : thieie are' weft to eaft it extends from Cape Negro on the coalt

by the miners termed the feeders of the load. Moft of Ethiopia towards the Bvchumelean mountains, fo

mines have ftreams of water running through them $ called on account of their vaft quantity of ivory and

and when they are found dry, it feems owing to the ' great droves of elephants, about 500 miles. It is di-

water having changed ita courfe, which it feems fome>- vided into four principal provinces, viz. thofe of Lo*

times to have been compelled to by the load's having vangiri, Loango^mongo, Chilongo, and Piri.

filled up the courfe, and fometimes to have fiillen into The inhabitants are very black, well-ihaped, and

other more eafy channels. of a mild temper. The men wear long petticoats^ from

The load is frequently intercepted by the croffing of the waift downwards^ and have round their waift a

5 piece

hohtl a.

LOB [ 1

X«aiigo piece of cloth half an ell or a quarter broad» over
which they wear the ikin of a leopard, or fome other
wild beafti hanging before them like an apron. On
their head they wear a cap made of grafs, and quilt-
ed) with a feather a-top of it ; and on th^ir fhouldery
or in their hand, they carry a buffalo's tail| to drive
away the mufkettos. The womens petticoats are
made only of ftraw, about an ell fquare, with which
-they cover their privities, but leave the greateft part
of their thighs and buttocks bare : the reft of their
body is quite bare, except that on their legs they wear
little firings of beads made of (hells, and fmall brace-
lets of ivory on their arms. They anoint themfelves
with palm-oil, mixed with a kind of red wood redu-
ced to powder.

This country abounds with poultry, oxen, cows,
iheep, goats, elephants, tigers, leopards, civet-cats,
and other animals ; fo that here are great quantities
of elephants teeth, and fine furs, to be traded for.

The capital city, where the king refides, is called
LoangOf or Banxa^Loangeri^ and, in the language of
the negroes, Boaric. This city is fituated in South
L.at. 4I degrees, a league and a half from the fea-
coaft. It is a pretty large city, (haded and adorned
with bananas, palm, and other trees. The king, who
reiides in a large palace in the mjddle of it, has about
1500 concubines. If any of them is furprifed in adul-
tery, (he and her paramour are inftantly conveyed to
the top of a very high hill, whence they are hurled
down headlong from the fleepefl "place.

Every man marries as many wives here as he pleafes,
who are obUged to get their hu(bands a livelihood, as
is the pradiice all along the African coaft inhabited by
blacks. The women, therefore, cultivate the land, fow
and reap, while the lazy huibands loiter away their
time in idlenefs.

The king's revenue confills in elephants teeth, cop-
per, and a kind of petticoats made of palm-tree leaves,
and called iavogui : he has whole ilore-houfes full of
thefe lavogus ; but his greateil riches confift in (laves
of both fexes.

LOBBY, in architedure, is a fmall hall or waiting-
room : it is alfo an entrance into a principal apartment,
where there is a confiderable fpace between that and a
portico or veftibule, and the length or dimenfions will
not allow it to be confidered as a veftibule or an anti-
room. See Antichamber.

LOBE, in anatomy, any (le(hy protuberant part, as
the lobes of the lungs,. the lobes of the ears, &c.

LOBELIA, cardinal-flower: Agenusofthe
monogamia order, belonging to the fyngenefia dafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
29th order, Campanace£* The calyx is quinquefid ; the
corolla monopetalous, and irregular ; the capfule infe-
rior, bilocular, or trilocular. There is a great number
. of fpecies, but only four of them are cultivated in our
ffardens ; two of which are hardy herbaceous plants
lor the open ground, and two (hfttbby plants for the
ftove. They are all fibrous rooted perennials, rifing
with eredt ftalks from two to fivt or fm feet high, or-
namented with oblong, oval, fpear-(haped, fimple leaves 5
and fpikes of beautiful monopetalous, fomewhat rin-
gent, five-parted flowers, of fcarlet, blue, and violet co-
lours. They are eafily propagated by feeds, offsets^
and cuttings of their ftalks. l^e tender kinds require

LOCIRA

10 ] LOG

the comi%)n treatment of other exotics..' They ^i^c tizr ^^
tives of America; from which their feeds mufl be pro-
cured.

The root of a fpecies called rhtJipbtRtica ia an article
of the materia medica. This fpecies grows in moifl places
in Virginia, and bears our winters. It is perennial, has
an ered ftalk three or four feet high, blue flowers^ a
milky juice, and a rank fmell. The root confifts of white
fibres about two inches long, refembles tobacco in
tafte, which remains on the tongue, and is apt to ex-
cite vomiting. It is ufed by the North American In-
dians as a fpecific in the venereal difeafe. The form v^
that of decodion 5 the dofe of which is ordered to be
gradually incrcafed till it bring on very confiderable
purging, thea to be intermitted for a little, and again
ufed in a more moderate degree till the cure be com-
pleted. The ulcers, are alfo wa(hed with the decoc-
tion, and the Indians are faid to fprinkle them with the
powder of the inner bark of the fpruce tree. The
lame ftrid^nefs of regimen is ordered as during a faliva-
tion or mercurial courfe. The benefit to be derived
from this article has not, as for as we know, been con-
firmed either in Britain or by the praditioners in Vir-
ginia : for there, as well as in this country, recourfe is
almoft univerfally had to the ufe of mercury ; and it is
probably from this rcafon that the London college
have not received it into their lift. It, however, feems
to be an article which, in fome cafes at leaft, dcfenres
a trial.

LOBETUM, anciently a town of the Hither
Spain : faid to have been built by the Libyan Hercu-
les, (Pliny.) Now j^lbaraTun^ a town of Arragon on
the confines of New Caftile, on the river Giiadalavir.
E. Long. 2, N. Lat. 40. 40.

LOBINEAU (Guy Alexis), a BenediaJne monk,
bom at Rennci in 1666, fpent his whole life in the
ftudy of hiftory, and the writing of feveral works ; the
principal of which are. The hiftory of Brittany, 2 vols
folio; and A continuation of Felibicn's hiftory of Paris,
9 vols folio. He died in 1727.

LOBO (Rodriguez Francis), a celebrated Portu-
guefc poet, was born at Leiria, a fmall town of Eftra-
madura. He wrote an heroic poem, fome eclogues,
and a piece intitled Euphrofyne^ which is the favourite
comedy of the Portuguefe. His works were colleAed
and printed together in Portuguefe in 1721, in folio.
He flourifhed about i6io»

LoBo (Jerome), a fiun^us Portuguefe Jcfuit, born
at Li(bon, went into Ethiopia, and dwelt there for a
long time. At his return he was made rcftor of the
college of Coimbra, where he died in 1678. He wrote
An hiftprical account of Aby(finia, which is by Ibmc
efteemed a very accurate performance.

LOBSTER, in zoology, a fpecies of cancer. Sec
Cancer.

LOCAL, in law, fomething fixed to the freehold,
or tied to a certain place : thus, real adlions are local,
(ince they muft be brought in the country where they
lie ; and local cuftoms are thofe peculiar to certain
countries and places.

Local Medicines^ thofe deftined to aA upon par-
ticular parts ; as fomentations, epithems, veficatories,
&c.

LOCARNO, a town of Swi(rerland, capital of a
bailiwick of the fame name^ feated at the north end
X of

LOG

[ 11

(CAtellus of the lake Magglore, near the river Magie. It car*
U, ries on a great trade ; and the country abounds in
^ochia. paftures, wine, and fruits. E. Long. 8. 41. N. Lat.

46. 6.

LOCATELLUS's Balsam, See Pharmacy-

Ifld(Xm

LOCH A BE R, a diftria of the (hire of Invemefs
in Scotland. It is bounded by Moydart on the weft,
Glengary on the north, Badenoch on the eaft, and
Lorn on the fouth. It derives its name from the lake
or loch Aber; and extends about 20 miles from eaft to
weft, and 30 from north to fouth. The country is
barren, bleak, mountainous, and rugged. In one of
the moft barren parts of this country, near the mouth
of the river Aber, in the centre between the Weft and
North Highlands, ftands Fort- William, with the town
of Maryburgh, built upon a navigable arm of the fea,
not far from the foot of a very high- mountain, called
Benevh. The town, defigncd as a futlery for the gar-
rifon, was ereded into a borough ; and the fort itfelf
was defigned as a check upon the clan Cameron, who
had been guilty of depredations and other irregulari-
ties. It is inhabited moftly by the Macdonalds, Ca-
merons, and Mackintoflies ; who are not the moft ci-
vilized people in Scotland, though their chiefs are ge-
nerally perfons of education, honour, and hofpitaltty.
Macdonald of Glengary, defcended in a ftraight line
from Donald of the liles, pofTefTed a feat or caftle in
this diftri^, which was burnt to the ground, and de-
ftroyedin the year 17 15, in confequence of his decla-
ring for the Pretender. The elegant houfe and gar-
dens belonging to Cameron of Lochiel underwent the
fame fate, for the fame reafon, after the extin^ion of
the rebellion in the year 1 746. The cadets of thcfe
families, which have formed a kind of inferior gentry,
are lazy, indigent, and uncleanly ; proud, ferocious,
and vindiaive. The common people, though cele-
brated for their bravery, fidelity, and attachment to
their chiefs, are counted very favage, and much ad-
dided to rapine. They fpeak the Erfe language, and
confonn to the cuftoms we have defcribed as peculiar
to the Highlanders. They pay xvery little attention
to any fort of commerce but that which confiils in the
fale of their black cattle, and lead a fort of vagrant
life among the hills ; hunting, fowling, and Hfhing, as
the feafons permit, and as their occaAons require.
They delight inarms, which they learn to handle from
their infancy; fubmit patiently to difcipline in the
charadler of foldiers ; and never fail to fignah'ze them-
felves in the field by their fobriety, as well as their va-
lour. While they remain in their own country, no-
thing can be more' penurious, mean, fordid, and un<P
comfortable, than the way of life to which thefe poor
people are inured, whether we confider their drefs, diet,
or lodging. In point of provifion, they are fo impro^
vident or ill fupplied, that, before the winter is over,
whole families are in danger of ftarving. In this
emergency, they bleed their miferable cattle» already
reduced to flcin and bone, and eat the blood boiled
with oatmeal. This evacuation, added to their for*
mer weaknefs, enfeebles the cows to fuch a degree,
that when they lie down they cannot rife again \vith-
eut affiftance.

LOCHIA, in midwifery, a ftux from the uterus
confequcnt. to delivery* Sec.Miswii£ftY.

I ] LOG

LOCK, a well-known inftnunep.* ufcd for faftening
doors, chcfts, &c. generally opened by a key.

The lock is reckoned the mafter-piece in fmithery j
a great deal of ait and delicacy being required in con-
triving and varying the wards, fprings, bolts, Sec, and
■djufting them to the places where they are to be
ufed, and to the various occafions of ufmg them.

From the various ftru6lure of locks, accommodated
to their different intentions, they acquire various names;'
Thofe placed on outer-doors are called ^©f/-/(?f if/; thofe
on chamber-deors,^r/i7^-/pf/j ; th^e on trunks, trunk*
iochf pad-Jocks^ &c.

Of thefe the fpring-lock is the moft confiderable,
both for its frequency and the curiofity of its ftrufture.
Its principal parts are, the main<f late, the cover-plate^
and the pin-hole : to the main-plate belong the key-
hole, top-hook, crofs-wards, bolt-toe or bolt-knabi
drawback-fpring tumbler, pin. of the tumbler, and the
ftaples ; to the cover-plate belong the pin, main-ward,
crofs-ward, ftep-ward or dap-ward ; to the pin-hole
belong the hook-ward, main crofs-ward,. ftiank, the pot
or bread, bow-ward, and bit-
As on the proper conftruflion of locks the fecurity
of the moft valuable kinds of property almoft entirely
depends, and as numbcrlefs devices are continually
falkn upon to elude the utmoft efforts of mechanical
invention in this refped, it thence becomes an obje^
of no fmall importance to invent a lock which it fhould
be mpoffihle to open except by its proper key. A trea-
tife upon this fubjcil has been publifhed by Mr Jo^
feph Brama ; who is confident that he has brought
the matter to the requifite perfeftion, and that every
one may reft aflured of the fecurity of his property
when under the protection of a lock of his invention..
He begins with obferving, that the principle on which,*
all locks depend, is the application of a k-ver to an in-
terior bolt, by means of a communication from with-
out ; fo that, by means of the latter, the- lever ads
upon the bolt, and moves it in fuch a manner as to*
fecurc the lid or door from being opened by any pull'
or pu(h from without. The fecurity of locks in ge-
neral therefore depends on the number of impediments
we can interi)ofe betwixt the lever the key) and the
bolt which fccures the door ; anH thefe impediments
are well known by the name of wa/v/j, the number and
intricacy of which alone are fuppofed to diftinguifh a
good lock from a bad onci If thefe wards, however,
do not in an effedlual manner preclude the accefs of all
other inftruments befides the proper key, it is ftilL
poflible for a mechanic of equal Ikill with the lock-
maker to open it without the key, and thus to eludo
the labour of the other. ^

" Locks (fays our author) have been conftruAed,'.
and are at prefent much ufed and held in great efteem, .
from which the picklock is excluded: but the. admif-
fion of falfe keys is an imperfeClion for which no lock- •
fmith haa ever found a corre6tive ; nor can this imper-
fection be rcQiedied whilft the protection of the bolt*
is wholly confided to ^x^£/«;tfr^.*' This pofition is»
proved by a remark, that the wards, let them be as-
intricate as we pleafe, nmft all be expreifed on what is*
called the h\t or iveh of the key : and therefore, when,
all the varieties that can be expreffed on this bit or Aveb.
have been run through, every fucceeding lock muft be
the counterpart of fome other;. and confequently the/

fame^

Lock.

LOG [ 1

fame key which opens one will open the other alfo.
This is evident from the locks ufually put upon drawers;
and which y though they fhould be made to refift the
picklocky are flill liable to be opened by ten thoufand
other keys befides that appropriated to each of them.
But though the Yaricty of wards could be augmented
even to infinity, fliU there could be no fecurity againft
falfc keys ; for as every one of the wards m'uii be ex*
prefTed on the web of the key, if another key with a
web quite plain be made to fit the key-hole exa^ly^
wt have only to cov»sr it over with fome colouring fub-
fiance upon which the wards may make an impreffion i
after which, it is eafy to cut out the web in a proper
manner for admitting them, when the lock will be as
eafily opened by the feilfe as by the true key.

The firft perfon, according to our author, who had
any claim to inent in the branch of lock-making, is
Mr Baron ; whofe lock he acknowledges to be by far
more perfect and fecure than any that ever appeared
before ; though he flill confiders it as unfit for giving
that abfolute fecurity which is to be wifhed for. His
improvement confilled in the proper application pf
what are called tumblers, " Thefe (fays Mr Bramah)
ftre a kind of grapple ; by which the bolt is confined,
as well in its si6^ive as in its pafiive ftation, and render'^
cd immoveable till fet at liberty by the key. One of
thefe inftruments is commonly introduced into all locks
that are of any ufe or value ; it is lodged behind the
bolt, and is governed by a fpnng which a^s upon the
tumbler as the tumbler ads* upon the bolt : The ap>
plication therefore of any force to the tumbler, which
18 fuperior to the force of the fpnne, will caufe it to
quit its hold, and fet the bolt at liberty." In the
common method of applying thefe machines, however,
it matters nothing how far the tumbler is lifted above
the point at which it ceafes to control the bolt ; but
it is otherwife in thofe of Mr Baron's conflru^ion.
The a6iion of his tumblers is circumfcribed by a cer-
tain fpace cnt in the centre of the bolt, of dimenfions
foiiicient only to anfwer the purpofe intended. The
fpace in which the tumbler moves is an oblong fquare ;
and is not only fumifhed with niches on the underfide
into which the hooks of the tumblers are forced by the
fpring as in other locks, but is provided with cor-
refpondent niches on the other fide, iixto which the
hooks are driven, if any greater force be applied to the
tumblers than what is juft fufficient to difengage them
from the bolt. Hence it becomes abfolutely neceffary,
in the making of a falfe key, to conilru^l it in fuch a
manner, that it may with the greateil exaftnefs give
thfr requifite degree of preiTure, and no more*

Mr Bramah allows that this is a very great impipove^-
ment, but obje6is that it is flill poffible to frame a key
which will open it as well as its own ; nor will the ad-
dition of any number of tumblers preclude the poflibi-
lity of opening it. ** By giving (fays he) an uniform
motion to the tumblers, and prefenting them with a
face which exactly tallies with the key, they flill par-
take, in a very great degree, of the fiature of fixed
*wards; and the fecurity of his lock is thereby render-
ed in a proportionable degree defe^ve. Thus, fup-
pofe the falfe key to have pafled the wards, and to be
IB conta& with the mofl prominent of the tumblers,
the impreffion, which the flightefl touch will leave on
the key, will direft the application of the file till

N» 183.

12 1 LOG

fufBcient fpace is prepared to give it a free paflTaj^re. ^ h
The key will then. bear upon a more remote tumbler ;
which difficulty being in like manner got over, the
lock will be as eafiljr opened by the falfe as bv the ti^e
key."

This feemingly iafuperable objection to the perfec-
tion of lock-making, however, our author removes irith
the greatefl eafe imaginable, by caufing the tumblcri
which proje«f^ unequally to prefent a plane furface :
whence they would require a feparate and unequal mo-
tion to difengage them ; of confequence no diftin^Sl: itn-
prefiton could be made by them upon the plane furface
of the web that would give any idea of their pofiticins
with regard to one another, and the conflru^tion of a
' falfe key would be altogether impoffible.

But though. the principal difficulty with regard to
Mr Baron's lock be now overcome, otliers flill occiii,
vi'&. the difficulty of making locks which are conflruc^.
ed with tumblers fiiificiently durable. The tumblers
themfelves, he obfci-ves, mull be but flightly m^idc ;
and being expofed to perpetual fnClion by the key and
their own proper motion, they mufl foon decay ; and
the keys of Mr Baron's locks, he alfo obferves, are much
lefs durable tliaii thofe of any other locks he e\-er
faw.

With regard to the lodt which Mr Bramah prc-
fents to the public as abfolutely perfed, he informs
us, that the idea of conllru^ting it was firfl fuggefled
by the alarming iacreafe of houfe-robberies, which may
reafonably be fuppofed to be perpetrated in a great
meafure by perfidioiis fcrvants, or accompli Died by their
connivance. Thus it is evident, that the locks which
might exclude ordinary houfe-breakers could be no fe-
curity againft faithlefs fervants, who having conflant
accefs to the locks, might eafily get falfe keys fabri-
cated at their leifure. In confidering the fubjeft, our
author was convinced, that his hope of fuccefs de-
pended entirely upon his ufing means as diffimilar as
poffible to thofe by which the old locks were con-
flrn£led 5 as thefe, however varied, had been found
infufficient for the purpofe. " As nothing (fays hej
can be more oppofite in principle to fxed wards than
a' lock which derives its properties from the motion of
all its parts, I determined that the oqnflruclion of fuch
a lock Ihould be the fnbjed of my experiment." In
the profecution of this exj.eriment he had the fatisfac^
tion to find, that the hull perfe6l of all his models
fully afcertained the truth and certainty of his prin-
ciple. T'he exdufion of wards made it neceflary to cut
ofi' all communication between the key and the bolt ;
as the fame paffage, which (in a lock Jimply conflnidl.
cd) would admit the key, might give admiffion like-
wife to other inilruments. Tlie office, therefore, which
in other locks is performed by the extreme point of
the key, is here afligned to a lever, which cannot ap-
proach the bolt till every part of the lock has under-
gone a change of pofition. The neceffity of this chan^
to the purpofes of the lock, and the abfolate impoffi-
bility of effefting it otherwife than with the proper
key^ are the points to be afcertained \ and this our
author does in the following manner.

Fig. I. Shows Mr Bramah 's firfl attempt to con- p^
ftni6l a lock upon this principle : which, to bis fur- CCLU
prife, turned out complete and perfe6l. A reprefents
a common axis on which the fix lerers, croffing the*

face

^ ^^..i^'&je. ' Ilate CCLXXn.

toe fiiaJ IOC

of die lodcf are ttiiiced m im ft jotfit. Eaeh of foch t difpropoitioii «• wIH prore an uttfarmonntabli

ihefe refit upon a feparate fprin^ fuflieiently ftrotog to
bear ht weight ; or, if deprciTed by a fuperior force,
to reftore it to its proper pofitioa when th^ force is
removed. B reprefents a frame through which the
kven paCi by feparate groovei, exa£ily fitted to their
¥ridth, but of fufficient depth to allow them a free
motion in a perpendicular dire6tion. The part which
projedls from the oppolite fide of the joint A» and is
inferted in the bolt C, ia a lerer to which two oiEcea
are alligned ; one to keep the bc^t in a fixed pofition»
in the abfence of the key ; the other» to give it itt
proper motion upon the application of the key. D is
a circular platform turning upon a centrei On this
the joint or carnage of the levers^ and the f^ringrs on
which they reft, are fixed $ and the motion of this plat-
form impels the bolt» in either dire^on, by means of
the lever which is projected from the joint A. The
inviolable reftr^t upon this locky by whidi means it
is fubjedied only to the action of the key, is lodged in
the part £» which is a thin |^e, bearing at each ex«
tremity on a block, and having of courfe a vacant fpace
beneath, equal in height to the thickneis of the blocks
on which it refb. B^ this plate the motion of the
machine is checked or guided in the following manner:
On the edge of the plate which faces the movement
there are fix notches, which receive the ends of the
levers projedUng beyond the frame B ; and while they
are confined in this manner, the motion of the machine
is fo totally fufyended as to defy every power of art
to overcome*

impediment to their motion, I may fafely affert, that
it ts not in art to produce a key or other inftrument,
by which a lock, conftnifted upon this principle, ca»
be opened."

On this princfple it would even be a matter of great
difficulty for any workman, however ficilful, to conftru6k
a key for the lock when open to his infpedUon : ** for
the levers being raifed, by the fubjacent fprings, to an
equal height in the frame B, prcfent a flane furface ;
and confequently convey no d'redtion that can be ojf
any ufe in forming a tally to the sr regular furface which
they prefent when a^ng in fubje£tion to the key^
Unleis therefore we can contrive a method to bring
the notches on the points of the levers in a dired^ line
with>each other, and to retain them in that pofitioa
till an exa6^ impreifion of the irregular furface, which
the levers will then exhibit, can be taken; the workman
will be unable to fit a key to the lock, or to move the
bolt. This procefs muft be rendered extremely trou-
blefome by means of the fprings ; and if fnch diffi*
Ctthies occur, even when the lock is open to the in-
fee^on of a fkilful workman, mudi more muft w^
nippofe it out of the power of one who has not
accefs to the internal parts to make a falfe key to. a
lock of this kind.

Thefe difficidties render it necci&ry in making locks
of this kind not to fit the key to the lock, as is ufual
in other locks, but to fit the lock to the key. In
this kind of lock, therefore, the key rauft be made iirft ^
and the inequalities upon the furface of the bit work*

To underfLand in what manner the proper key of ed as chance or fancy may direct, withopt any refe
this lock overcomes thefe obfbades, it muft be obfet^ rence to the lock. The key being thus completed^

ved, that each lever has a notch on its extremity, and
that thofe notches are difpofed as irreffulariy as po£*
fible. To give the machine a capacity of motion, tnefc
notches muft: be brought parallel to cxh other, and
by a diflind but uneqvad prefiure upon the levers, be

and applied to the fur£ue of the levers, wiU, by a gea<«
tie preflure, force them to unequal diftances from theif
common ftation in the frame B, and fink their points
to unequal depths into the fyace beneath the plate £J
While the levers are in this pofitiom, th^edgis.of thef

ibrmed into a groove in a diredk line with the edge of plate £ will mark the prccife point at which the notck
the plate £, which the notches ate exa£dy fitted to on each lever, mufl be expre&d. The notches beinr

recenre. The leaft motion of the machine, while the
levers are in this pofition, will introduce the edge of the
plate into the groove ; which, contrDuhng the power
of the fprings, will give liberty to the levers to move in
an horizontal direction as fiu: as the fpace between the
blocks which fupport the plate £ will admit, and
which is fufficient to give the machine a power of adl*
ing on the bolt. The impoifibility of thus bring^ing
the notches on the points of the levers into a direct
line, fo as to tally with the edge of the plate £ by any
other means than the motion and impulfe of the key,
is that which confEtutes the principal excellency of this
lock.

The key (^i 2.) exhibits fix different furfaces.

cut by this diredioo, the irregularity which spears
when the levers refinne their ilation in the frame B,
and the inequality of the rccelFts on the bit of the'
key, will appear as a feal and its^corrcfponding im»
preffion.

The. following is a lock contrived upon the fame
principle, but more curious ; and, in our author's opi-
nion, more extenfively ufeful. Fig. j. reprefents a
circular block of metal divided from the centre into*
eight compartments, each containing a ceU wliich forms
a pailage throufirh the block, as is reprefeated by the
fmall circles delcribed on the flat fur^ce A. In each
of thefe cells two grooves are cut at oppofite points^
which open a communication with the centre at amt'

^;ainft wb'ch the levers are progrelfively admitted in point, and with the fpherical fur^e of the block bTi
Uie operation of opening the lock: the irreguhrity of barrel at the other. The fmall circle, whic|l* marks
thefe furfaces ihows the unequal and diftind degree of the centre of the fiat furface A, is the key4iore, which
pn^ure n^ch each lever requires to bring them to likewife forms a pafiage through the barrel in a parallel,
their proper bearings, in order to pat the machine in line with the cells which furroond it. This figure re*
motion. Hence it appears, that unlefs the various preients the frame in which the adive parts of the lock
heights of the furfaces exprcficd on the bit of the key are depofited.

Fig. 4. (hows a ^ral fpring lodged in the bottom
of each cell, and occupying oae half ^ the fyace, the
other being filled with a llider refting upon the fpring,
^ rtpreitated by ^ff5» the office of thefe Aiders ex-

P aaiy

cxafUy proportioned to the fevetal diftances necef-

iary to brmg the notches into a firaight line with each

other, they moil remain immoveable; ** and (fays our

author) as one ftroke of » file is fuflSeient t» caufe

Vol. X. Part I.

JuOOIL

L O C [ I

a^Uy comfponding with that of the levers in the lock
already defcribcd. Thus, when lodged in their refpec-
tive cellsy they are fuftained, like the levers, by the e«-
lailicity of the fpringrs upon which they refl, till a fu«
perior power be appHed ; and they are again reftored
to their ftations by the rea£Hon of the fprings when
the weight is removed. The iide B of each Aider is
proje6ked beyond the circular furlace* as reprefented
fig. 6. in a manner fimilar to the piioje6Uon of the le«
vers in the former lock beyond the curved frame in
which they move. The point C is proje^ked tluroi^h
the interior groove into the fpace which forrm the
centre or key-hole, exprefled on the flat fur&ce A.

Fig. 7. reprefents the kcy» When this is appGU
cd, it muft of courfe encounter thefe interior pro-
je6kion8; and when preffed forward, the indented fpaces
on its point being unequal, will.force the fliders to un-
equal diftaaces from their bearers; bringing the notches
cxprefled on their exterior proje6lions in a dire^ line
with each other, in a manner fimilar to that by which
the efire6b is produced upon the levers in the former
lock. When the key is withdrawn, and the fliders re*
ftmie their fbitions by the preffure of the fprings, the
difpofition of the notches mufl be irregular in the fame
proportion that the indentations on the point of the
key are unequal $ and they mufl neceflarily faU again
into a ftraight line when a6ked upon by the key.

Fig. 6. (hows the barrel completely fitted for adiom
Its interior end is caped with a plate, which unitea
its compartments, and confines the fprings and flidera
within the cells to which they belong. From that plate
^oceeds the point A, wliich reprefents the lever by
which the boh is proje^d or withdrawn, according-
to the dire^on ia which the machine performs ita re->
▼olution.

Fig. 8. fltows the flat furface of a thin plate, corre^
ji>oo£og in its office wilb the part C of the former
feck, ffhe fpace cut in its centre is exadly fitted to
llie fpherical furface of the barrel; the circle defcribing
its circumference, and the notches cut on its edge^
coinciding vrith the projections of the fliders. Thcbar-
kI, when encircled with this plate at the middle of its
^herical furface, has its motion totally fufpended till
tho' notches on the |m}e^ions of the fliders are forced,
by the preffure of the key, into a line with each other:
a groove being tlfus formed on the fpherical furface of
the barrel parallel to, and coinciding with, the edge
of the plate, the machine is at liberty to perform a
vevolution in any dhre^ion, but returns to its con-
fined flatewhen the key is withdrawn.

The parts of the movement being thus united, the
ittterior end of the barrel is depofited in a bed repre-
sented fig. 9* To^ this it is faftened at the angles of
the plate reprefented fig. 8. by which the barrel is en-
circled. The ftation of the bolt is at A ; the lever
which n&A upon it being projedled on the other fide.
Fig* 10. is a cap or maflc which covers the hot of the
movement, and completes the lock.

On this lock our author obferves, that it is excellent
for ftreet-doors: ** for no method of robbery (fays he)
is more praftifed, than gaining admittance into houfea
by thofe keys, which, as is well knowit, may be pro-
cured at the old iron (hops to fit almoit any lock in
life. Such robberies are generaUy committed where
the JerraBts are allowed to take the key with tbea.

14 ] 1> o c

when fent on errands, it being impradicable while IM.
the key is fixed in t^e lock. The variations, by ^«^
which the produ^ion of correfpondent kevs ia avoid-
ed, have two fources: the one arifingfrom the changes
that may be made in the di^ofition of the levers ; the
other, from the number of points contained on t2ie
proje6ied furface afeach lever; by which the pofition
of its notch may, in the fmalleft degree, be varied.

'^ The variations, produceable in the difpofitions of
■fix figures onlyi are 720; thefe, being prog^ffively
multiplied by additional figures, will increafe by aflo-
nifhlng degrees; and eventually fliow, that a lock con-
taining twdve levers wilh admit of 479,001 ,50ochanges ;
which* with the addition of another lever, will increafe
to 6,229,019,500. Thefe being again multiplied by
the number of changes which the projected furface of
the levers will admit in the difpofition of the notches,
their amount will exceed numeration, and may there>
fore be properly faid to be infinite. The flighted in-
fpe^on will at once fliow, that their conftrudlion pre*
dudes aU poflibility of obtaining an impreifion of their
internal parts, which is necefiary for the fabrication of
a falfe key; for it will be eafily feea, that the pofitions
into whidi the levers are forced by the pre&ure of the
key in opening the lock, can no more be afcertained
when the key is withdrawn, than the feal can be co-
pied from its impreffion on a fluid, or the courfe of a
fhip be difcovered by tracing it on the furface of the
waves* But inviolable fecurity is not the only excel-*
Icnce they poflei8.L the fimplicity tiE their principle
gives them likewife a great advantage over locks that
are more complicated, in point of duration; for
their eflen.tial* parta being fubje6k to no fri6iion, nor
expofed to any poffible accident from without, they
will be lefs affeded by ufe, and lefs liable to fland'in
seed of repair.'*

Lock, or «iWr, in inland navigations, the general
aame for aU thofe works of wood of flone made to
confine and raife the water of a river : the banks alfo
which are made to divert the courfe of a river, are
called by thefe names in fome pkces. But the term
iock IB more particularly appropriated to exprefs a kind
of canal inclofed between two gates j the upper called
by workmen the fluice-gate, and the lower called the
flood*gate. Thefe ferve in artificial navigations to
confine the water, and render the paflage of boats eafy
inpafling up and down the ibeam. See Canal.

LOCKE (John), a moll eminent Englifh philofo-
pher and writer in the latter end of the 1 7th century,
was fon of Mr John Locke of Pensford in Somerfet-
fhire, and bom at Wrington near Briftol in 1652. He
Was fent to Chrift-church in Oxford ; but was^highly
diflatisfied with the common courfe of ftudies then pur*
fued in the univerfity, where nothing was taught but
the Ariilotelian philofophy ; and had a great averfion to
the difputes of die fchools then in nfe. The firfb books
which gave him a relifli for philofophy, were the wri-
tings of Des Cartes : for though he did not always
approve of his notions, yet he thought he wrote with
great perfpicuity. He applied himfelf with vigour
to his fludies, particularly to phyfic, in which be
gained a confiderable knowledge, though he never
pra^ifed it. In 1694, he went to Gmnany as fe^
cretary to Sir William Swan, envoy from the £ng»
liA court to the ekftor of Brandenburg and fome

other

t.ocke.

LOG [ II

Other German princes. In lefs than a year, he re-
turned to England ; where, among other fludies, he
applied hiitifeU to that of natural philofophy, as ap-
pears from a reg^er of the changes of the air, which
he kept at Oxford from June 24. 1666, to March
28. 1667. There he became acquaintetd with the
•lord Aftiy, afterwards earl of Shaifleibury, who in-
troduced him into the converfatioi^ of fome of the
cnofl eminent perfons of that time. In 16709 he be-
gan to form the plan of his EJfay on Human Under"
Jianding ; but his employments and avocations pre-
. vented him from finifhing it then. About this time
he became a member of the Royal Society. In 167a,
•his patron, now earl of Shaftefbury, and lord chan-
cellor of England* appointed him fecretary of the
prefentations, which place he held till the earl religned
the great feel.' In 1673, he was made fecretary to
a commiffion of trade, worth 500 1. a-year ; but that
rommifHon was diifolved in 1 674. The eail of Shaftef-
bury being reftored to favour, and made prefident of
•the council in 1679, fent for Mr Locke to London :
but that nobleman did not continue long in his poft^
l>eing fent prifoner to the tower ; and after his dif-
charge retired to Holland in 1682. ^

N& Locke followed his patron thither. He had not
l>een abfent from England a year, when he was ac-
cufed at court of having written certain trades againft
the goremment, which were afterward difcovicred to be
written by another perfon; and in November 16841
he was deprived of his place of ftudent in Chrift-
church. In 1685, the Engliih envoy at the Hague
demanded him and 83 other perfons to be delivered up
by the States Qenend : upon which he lay concealed
till the year following ; and during this time formed a
weekly afiembly wiUi Mr Limborch, Mr Le Clerc,
and other learned men at Amilerdam* In 1689 he
returned to England in the fleet which conveyed the
princefs of Orange ; and endeavoured to procure his
reftoration to his place of ftudent of Chrift-church,
that it might appear from thence that he had been un-
juftly deprived of it : but when he found the college
would admit him only as a fupemumerary ftudent, he
defifted firom his claim.

Beinff efteemed a fufferer for revolution-principles,
lie might eafily have obtained a more profitable poft $
but he contented himfelf with that of commiflioner of
appeals, worth 200 L a year, which was procured for
him by the Lord Mordaunt, afterwards earl of Mon-
mouth, and next of Peterborough. About the fame
tune he was offered to go abroad in a public charac-
ter ; and it vras left to his choice, whether he wolild
be envoy at the coiut of the emperbr, that of the- elec-
tor of Brandenburg, or any other where he thought
the air moft fuitable to him : but he waved all thefe,
on account of the infirm ftate of his health ; which dif-
pofed him gladly to accept another offer that was made
by Sir Francis Mafham and his lady, of an apartment
in their country-feat at Oates in EfleX, about 2C miles
f^om London.

This place proved fo agreeable to him in every re-
fpe6l, that it is no wonder he fpent the greateft part
of the remainder of his life at it. The air reftored
kim alrooft to a miracle, in a few 4)ours after his return
at any time from the town, iquite fpent and unable to
. Dipport himfelf. Befidcs this happinefs here^ he

5 ] L o C

found in lady Maiham a fnend and companion exaftly
to his*heart's wifh ; a lady of a contemplative and ftu-
dious complexion,. and particularly inured, from her
infancy, to deep and refined fpeculattons in theology,
metaphyiics, and morality. In this fantily Mr Locke
lived with as much cafe as if the whole houfe had been
his own : and he had the additional fatisfadtion of feeing
this lady breed up her only fon exa6tly upon the plan
which he had laid down for the beft method of educa-
tion ; the fuccefs of which was fuch as feemed to giire
a fan6lion to his judgment in the choice of that method.
In effed, it is to the advantage of this fltuation that
he derived fo much ftrength as to continue exerting
thofe talents which the eaH of Shaftefbury had obfer-
ved to be in him for political fubjeds. Hence we find
him writing in defence of the revolution in one piece ;
and confidering the great national concern at that
time,* the iU ftate of the filver coin, and propofing re-
medies for it, in others. Hence he was made a com-
miiiioner of trade and plantations in 169 5*9 which en-
gaged him in the immediate bufinefs of the flate ; and
with regard to the church, he publifhed a treatife the
fame year, to promote the fcheme which king William
had much at heart, of a comprehenfion with the dif-
fenters. This, however, drew him into one contro-
▼erfy ; which was fcarcely endisd, when he entered into
another in defence of his efTay, which held- till 1698 :
(oon after which the afUima« his conftitutional dif-
order, increafing with his years, begran to fubdue him ;
and he became fo infirm, that in 1 700 he religned hit
feat at the board of trade, bceaufe he could no longer
bear the air of London fufficient for a regular attend-
ance upon it. After this refignation he continued al-
together at Oates ; in which retirement he employed
the remaining laft years of hisr Ufe entirely in the ftu-
dy of the holy Scriptures.

He died in 1704, aged 73. His writings will im-
mortalize his name. The earl of Shaftefbury, author
of the Chara6^eriftics, though in one place he fpeaks
of Mr Locke's philofophy with fcverity ; yet obferves,
concerning his Eflay on the Human Underftanding,
in general, ** that it may qualify men as well for bufi-
neu and the worid, as for the fciences and the uni-
verfity.** Whoever is acquainted vrith the barbarous
ftate of the philofophy of the human mind, when Mr
Locke undertook to pave the way to a clear notion of
knowledge, and the proper methods of purfuing and
advancing it, will be furprifed at this great man's abi«
lities ; and plainly difcover how much we are beholden
to him for any confiderable improvements that have
been made fxnce. His Difcourfcs on Government,
Letters on Toleration, and his Commentaries on fome
of St Paul's Epiftles, are juftly held in the higheft
efteem.

LOCKED Jaw. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.

LOCKMAN, an officer in the, Ifle of Man, who
executes the orders of government, much like our un«
der-fheriff.

Lock MAN, an eaftem philofopker. ^eeLoKMAN.

LOCLE, a fmall town in a diftri6l of the fame
name in Switzerland, adjacent to Neufchatel and Val-
lengin, and united with another named La Ghaux
de Fond. Both thefe difbridis occupy fome valleys
formed by the mountains of Jura $rthe greateft piut of

P 2 which

LOG [II

not nuui]r yetrt ago wu one eontmaed foreft*
though aow converted idto fine pafture-ground fitted
with flourlfliing villages* The* increafe of popuJation
in thefe diftrifls is particularly evident from the fol-
lowing circumflancey viz, tliat formerly the produce
of the country was more than fufficient to ferve the
inhabitants ; but now» though confiderably better cul-
tivatedy it fcarce furni(hes an eighth part' of the ne*
ceflary confumption. This great increafe of numbers
is owing to the early marriages of the inhabitants ;
to the liberty allowed to every ftranger^ who brings
a certificate of his good behaviour, to fettle in the
diftridl i to follow any trade without reftn^ony and
without an apprenticeihip ; and to the want of taxes,
and an unbounded freedom of commerce. Theinduftry
and genius of the people in tliefe difUds is very fur-
pnfing. They carry on an extenfive commerce in lace,
ilockingSy cutlery, and other merchandife of their own
manufadure; and particulaiiy excel in every branch of
watch and clock making. They make all the utenfils ne-
ceffary in thefe arts, and have invented feveral new ones.
There are alfo in thefe diftri^b painters, gilders, enamel-
lers» engravers, and other artifts neceflary for completing
the bufinefs of watch making ; by which means that bu-
iinefs is carried on to fo great an extent, that >f 0,000
watches are oompoted to be annually made. Befides
thefe arts already mentioned, the people are extremely
ingenious in other branches of mechanics, and have in-
vented feveral aftronomical and nuithcmatical infiru-
jpients. One of the moft eminent in this way is Ja^
quet Drozy nY>w at Paris ; and whofe fon exhibited
feveral furprifmg automatical figures in England. One
of theiie played upon a harpfichord ; another drew
bndfcapes 1 and a third copied any word prefented to
it, or wrote down whatever was di^Uted by any of the
company.

Tiie mhabitants of thefe diftri£b art very courteous
to ftrangers who vifit them : they are in general well
informed in feveral branches of knowledge; and u
they commonly employ their leifure hours in reading,
they have circdbting libraries in many of their viUages.
Their houfes are plaftered, white waihed, well buik,
and commodious, thouffh fiauU ; being befidas fur*
niihed with a degree of neatnefs and even elegance
peculiarly ftriking in thefe fequeftered mountaina.
^ Such perfeft eafe and plenty (fays Mr Coxe) reigns
throughout thefe mountains, that I fcarcely faw ^ne
objed of poverty: the natural effeds of induftry under
a mild and equitable government.".

LOCRI, or LocRi E^zepbyrii^ (anc. gebg.)) a town
^f the Bruttii, on the Ionian fea : a colony of the Lo*
cri OxolsB (Strabo) ; rather of the Epicnemidii (Virgil),
who calls it Narycu LAcri^ from Naryx a town of the
Locri Epicnemcdi^. The epithet Ephuphyrii is from
itsfituation near the promontory 2Lephyrium (Strabo) ;
JLocri and JLocrenfesy the people. They are faid to
be the firft who ufed a code • or body of written laws,
compiled by Zaieucus fisom the lavrs of the Cretans,
LacedemonianSsL and the Areopagitse, adding an ex-
press penalty to each kw,. vduch^ was bcfepe dtfcre*
tionary , at the option of the judge ( Strabo ) • Adultery
was punifhed with the lofaof both eyes. Hia own foa
being convidbd of this crime j to mamtain at the (asae
lime the authority of the law, and to pay (bme regard
Jn-thciaUicefllon t£ the people in £ivour of hiafon^.

5 1 LOG

Zakacus fufiered the I0& of an eye, his fon lofiag
another (^lian, VaL Maximus.)

LOCRIS» the diftrid or territory of Locri io the
Bruttii in Italy.

Local Sy a country of Aehaia in Greece; twofold,
and divided by mount Pamaflus. The Hither was oc-
cupied by the Locri Ozols, called alfo Zephyru^^ox
Weftem, contained between <£tolia and Phocis, be*
ginning at Naupadum, and running in a narrow flip
of land, fcarce 200 ftadia, along the fea to the bor-
ders of the Phocenfes. The Fail^er Locris lay beyond
Pamaflus, running out towards Thermopylae, and reach-
ing to the Euripus of Euboea ; occupied by the Locri
Opuntii, who dwelt on the Euboean fea ; and the Epi^
nemidii, who occupied mount Cnemis (Strabo) ; and
thefe two were the Eaftem Locri.

LOCUS GBOMBraicus, denotes a line by which a
local or indeterminate problem is folved.

A locus is a line, any point of which may equally
folve an indeterminate problem. Thus if a right line
fuffice for the conftrudion of the equation, it is called
locus ad reSum ; if a circle, locus ad csrcufum ; if a
parabola, locus ad parahoktm; if an ellipfis, locus ad
tlUpJin : and fo of the reft of the conic fedions.

LOCUL AMENTA, and LocuLt, in botany;
cells or pockets : The internal divifions of a capfule*
or other dry feed-veflel, fo tenned.*-^hefe cells con-
tain or indofe the iceds ; and are different in number
in different plants.

The term Loculvs is alfo fometimes ufed to cz*
prefs the minute divifions in (bme fpecies of anthcr^^
which contain the fine impalpable powder fuppofedby
the fexualifts to be the principal agent in the genera*
tion of plants.

LOCUST, in soology. See GaTLLvs.

LocDsT^Eatsrs* See AcainopHAGi.

Atntricati Locust^ or Frog'-hopper* See Cicada.

Locvst'Tne^ See HvHENiBA and GLEDiTsra.

LOCUTIUS, in mythology, the god of fpecch a*
mong the Romans, called by Livy jtms LocMtws:^

LOCUTO RIUM. The monks and other religious
in monafteries, after they had dined in their commoa
hall, had a withdrawing-room, where they met and
talked together among themfelves, which room, for that
fociable ufe and convcrfation, they called locutoratm^ a
loqueudo ; as we call fuch a place in our houfies parloor^
from the Trench parUr i and they had another room*,
which was called locutonumfonnfecum^ where they migfac
talk with laymen.

LODGMENT, in military af&urs, a work made
by the befiegers in Come part of a fortification (after
the befieged have been driven out), to maintain it.
and be covered from the enemy's fire. — When a lodge*
ment is to be made on the glacis, covert-way, or in a
breach,- there mufl be a great provifion made of faf-
cines, fand^bags, gabions, wool-packs, Ace. in the
trenches ; and during the adion, the pioneers, under
the dire£Hon of an engineer, with fafcines, ^d-
bags, &c. (hould be making the lodgment, in order
ta form a covering, while the grenadiers are ftonnin|f
the covert-way.

LODE, in mining. See Load.

LOG, in the Jcwifh antiquities, a meafure which

kdd a quarter of a cab, and confequently five-fixtha of

m pint* There is mention of a log, a Kings vi. 25*.

iindccr

^^..

C^Si

TlateCCTJCXm.

.qC/i/'.'-iy-. ff^t J*^9**^/*^

LOG

C "7 1

LOG

vnder the ftamc of 9i fourth part of a eaB. But in Levi-
ticus the word. log is often met with, and fignifies that
meafure of o3 which lepers were to offer at the temple
after they were cm^d of their difeafe. Dr- Arbuthnot
fays, that the loe was a meafure of llquidsi the feventy-
fecokid part of w bath or^ephah, and twelfth part of
the hin, according to all the accounts of the Jewtih
wntcrs*

ICLXxl If ' * ^^ ^*""* figftJfyujg * fi"*^ P*^^ <>f timber a^

^^ of a triangular, fedoraiy or quadrantal figure, on board

a (hip> generally about a quarter of an inch thick, and
five or m ;nches fipom the angular point to the circum-
ference* It is balanced by a thin plate of lead, nailed
upon the arch, or circular fide, fo As to fwim perpen-
dicularly in the water, with abiout two thirds immer-
fed under the furface.

ZrOG-LiW, a little cord, or Gne, about a hundred and
fifty fiithoms long, faftencd to the log by means of two
legs ad (fig«4. )> one of which paifes through a hole at the
comer, and is knotted on the oppofite fide, while the
other leg is attached to the arch by a pin fixed into
another hole, fo as to draw out occafionally. By thefe
legs the log is hung in equilibrio ; and the line thus
annexed to it is wound round a reel fixed for that piuv
pofe in the gallery of the (hip.

This line, from the diftance of about ten, twehre,
or fifteen fiithoms off the log, has certain knots or divi**
fions, which ought to be at kaft fifty feet from each
other ; though it was the common practice at fea not
to have them above forty-two feet afunder.

The length of each knot ought to be the fame part
of a fea-mile as half a minute is of an hour ; and ad*
mitting the meafurement of«Mr Norwood, who makes
Si degree od a great circle \i the earth to contain
367,200 Engliih feet, or about 697 £ngli(h flatute
miles, andf therefore, ^^th part of it» or a nautical
milei will be 6120 feet ; rrvth of 6120, or 51 feet,
fhould be the length of each knot. But becaufe it it
iafer to have the reckoning rather before the (hip than
after it,, therefore fifty feet may be taken as the pro-
. per length of each knot. The knots are fometimes
made to confift only of forty-two feet each, even in the
wefent pra6^ice ; and this method of dividing the log«
Mne was founded on the fuppofition that fixty miles,
each of 5000 Engliih feet, made a degree ; for ttq- of
5000 is 4 1 1, or, in>ound numbers, 42 feet. Mari-
ners, rather than quit the old way, though known to
be erroneous* ufe glafles for half minute ones^ that run
but 24 or 35 feconds. They have alfo ufed a line of
45 feet to 30 feconds, or a glafs of 28 feconda to 42
fitet. When this is the cafe, the diftance between
the knots (hould be corredled by the following pro*
portion : as 30 is to 50 ; fo is the number of feeonda
•f the glafs to the diftance between the knots upon
^ line. The heat or moillure of the weather has of-
ten a confiderable effedi upon the glafs^ fo as to make
k run (lower or fafte^^ it- (hould, therefore, b^ fre-
quently tried by the pendulum in the following man-
aer. On a round nail hang a firing that has a muf-
bet-boll fixed to one end, carefully meafuring between
the centre of the ball and. the firing's loop over the
peg 39 j- inches, being the length of a fecond pendu<»-
liam ; then fWing it, and count one for every time it
paflfea under the peg,beginning at the fecond time it paf-
&S i and the number of fwings made during the tiac

the glafs is running 6\xt ihows the feconds it Contains.
The line alfo is liable to relax and (hrink, and ihould
therefore be occafionally meafured.

The ufe of the log and line is to keep account and
make an cllimate of the (hip's way or diflance run ;
which is done by obferving the length of line unwound
in half a minute's time, told by a half-minute glafs ;
for fo many knots as run out in that time, fo many
miles the (hip fails in an hour. Thus, if there ba four
knots veered out ip half a minute, the Ihip is compu-
ted to run four miles an hour.

The author of this device for meafuring the (hip's
way is not known ; and no mention of it occurs till
the year 1607, in an £aft-India voyage publi(hed by
Purchas | but from that time its name occurs in other
voyages among his tfoUe^ions; and henceforward it
be<»me famous, being takin notice c^ both by our
own authors and by foreigners ; as by Gunter in 1 623 1
Snellius in 1 624 $ Metius in 1 63 1 1 Oughtred b 1 63 3 ;.
'Herigonein 16341 Saltonflall jn 1636; Norwood in
< 1637 ; Pouriiier in 1643 } ^"^ almoil by all the fuc-
ceeding writers on navigation of every country*

To Heave ihf LoOf as they call it, they throw it into
the water on the lee-fide, letting it run till it comes
without the eddy of the (hip's wake ; then one, hold*
ing a half-minute glafs, turns it up juft as the firft
knot, or the mark mm which the knots begin to be
reckoned, turns off the reel (fig. 2.) or pa(res over the
ftem. As foon as the glafs is out, the reel i» ftopped^
and the knots run off are told, and their parts eftima^*
ted* -

It is ufual to heave the log once every hour in ffups
of war and Eaft-India men, and in all other vefl'els
once in two hours $ and if at any time of the watch
the wind has increafed or abated in the intervals, fo
as to affed the (hip's velocity, tlie officer generally
makes a fuitable allowance for it at die clofe of thie
watch.

The log is a very precarious way of computings
and mufl always be corrected by experience and good
fenfe ^ there beiuff a great deal of uncertainty in the^
yawing of the ihip going with the wind aft, or upon
the quarter fn the heaving of It, by its coming home,
or being drawn after the (hip, on account of the fric-
tion of the reel and Itghtoefs of the log in the courfe
of the current, and in the ftrength of the wind, which
feldom keeps the fame tenor for two hours together ;,
which is the interval between the times of ufing the-
log in (hort voyages, though in longer ones they
heave it every hour. Yet this is a much, more exa^
way of computing than any other in ufe ; much^prefe*
rable certainly to that of the Spaniards and Portuguefe,
who gueffed at the (hip's way by the running of the.
froth or water by the (liip's fide $■ or to that of the
Dutch, who ufed to heave a chip over-board, and to
number the pacfs they walk on the deck while the
chip fwims between any two marks, or bulk^ieadi ob-
the fide.

Gomfbvnd Loo. . The above mentioned erfora^ and p|8r*
ticohurly the log's being^fubjeft to drive with the.motion
which the water may iiave at its furfsce, whereas the cac*
pertment requires it to be fixed in the placcwhere it i»
when the mark commencing the knots goes off the feelf .
have been confidered by writers,and many methods have
been proofed M^ iemoTe> or al Icaft 10 kffinvthem*.

LOG I 1

•^• ^♦^' T!ie late M. Bouguer propofed a method, which has
■' been thought defcrving of particular attention, in the
Mem. Acad. Sc. 1 747 ; afterwards in his Treatifc on
Navigation, publifhed at Paris in 1753, **^^ ^^^^^ ^'
printed in 1 760, by the abbe de la Caille. For this
purpofe, take for the log a conical piece of wood^ which
fix to the log-line paffed through or along its axis, at
about 40, 50, or 60, or more feet, from one end ; and to
•this end fix the diver, which is a body formed of two
.equal fquare pieces of tin, or of tliin iron plate, fixed
at right angles to one another along their diagonals ;
and its fize fo fitted to-that of the cone, that vthc w-hole
may float. A cone of three inches diameter in the
bafe, and of fix inches in the flant heights is ,propofed
by M. Bouguer to fuit a diver made of. plates about
9J- inches fquare ; the interfedion of the diagonals is
joined to the log-line, and the loop and peg fixed as in
<the conimon log. However, it has been found, that
no kind o£ wood ufed in Brttifh dock-yards, when
formed into a cone of the above dimenfions, will float
a diver made of flout tin plates, one fide of the fquare
being 9^ inches. Such a divor weighing i-Jlb avoir-
dupoife, required to float it a cone of Bye inches dia-
meter and twelve inches on the flant fide, fo as the
point of the cone, which was made of light fir, fhould
juil appear above the water, ^ow fuppofing one fide
of fuch a fquare tin<diver to be about ten inches, and
made of plates only two-thirds of the thicknefs of the
former, fuch a diver would weigh, with its folder,
about 20 ounces, andxan be floated by a light fir cone
of four Inches diameter in the bafe, and ten inches in
/the flant height or^length ; and fuch a compound log
. might perhaps be found on trial to be affecled by a-
bout as much again as that propofed by M. Bouguer ;
and confequently the difference between the numbers
given by the common log and compound log, muft be
.augmented by. two-thirds of itfelf for the nccefTary cor-
.redion, as below. When the compound log of Bou-
guer, above defcribed,- is hove overboard, the diver
«will fink too deep to be much affeded by the current
•or motion of water at the furface, and the log will
^thereby keep more fleadily in the place where it firft
fell ; and confequently the knots run off the reel
will fhow more accurately the fhip's rate of (ailing.
As the coomion log is affected by the whole motion
of the current, fo this compound log will feel only a
part thereof, viz. fuch a part nearly as the refiflance
• of the cone is to the refiflance of the diver ; then the
refiftances of the above cone and diver are about as i
-to 5 ; and confequently this log wiU drive but one-
fifth pfirt of what the common log would do ; and fo
the (hip's true run will be affedled by one-fifth only of
'the motion of the waters. To obtain the true rate of
failing, it will be proper to heave alternately, hour and
hour, the common log and this compound log ; then
the difference of their knots ran off, augmented by its
one-fourth part, is tlie corredlion ; which applied to the
knots of the common log, will give the (hip's true rate
of failing at the middle time between the hours when
thefe logs were hove. The corre£iion is additive when
the compound log's run is the gteateflt otherwife it. is
iiabtra£tive. To find the courle miade good : increafe
the obferved angle between the log-lines by one fourth-
part ; and this gives the corredUon to be applied to
ihe apparent courfe, or the oppofite of that fhown by

18 3 LOG

the common bg ; the correfkion is to be affiled to the ^
< j^^ > of the apparent courfe, when the bearing of

the conrunon log is to the ^ * i.^^ r of the compound

log. Or thus : the lengths run off both logs, toge-
ther with their bearings, being known ; in a czvi or
compafs apply the knots run off, taken from a fcale
of equal parts along their refpe6ltve bearings, from the
centre ; join the ends; and in this line produced, 00
the fide next the compound log's length, take one-
fourth of the interval ; then a line drawn from the
end, thus produced, to the centre of the card, will
(how the true courfe and diftance made good. When
•a current, fuch as a tide, runs to any depth, the velo-
city of that current maybe much better aifcertained by
the compound log than by the conunon one, provi-
ded the diver does not defcend lower than the run of
the current ; for as thofe fliips which are deepefl iro-
merged^ drive faffed with the tide ; fo the diver, by
beings adled on below, as well as the log on the fur-
face, their joint motion will g^ve the total effe6l of
the current's motion better than what could be deri-
ved from the motion at the furface only. AJfo, by
fuch a compound log, the depth to which any current
runs may be eafily tried.

Other Logs* We have an account in the voyage to the
North Pole, p. 9 7. of two other logs, which were tried by
captain Phipps : one invented by Mr Ruffel, the other
by Foxon ; both conflrufled upon this principle, that
a fpiral, in proceedbg its own length in the dire£lion
of its axis through a refiffing medium, makes one rf
volution round the axis ; if, therefore, the revolutions
of the fpiral are regiilered, the number of times it has
gone its own lengdi through the water will be known.
In both thefe the motion of the fpiral in the water is
conununicated to the clock«work within-board, by
means of a fmall line faftened at one end to the fpiral,
which tows it after the (hip, and at the other to a
fpindle, which fets the clock-work in motion. That
invented by^r Ruffel has a half-fpiral of two threads,
made of copper, and a fmall dial with clock-work, t«
regiiler the number of turns of the fpiral. The other
log has a whole fpiral of wood with one thread, and a
larger piece of clock-work with three dials, two of
them to mark the diftance, and the other divided into
knots and fiaithoms, to (how the rate by the half-mi-
nute glafs, for the convenience of comparing it with the
log. This kind of log will have the advantage of
every other in (inooth water and moderate weather;
and it will be ufeful in finding the trim of a (hip
when alone, in furveying a coafl in a fingle (hip, or in
meafuring diftances in a boat between head-lands and
(hoals^ but it is fubje6i to other inconveniences, which
will not render it a proper fubftitute for the common

h>g.'

Perpetual L0G9 a machine fo called by its inventor^
Mr Gottlieb of Houndfditch, London. It is intended
by it to keep a conftant and regular account of the
rate of the (hip's velocity through the water ; wher^s
the common log hitherto ufed does not indicate the
variation in her velocity in the interval of heaving the
log, and confequently does not afcertain the true di-
ftance that the (hip has run in any given let^gth of
time*

_-...j

log*

?late

Fig". 1. 18 a reprefentation of tlie whole machine ;
the Tower part of which, EFG, is fixed to the fide of
the keel ;. H reprefenting^only the boundary line of the
fliip's figure. EF are the leftion of a wooden external
cafe, left open at the ends KLy to admit the pafTage
of the water during the motion of the /hip. At M is
a copper grating, placed to obftruft the entrance of
any dirt, &c. into the machine. I, is a* re6^ion of a
water-wheel, made from 6 to 1 2 inches in diameter,, as
may be necefiary, with float-boards up#n its circumfe«
rence, like a common watcr-wheelj that turn by the
refinance of the w^ter pafling through the channel
IsfK* It turns upon a fliouldered axis, reprefented by
the vertical fe6lion at K. When the (hip is in motion^
the refiftance of the water through- the channel LK
t«m8 round the wheel I. This wheels by means of a
pinion, is conne£led with and turns the rod contained
in the long copper tube N. This rod« by a pinion
fixed at its upper extremity, is connected with and
turns upon- the whole fyftem of wheels contained in
the dial of the cafe ABCD. This dial, by means of
the copper tube N, may be fixed to any convenient
place aboard the (hip. In the front of the dial art
fevcral ufeful circular graduationst as follbw : The re-
ference by the dotted line A has an hand which i»
moved by ^he wheels with/'n, which points out the mo-
tion of the (hip in fathoms of 6 feet each. The circle
at B has an hand'(howihg the knots, at the rate of 48
feet for each knot; and is to be obferved with the half^
minute glafs at any time. The circle at C has a (hort and'
a long hand ; the former t>f which points out the miles
in land-meafure, and the latter or longet* the number of
knots contained' in each mile, viz. 128, which is in the
fame proportion to a mile as 60 minutes to the hour
in the reckoning. At e^ . a fmalT* portion of a circle
is feen through the front-plate called the render; , which
flkows, in the courfe of" 24 hours (if the inip is upon
tme tack), th» dil^ance in. miles that (he has run;
and in the 2 4. hours the mariner need'take but one ob^
iihrvation, as this regifter ferves as aa ufeful check
U^n the fathoms, k'nots^ . and miles^ ihown upoa ^e
two other circles.

/, Is a plate (howing 100 degrees or 6000 mile«»
asd alfo a£& aa another regifter or check ; and. is . ufe^

9 1

LOG

ful in cafe of any miftake being made in obferving
the diftance run by. the other circles^ The reckon-
ing by thefe circles, without fear of mifiake, may
therefore be continued to nearly 12,000 miles.

A communication from this machine may eafily
be made to the captain's bed-fide, where by touching
a fpring only, a bell in the head ABCD will found
as many times in an -half minute as the (hip fails
mltB in* an hour.

Mr - Gottlieb has applied' this machine to the Car*
terct and Weftmoreland packets. He is very fanguin^'
in the hopes of its fuccefs and utility ; and conceives
that the mariner will, by this contrivance, be better
enabled than heretofore to keep the ve(rel and his
reckoning together ; it being weU known that the
mofl: experienced navigator is too frequently erro-
neous id this refped^, the (hip being fometimes a*>
bead, or fometimes aftem, off the reckoning.

H&alfo obferves, that the conftru£^ion of the Fog is
ftcli,'tfaat if the ve(rel was to be aground, ftrike a rock^ .
or ftrip -off her falfe keel, the parts would not be dc^
ranged ": and further^ (hould (he be laid up for repairs^
^c. fix months, in half an hour after coming again
into the water,, the lower immerged part of the log
would dear itfelf^ and be in proper a£lion.

LoG-Boardy a fort of table, divided into feverai
columns^ containing the hours of the day and night, .
the diref^ion of the winds, the courfe of the (hip, and *
ail the material occurrences that happen during tht '
24 hourS) or from noon to noon ; togcthei^ with the
latitude by obfervatiom From this table the dificrent-
officers *of the (hip are furniflied with materials to covas
pile their journals, wherein- they likewife infert what*
overmay. have been oBiitted, or reje6t what may ap^
pear fuperfluous in the log-board.

LoG-Bookf a book into which the contents of the '
log-boaid is daily copied at* noon, together with every
circumfiance deferring notice that may happen to the
(hip, or within her cogfnizance, either at fea or in s
harboar^ftc. The Intermediate divi(ion8 or watch^a
of the log-book, containing four hours each, are
ufuaUy figned by the commanding officer in (hips of .
war <Mr.£aft-Indiamen. . SeetNAvi option. .

L o a A K r T H M' s.

TOGA'RITHMS', (fifom x^y^- ratio, and •Hf-^
^^nttmber)y the indicea of tlie ratios* of numbers toj
one another ; being aferies of numbers in arithmetical
progreffion, correfponding to others ■ in geonietricaV
p^greffion ; by means of which, arithmetical calcula-
tions can be noade with, much more. eafeaad expedi-
tioiLthaa otkerwife..

Sect-. I.. Hiftory of Logarithms-,

The 'invention of logarithms firil occurred to thofe
icvfant in the conftnidUon of trigonometrical tables,
IB-. which immenfe .labour was required by large multiF-
plications, divifions, and extra6Uon of roots. The aim
propo&d was,, to reducers much -as poffible the mul-

tiplications and -divifions -to. additions and fubtra£^ion 9 s
and for this purpofe, a method was invented by Nicho-
las Raymer Urfus Dithmarfus, which ferves for one
cafe o( the fincs,^viz/ when the radiu&is the firft tena
in proportion, and the fines of two arcs the fecoiid and
third terms. . In this -cafe the fourth term is founds
by only taking half the fum brdifPereace of the fines.
of the other two arcs,, and the. complement of tlie.
g]teaten This method ..was firft publi(hed m 1588,.-
and a few years afterward, was greatly improved by>
Claviusy. who ufed it in all proportions in the folu-
tibn of Ipherical trianglea ; adapting > it to fines, tan-s
gents» verfed fines, and feca^ts ; and this, whether the<
radius was the firft term in the proportion or not.
Thi$ methodi however^ though now become much#

120 L O G A R I

more genctiSy vXtfvl than before wti lUil fwmdi «t«
tended with trouble in {ome cafes \ tnd •• it depended
upon certain properties of line»beloagt9g to the circle»
was rather of a geometrical than arithmetical nature i
on which account the calculators about the end of thte
1 6th and beginning of the 17th centur^t finding the
folution of allronomical problems extremely troubk«
fomcy by reafon of the tedious multiplications and di-
vifions they >equired> continued their endeavours to
leff<^ that labour, by fearchihg for a method of redu-
cing their operations to addition and fubtradioa. The
firft ilep towards this was, the con(ideratioB» that as in
anultipllcation the ratio of the multiplier to unity is-
the fame as that of the produdl to the multiplicand, it
will follow, that the ratio, of the produ6l to unity muft
1>e equal to the fum of the two ratios of the multiplier
to unity, and of the multiplicand to unity. Could a
fet of numbers tlierefore be found, which would repre-
fent the ratios of all other numbers to unity, the ad-
idition of two of the former fet of numbers woiM be
equivalent to the multiplication of the two numbers
together, the ratios of which they denoted ; and the
ikim aridng from this addition would denote the ratio
of their produ6l to unity } whence the produ6t itfelf
might be found by looking for the corrdponding &»•
tural number in the table.

The next thing was to fall upon a method of calcu-
lating fuch a table as was wanted, which indeed ap-
peared an Herculean labour. The firft obfervation
was, that whatever numbers might be mside ufe of to
reprefent the ratios of others, the ratio of equality, or
I ^ that of unity ^to unity muft be o ; for that ratio*lias

properly no magnitude, neither increafing nor dimi«
oiifhing any other ratio to which it is adapted, or from
-which it is fubtra£led.

2. The fecond obfervatiqn was, that though any
number might be chofen at pleafure to reprefent the
ratio of any other number to unity, yet when once thia
choice i^'as made, aU the other numbers ref^e&nting
the different ratios mull be determined by it. Thus*.
if the ratio of 10 to i be repreiented by i, then the
Yatio of 100 to I mud be 2, and that of looo to i
muft be 3, &c. ; or if 2 was ^hofen to- reprefent the
ratio of 10 to i, then that of 100 to i muft be 4,
that of 1000 to I muft be 6, &c.; and no other num-
bers could poffibly be ufed.

3. As thofe artificial numbers represented, or were
proportional to, the ratios of the natural numbers to
unity, they muft be expreflions of the numbers of fome
fmaller equal ratios contained in the former and larger
Ones. Thus, if we make i the reprefentative of the
ratio of 10 to i ; then 3, which Veprcfents the ratio of
1000 to I,* will likewife cxprefs the number of ratios
of 10 to I, which are contained in that of 1000 to i.
If inftead of i, we make 1000 to be the ratio of xo
to I ; then 3000 will exprcfs the ratio of 1000 to i,
and this number 3000 wifi cxprefs the number dffmall
ratios of the 1000th root of 10 to i contained in the
ratio of ^000 to i ; and fo on for any larger number,
as 10,000, 100,000, or 10,000,000, &c- Thus, if
inftead of 1000 we make 10,000,000 the rcprefen-
tative of the ratio of 10 to 1, then the unit will re-
prefent a very fmall ratio, of which there are 10,000,000
contained belwijct i and 10, and whith ratio could not

/really be had without eztra£Ung a root which involved

r H M s.

Hifb

in itfelf, io,ooo»ooo of Umei woidd only make vpioi
which root may perhaps be moft intelligibly cxpreiEed
thus, »o»©ootc>oo^— If ^^ ^^j^ ^f jQ ^^ J ^^^^

tained ia»ooo,ooo of thefe roots, it is evident tiiat the
ratio of 100 to 1 muft contain 20)00o,ooo» that of
1000 would have 30,000,000, &c. ; of confequenoe^
the ratio of 1 00 to i -will be exprefled by 20y000«ooo»
of 1000 to I by 30,000,000, &c.— Hence, as thefe
artificial numbers reprefent the ratios of natural num*
bers to unity, or arc proportional to them, they arc
lery properly called the IqgarUhnu of thefe numbcrvy
or the numbers of their ri^ios ; becaufe they really do
exprefs this number of ratios.

The relation of logarithms to natural numbers laay
perhaps more intelligibly be explained by two fienes of
numbers,^ one in an arithmetical, and the other in geo-
metrical, progreifion. .Thus,
Logarithms, 01234567 8
Nat. numb. I 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

Or,

Logarithms, 01434 5 tf

Nat. numb, i To 100 1000 Xo/x>o 100,000. r/xX2,909
In either of thefe (eries it is evident, that by adding^
any two terms of the upper line together, a number
will be had which indicates that produced bymuklplj-
ing the c<Mrrefponding terms of the lower line. Thus,
in the firft two feries, fuppofe we wifli to know the
produd of 4X32. In the upper line we find 2 fland-
ingover the number 4, and 5 over 32 ; adding there-
fore 5 to 2 we find /, the fum of this addition, nanding
over 128, the produft of the two numbers. In like
manner, if We wi(h to divide 256 by 8, from the num-
ber which ftands over 256, viz. 8, fubti-ad that which
ftands over 8, viz 3 ; the remainder 5, which ftands
over 32, (hows that the latter is the quotient of 256
divided by 8. Let it be reqm'rcd to involve 4 as hi^
as the biquadrate or 4th power: Multiply 2, the num-
ber which ftands over 4, by the index of the power te
which the number is to be involved ; which index is 42
the produA 8, ftanding over 256^ fliows that this lail
number is the biquadrate of 4 required. Laftly» let it
.be required to extrad the cube root of 64 ; divide the
number 6, which ftands over 64, by 3, the index of the
root you wifh to extrad ; the^otient 2, ftanding over
4, ftiows that 4 is the root fought.

Thefe examples are fufficient to ftiow the great uti-
lity of logarithms in the moft tedious and difficult
parts of arithmetic* But though it is thus eafy t9
frame a table of logarithms for any feries of numbers
going on in geometrical pcogreflion, yet it muft be hcc
more difficult to frame a general table in which the
bgarithms of every poffible feries of geometricals (hall
correfpond with eacli other. Thus, though in the
above feries we can eafily find the logarithm of 4, 8,
&c. we caanot find that of 3, 6, 9, &c. ; and if we af-
fume any random numbers for thenv they wiU Bat cor-
refpond with thofe which have already been afTumetl
for 4, 8, 16, &c. In the conftrudUon of every Uble,
however, it was evident, that the arithmetical or lo-
garithmic feries ought lo b^in with o ; ferif it began
with unity, then the fum of the logarithms of any two
numbers muft be diminiftied by unity before we co«W
find the logarithm of the produi^ Thus,
Logar. 12.34567 8 9

Nat.N. I 2 4 8 x6 32 64 128 256

ftory, L O G A R I

Here let it be required^ multiply 4 by i6 ; the nuBir
ber 3 ftanding over 4, added to 5 which fbndt
over i6f gives 8 which ftanda over 128 : but this k
tiot joft ; fo that we snuft dimiiiini tkelogarithm by i^
ftnd thep the noliiber 7 ftandiiig tsver 64 fhowa the
true produd* lo like manner it iqipears* thitt as we
defcend below -unity in a logarithnnc table, the loga^
irithms themfebres muft begin in a negative feries wifb
Irefped to the former ; and drat tb! logaridim of o
will always be infinite ; negative, if the logarithms in«
creafe with 'die natural numbers; but pofitive, if they
decreafe. For as the geometrictd feries muft diminim
by infinite divifions by the common ratio, the arith«
mctical one mufl decreafe by infinite fubtra^ons,
or increafe by infinite additions of the common dif«
fcrence.

This property of numbers was not unknown to the
ancient mathematicians. It is mentioned in the works
^f Euclid ; and Archimedes made great ufe of it in his
jfrenariwf or treatife on the number of the fands : and
k is probable that logarithms would have been much
feoner invented, had the real necelfity for tkem been
fooner felt ; but this did not take place tiU the end of
the 16th century^ when the conftntdtion of trigono*
metrical tables, and folution of perplexed aftronomical
problems, rendered them abfolutely indifpenfable*

About this time it is probable that many people
vrilhed to fee fuch tables of numbers,' and were
making attempts to confini£l them ; but the in«
vention is certainly due to Lord Ni^ier, baron of
Merchifton in Scotland. The invention is by fome
indeed aferibed to Lbngomontanus t but with very
little probability, as he never pubHAied any thing-
of the kind, nor kid claim to the invention, though
lie lived to fee the publication of Baron Napier's ta*
bles; C<^nceming this invention we are told, that
** one Dr Craig a Scotchman, coming out of Den-
mark into his own country, called upon Baron Napier,
and tdd him of an invention of Longomontanus in
Denmark, to fave the trouble of the tedious multipli«>
cation and divifion in aftronomical calculations ; but
could give no farther account of it than that it was
by proportionable numbers. From this flight hint
the baron immediately fet about the wcFrk; and by the
time that Dr Craig returned to call upon htm, he had
prep a red a rude draught of it, which he called Canon
miraMis LegarHhmcrum ; and this draught, with fome
alterations, was printed in 1614*

According to Kejder, one Jufte Byrge, affiftant
aftronomer to the landgiiwe of liefle, either invented
or projected logarit!hms long before Baron Napier,
and compofed a table of fines for every two' fecond»
of the quadrant ; though, by reafon of his n|i-
tural refervednefsi he never piibUflicd any thing to the
world* But whatever might have been in this, it is
certain ttwt the world is indd)ted for logaritlufti^ to
Baroa Napier, who diedjn the year 161 8« This hp*
Ueman Ckewife made coofiderable improvements in
trigonometry ; and the frequent numerical computa-
rionS'he had occaficm for in this branch, undoubtedly
contributed to his invention of the lora4thms, that
he might fave part of the trouble in thefe calcinations.
Hisbookpubltifbedin 1614 was intitled Mirijid LogO"
rkhmorum Catwus defcriptio. At this time he did not
publiih his method of co|iftru6iing the numbers until
. VouX. Part I.

T H M a

Ihe fenfe of the learned fh6uld be known, ht otAef
rei|>e6b tlie work is complete, containing all the lo^
garithms of the natural numbers to the ufual extent
6i logaritKmic tables s with the logarithmic fines, tan#
gents, oiSS fecants, for every minute of the quadrant;
dire^ona for ufing the tables, &c.

This woik was publiflied in Latin ; butwas afiierwarda
tranilated into Enp^lifh b^ Mr Edward Wright, in-
ventor of the principles of what has been falfely called
Mtttaior^M 8^f^, The tranflation was ftnt to hit
lordfhip at Edinburgh, and relumed with his- appro*
bation and fome few addltionsv It was pubUihed in
1616, after Mr Wright's death, with a dedication t»
the Eaft India Company, by his fon Samuel Wririit^
and a prefiice hj Mr Btig^ yAxo afterwards dimnw
guiihed himfelt fo much m brinrine logarithms ta
perfefUon. In this tianflation Mr Briggs alfo« gave
the defcription and draught of a fcak invented by Mr
Wright, as well ss other methods invented by himfelf,
for finding, the intermediate proportional numbers ;-
the logarithms already found having been only printed
for fuch numbers as were the natural fines of each
minute. ^

Mr Wright's tranlhtibtt was reprinted in 161 8, with
a new title-page, and the addition of 16 pages of new
iliatter, ** fliowing the method of calculating triangles^
as well as a method of fih&ig out fuch lines and loga*
rithms as are not to be* found in the canons.*'

Next year John Speiddl publifhed his New Loga-
rithms, in which were fome remedies for the inconveni-
ences attending Lord Napier's method. The fame year
aifo Robert Nafiier, the Baron's fon^ publiflied a new
edition of his father's book, entitled Canoms Logarithm
nwnm Defcr^iio; with another eonceranig the method
of co;iftniAing them, which the Baron had promifed ;
together with fome other mtfcelbmeous preces, which
his fother had Kkewife compofed along with Mr Briggs.
In 1620 aifo, a copy of thefe works was printed at
Lyons in one volume, by Bartholomew Vincent a
bcK>kfefler there ; but this publication fecms to have
been but little known, as Wingate, who carried loga*
rithms to France four years after, is faid to have been
the firft who introduced them into that country.

The Curfiu Mathematics publiflied at Cologn in
161 8 or 1 61 9 by Benjamin Urfinua, mathematidan to
the ele^or of Brandenbuig, contains a copy of Na***
pier's logarithms, together with fome tables of propoi^
rional parts. In 1614 he publiflied his Tn^oftomrtria,
with a table of natural fines and their logaritiims, ac-
cording to Lord Napier's method, to evei-V ton feconds
in the quadrant. I'he fame year a book on logarithms
was pubKflied at Marpurg by the celebrated K^ler,^
of the faihe kind with thofe of Napier. Both of thefe'
begin at 90^ or the end of the quadriant ; and, while the
fines decreafe, the logarithms gradually increafe; till at'
the he^Tdtig of the quadrant, or o, the logarithm
is infinite. Tne only difierence betwixt the logarithi^S'
of Napier and Kepler is, that in the former the; arc
is divided into equal parts, differing by one minute'
each ; and confequently their fines to which the loga-
rithms are adapted are interminate numbers reprefent-
ed only by approximating deciroaU : but in Kep-
ler's table, the radius is divided into equal part?; which
are confidered as perfed aiid terminate fines, having
equal differences, and t# i^hich the logarithms' are here.

(^ adapted}

lai

laa LOOARITHMa Hlfl?

adapted* A trealilc of fooie txxtut wa^ prefixed, ta for the fine of the compleiiirBt o& an arc ; and he io*

the work ; in which the conftru^Uon and ufe of loga* (roduped the vfe of arithmetjcal complementa into tlic

nthms is pretty largely treated of. ^ In the year 1627 logarithtnical arithmetic, lie is faid alfo to have firii

the fame author introduced logarithms into his Rup fuggeiled the idea of the logarithmic curve^ fo called^

dolphine Tables, together with feveral othenf vis* I*, becaufe the fegments of its axis ace the iogasithniA

A table fimilar to that already mtentioned; only that of the correfponding ordinates.
the column of fines or abfolute numbers is omit- The logarithmic lines were afterwaids dzawn in

ted, a^d another added in ks ftead, (howing what many other ways* Wingate^ in i6^7>drew them up*

part of the quadrant each arc is equal to } vi%* .the On two fcparate rulers Aiding by jeach other, in order

(quotient arifing from the diTifion of the whole to fave the ufe of compafles in refolding proportions*,

quadrant by each given asc, and e^rcfled in inte^ la 1697 ^<>9 ^7 ^^''^^ applied by Mr Oii^tred to

gers and iexagefima) parts, a* Napier's table of lo* concentric circles; about 1650, in a. %>iral form^

garithmic fines to every minute of the quadrant ^ as by one Mr Milhuiaie of Yorkihire ; and in 1657, thty

alfo two other fmaUer tables adapted ior the calcula* wens applied ou the prefent fiiding^rule by Mr Setk

tion of edipfes and the latitude of planets. In this Partridflre*

work Juilus Byrgius is mentioned as having invented The knowledge of logarithms was difi'ufed in France

logarithms before Napier. by Mr Edmumd Wmgatey a4 aLready rdated, though

The kind of logarithms now in ufe were invented not carrjed originally thither by him. Two iinall

by Mr Henry BnggsprofeiR» of geometry in Grefham tra*^ were, pubhihed by him in French^ and afterward*

college, London^ at the time they were firft difcover* an edition in Englifh, all printed in London. In the

ed by Naq^ier. As fooa as the logarithms of Napier firit of thefe he mentions the ufe of Gunter -s Ruler ^

were pubhihed, Mr Briggs diredied his attention to the and in the^other that of Briggs's Loganthms, with the

iludy and improvement of them ; and his employment canon of artificial fines and tangents* There ace like*

in this way was announced in a letter to Mr Uiher, af- wile tables, of thefe fioes^ tangents, and logarithms^ go-

terwards the celebrated archbifhop, in the year 1615;* pied from Gunter*

By him the fcale was changed, and o was made the From the time that Mr Briggs firft began to ftady

logarithm of 1 ; but lord Napier informed Mr Briggs the nature of log^ithms, he implied to the conftruc^

that he had already thought of fuch a (cbeme, but tion of tables with fuch afiiduity, that by the yea»

choic rather to pnbliih the logarithmic tables he had • i6a^ he publiHied his Arkbmettca Loganihmca^ con*

completed^ and to let thofe alone until he (hould have, taining the logarithms of ^,000 natural numbers to

more leifure as well as better health* At an inteiw 14 places of figures befider the index ; ws. from i to

view betwixt Lord .Napier and Mr Bri^, the perfeat ao,ooOik and fironfr 90,000 to loo^ooot together witlk

plan feems to have been (ettled % and in confequence the difiereoces of the lo^uithma. According to fome»

of his lordfhip's advice, Mr Briggs made (bme altera* there was another Chiliady vlt>* from 100,000 to.

tiop in the method of coBftru£kiog his tables from that. loi/>oo; but this dpes not feem to be w^l authentl*

which he had begun. A correfpondence alio took cated. In the preC^ce to this work, he gives an account

place betwixt his lordlhip and Mr* Briggs, wl^ch con* of the akeration made in the fcale by Lord Napier and

tinued during the lifetime of the former. It appears^ himfelf ; and eamefily folicits other perfoas to under*

however, that, whether Mr Briggs thought of this al- take the tafic of fiUing up the intermediate numbers^

teration before lord Napier or not, he certainly was the offerinf to give inftrudions, and to afford ps^cr ready

perfon who firft publiihed it to. the world ;• and &me ruled for tbfi purpofi^* He gives allb inftrudions at

reflexions have been thrown upon his lord/hip for not larse in the j^fiice for the cdnftru^on of logarithmic

making any men^on of the (heire which Mr Briggs had. taUes. Thus he hoped to get the logarithms of the

29 it* other 70,000 natucal 9umbiers completed } - while he^

In 1617 Mr Briggs publi(hcd hiia. firit thouiand lo*' himfelf, being now pretty far advanced in years»migh^

garithms under the title of Logarkif^rum ChUhu Pri- be at liberty to apply to the caooir of logarithmic

taa; and in 1620 Mr Edward Gunter publiihed his fines, &c* which was as much wanted by nuthe*

Canon of Triangles, containing the artificial or logai^ maticians as the others. His wiihes were accomphfliedl

xithmic fines and tangents, ior every minute, to feveu/ by Adrian Vlacq or Flack of Gouda in Hottand, who-

pbces of figar^s befides the index; the logari^on of completed the numhen from^ao to 90,000; and th>i»

die radius being 10.000, Sec Thefe were-the firft tables, the worid was funiifted with the. logarithms. of all na^

of logarithmic fines, tangents, &c* which made their ap- tural numbers from i to 100,000; but thofe of Vlacq.

pearance upon the prefent phm ^ and in 16^3 they Wjrre weae only done to> i o places of figures* To theiie wa»

seprinted in his book de SeSore a Radiof along with added a table of artificial fines, tangents^ and fiKants,^

the ChiliOi Prima x£ Mx Briggs* The fame year Mr to every minute of the- quadrant* Befides the great

Gunter applied thefe logarithms of Bumhersi fines* and work already mentioned, Mr Briggs completed a table.

tangents, to ftiaiffht lixies drawn on a ruler; and with* of k>garit^nuc fines and tangents for the xooth part

thefe the proportions! in common numbers, as well aa. of every degree,, to 14 places ^f figures befides the

in. trigonometry, were &lved by the mere appUcatioa} index; and a table of natural fmes for the fiuae

of a pair of compafTes;, a method founded upon- thisx parts to 1*5 places, with the tangents and fecaats to

property, that ^e logarithms of the terms, of equal ra- iio places, and the methods of coiiftradiag.them* He'

tios are equally different. The inftrument is. now well defigned alfo to have published a treatiie concerning*
known by the name of the two*feet Gunter's Scale* . the ufes and application of them, but died before this

By the fame -methods he alfi> greatly improved the fee- could be accomplished* On his. daath-bed he recom-^

tor*. He was alfo the SHt who ufel the word r^/ir meaded thit. work to Hemy GelUbrand profidTor of

aRirmomy {a ^Crfefliam coSege» in <<v4il<Bh oifieelie liad

fuGceeded 'Mr Gtinter. Mr Briggt^ taUes flbo?^ »««-

tioned were printed at Goudt, and publKhad in 1633 ;

* and the fame year Mr Gellibrand added a preface with

the application of logarithms to plane and fpherical

trigonometryf the whole heing denominated Trijgo9c~

ntetria BrUatmiea : and hefides the anrt in degrees and

tiundreddi parts^ has another tahk containing the mi-

•«utcs and feconds anfwering to the feveral hundrMdi

' parts in the firft column.

The TrigoHometria jfrtj/Scutlu of Vlacq contains the
logarithmic fines and tangents to 10 places of figrurest
to which is added Briws's firft table of logarmims
'from I to 2o,ooof befides the index : The whole pre-
-txded by a defcription of the tables^ and the appUcap
■tion of them to plane and fpherical trigonometry^ chief*
ly extrafked from Briggs's Ttigonomeiria Briiamtica^*
, 'ready mentioned. In 16359 Mr G^brand alfo pub-

j lifhed a work, intitled. An InfiitwtSon Tr ig om o markaff

containing the logarithms of thefird io»ooo numbers^
I ' with the natural fines, tangentSy and (ecants; afad the

logarithmic fines and tangents for degrees and minutes,
all to, feven places of figures befides the index ; like-
wife other tal)les proper for navigation, with the ufes
^ > tif the whole. Mr Gellibrand died in 1636, in the

40th year of his age.

A number of ouier people have pubhfhed books on
logarithms, which we cannot now particularly enume-
- rate. 8ome of the principal are :

1. A treatife concerning Briggs's logarithms of
^ common numbers from i to 20,000, to 1 1 places of fi-

' gures, with the logarithmic -fines and tangents but only

-to eight places, dv D. Henrion at Paris, 1626.

2. Briffgs's logarithms, with their differences to io
places of figures, befides the index for all numbers to
100,000; as alfo the logarithmic fines, tangent?, and

'fccant8;,for every minute of the quadrant, with the
explanation and ufes in Englii^. By George Miller,
'Lond. 1631*

3. Trigonometna^ hy Richard Norwood, 1^31; con-
taining Briggs's logarithms from i to 10,000, as well
as for the fines, tangents, and fecants to every minute,
'both to feveral places of figures befides the index. The
author complains very much of the unfiiir practices of
'both the former authors.

4. DtreOoriuM Generate Uranomeirkum ; by Francis
' Bonaventure Cavalerius. Bolognay 1632. In this are
'Mr Briggs's tables of logarithmic fines, tangents, fe-
cants, and vcrfed fines each to eight places of figures for

•every fecond of the firft 5 minutes, for every 5 fe-
conds from 5 to 10 minutes, for every 20 feconds from
' 20 to 30 minutes, for r^ery 30 fecond^ from 30 tninutes
*to It degree, and for every minute in the refk of the
'quadrant. It contain^ aMo ^e logarithms of -natural
"numbers from 1 to 1 0,00c, with the fhA tabic of vcrfed
-^nes that ever was pubfifhed. The -author likewiie
gives the firfl intimation of the method of finding the
arcs or fpherical fiuface contained by various arcs de-
'fcribed on the furface of a fphcrc.

J. In 1643 appealed the Trtgonomefria of 'die fame
Author, containing the logarithms of the natural ntmi-
1)crs from i to lobo, with their dilFcrcnces t6 eight
jlaces of figures ; likewife a table of natund'and k)ga-
*rithiinc fines, tangents^- and fecants*; the former to
Imn, the latter to eight, places of figures; «»» to

'1 T "H M S.

^ffttf lef' of the 4rft ^o', to arery jo^from 30" to t^
and the^mefor their cemplemeota, orbackwudsthto*
the hft degree of the quadrani ; the tntermediate 81*
1>eiog' only to eveoy minute.

6. TaknUt L^gariihnttcm; by Mr Mathiniel Rowe^ fi-
Horof Benairetn Suffolk: Lond. 1633. ^^ ^^ woik
are contained Briggs's lonrithmt of natural numbeffa

"firooi I to ioo,ooo» to eig^t places of figor^ ; likewife
4he logarithmic fines and tangenta to every Itotk paM:
of degrees to ten places.

7. Chvu Ulkiwrfa Trigonometris ; Hamburg, 1634:
containing tables of Briggs's logarithflM from t to 2000;
and of fines, tangents, and fecants, for ev^ mtnuta^
l)6th for feven places.

8« Trigottomeiria Britamuatf b^John Newton, Londof,
1658. In this the loearithmic taUes of natural num-
bers yfen reduced to Uieir moft convenient form ; thK
author having availed hirafelf of the labours of Win*
gate and Roe, uniting their feveral methods, and difpo*
fing of the whole as in the beft logarithmic tables uiet
at prefirat. It <:Qntains likewife the logaridimic fine*
and tangents to eight figvres befides the index ; for
ev<ery hundredth part of a degree, with the difiersncelt
and for- thoufandth parts in the firft three degrees.
He cenfures the unfair prafUces of ibme former puh«
Kfhers of logarithms ; particulariy of Vlacq already
mentioned.

g.Maih^s Novafhy JohnCaramnal, 1670. This coa<*
tained 1000 loearithms, both of the formsof Napier and
Briggs, as weS as 1000 of what he calls feffi& ioga*
rithmsf viz. thofe of Briggs's firft method of coofbrue-
tiott ; which differs from the laft only in this, that the
laft increafes, whilft the firft decreafes; the radix or
logarithm of the ratio of 10 to I being the very
fame in both.

10. Sherwin*s Mathematical Tables, publi/hed inSvo,
form the moft complete coUe^on of any ; containing,
befides the logarithms of all numbers to 101,000, the
' fines, tangents, fecants, verfed fines both natural and
logarithmic, to every minute of the quadrant. The
firft edition was printed in t ^06 ; but the third, pub-
ITfhed in 1 742 and revifed by Gardiner, is looked upoa
to be fuperior to any other. The fif^h and laft edi-*
tion, publifhed in 1771, is fo incorredt, that no depen-
dence can be placed upon it.

' 10. Tables of logarithms from I to 102,100, and
' for the fines and tan^rents to every lo feconds of each
degree in the quadrant ; as alfo for the fines of the
firft 72 minutes to every fingle fccond,'with other ufe-
' fill and neoeffary tables. By Gardiner, London^ 1 742.
This work contains^atable oflogiftical logarithms, and
three fmaller tables to be ufed for finding the logarithma
of numbers to 20 places of figfures. Only a Cmall noiA-
•her of thefe tables was printed, and that by fubfcrip-
tion ; and they are now in the higheft ^eem for ac-
curacy and ttfiifnhiefs. An edition of diefe tables wfs
printed at Avignon in fVancc in 1770, with the ad-^
dition of fines and tangents for every fingle fecond in
the firft four degreei^, and a fmialt table of hyperbdfe
logarithms, taken from a treatife npon fluxions by the
late Mr Thomas Sknfon^ The tables are to fcveh
places of figures, but fomewhat tefs correft %han thofe
'publifhed by Oardiner htmfelf.

11. AnAntilogarithmicCanonfoF<re)dilyfiodtng<^
number correfponding to any logarithm, was begun by

Q^a «hc

tl3

1*4

L O G A mi T H ^M S.

Seat

C^mftnic- ^e a^bnift Mr Harriot, who died in l6ai ; and
h ^^ completed by Mr Walter Warner, the editor o£ Hac-
^^^ ^riot'a workf, before 1640, but acvcr was publiflied
for want of encouragement to print it. In 1714 a
fmal^ fpecinies of fuch' a caaon appeared in the Phi-
Jofophkal Tranfa^'ons for that year by Mr Long ^
Oxfefd ; and in 1742 a complete Antilogarithmic Ca-
non appeared by Mr James Dodfon, in whldi the nun^
bers correfponding to each logarithm from i to ioo>ooo
are computed to 1 1 places of figure*.

I a. In 1783 were publiihed M. Callet's tables at
Paris ; which for the elegance of the workmanship are
much fuperior to any thing of the kind that ever ap-
peared, though their accuracy is not efteemed equtf
to that of fom6 others.. The work is a neat volume
fmall 8vo. It contaiiK» a treatife on logarithms, with
their tifes and application to variooa fdences ; as tri-
gonometry, aftronomy, and narigation 1 a table of lo-
garithms from I to 1^1,960,. with the differences ; a
table of fines and tangents for every fingle fecond of
the fir A two degrees^ ajMi &r every 10 feconds of the
reft of the .quadrant | with tables of logiiUcal and
hyperbolic Id^arithmft, and fome others for detenni-
Bing the l<»igitude at fea«>

Sect. IL Different methods of confiruSing Lo*

gariibms*

5. r. Napier's nuthod*

The logarithms firfl thought of by Lord Napier
were, not ^pted to the natural feries of arithmetical
aumbers 1,2, 3, &c. becaufe he did not then intend to
adapt them to every kind of arithmetical calcuhtion,
but only to that particular operation which had cat-
ted for their immediate conflrudtion, viz. the fborten-
. ing of trigonometrical operations : he explained the
generation of logarithms, therefore, in a geometrical
way. Both logarithms, and the quantities to which,
they corre^od, in his way> may be fuppofed to
proceed from the motion of a point ; which, if it
moves over equal fpaces ia equal tiiftes, will produce
a line increafing equaSy i^ but If^ inftead of moving
over equal fpace& ia equal times, the point, deicribes
ipaces proportional to its> diilances from, a certain
term, the line produced by it will thea increafe pro-
oortionably. Again, if the point moves over fuch
^aces ill equal times,, as^ are always ia the fame con-
ilant ratio to the Unea from which they are fubdudted,
or to the diftance of that point at the beginfung of
the lines, from a gi^ien term in that Une» the line. £>
^1*<« Yin 2^'^^'^^ ^"^ decreafe proportionably. Thus, let
^5Yv ^ be to od, cd Xq cot rf to /p, and fg to >, al-
^* * ' ways m a certain xatio, viz* that of QJR. to Q^,
and let us fuppofe the point P to iet/out from tf,
defcribiag the diftancea or^ cd^ de^ Qlc in equal fpaces
of time^ then will the line ao decreafe proportion-
ably.

In like manner,, the line oo, (fig. 12») increafes
{iroportioDally, if tixe point/, in equal times, defcribes
tke fpaces aCf cdf de^Jg^ &c. £d that ac is to ao^ cdy
fo CO, de tai^ &c. in a conibnt ratio. If we now
iuppofe a point P deicribixig the lipe AG (fig. 4.)
with an unifbrm motion, while the point/ deJScnbes a
line ificseaSng or dccrcofipg proportiooally, the line

AP, ^AeferibcdbyP, with this urifcrm motion, in the
.£uDe time that'Ctf, by increafiog orxiecreafing pro-
poitjonaUy, becomes ec^oal to ^, is the logarithm of
op. Thus AC> ADy A£, &c. are the logarithma
oc oc^ odf or, &C. sefpe^tively : and oa is the qoant^
ty whofe logarithm is f«;q>po(ed equal to nothing.

We have here abftradied from numbers, that the
do6^rine may be the more general \ but it is plain,
that if AC, AD, A£, &c. be fuppofed i, 2, 3» &c.
in arithmetic progreflion ; oc, 9d, oe^ 3cc. will be ia
geometric progremon ; and that the logarithm of oa^
which may be takea for unity, is nothing.

Lord Napier^ in his firil fcheme of logarithms, fup-
. pofes, that while op increafes or d^preafes proportion-
. aQy, the unifonn motion of the point P, Jby which the
logarithm of pp is generated, is equal to the velocity
oi p 91 a; that is, at the term of time when the loga-
rithms begin to be generated. Hence logarithms^
formed after this model, are called A^i^irrV Logarithmic
and fometimes Natural Logariibnu*

When a ratio is given, the point / defcribes the di^
ference of the terms of the ratio at the fame timc-
When a ratio is duplicate of another ratio» the point/
defcribes the difference of the terms in a double time*
When a ratio is triplicate of another, it defcribes the
difference of the terms in a triple time ; and fb on. Al-
fo, when a ratio is compounded of two or more ratios^
the point / defcribes the difference of the terms of that
ratio in a time equal to the fum of the times in which
it defcribes the differences, of the terms of. the fimple
ratios of which it is compounded.K And what is hece
£ud of the times of the motion of/ when op increafes
proportionally ,1 is to be applied to the fpaces defcribcd
by P, in. thofe times, with its uniform motion.

Hence the dnef properties of logarithms are dedo^
ced. They are the meafiires of ratios^. The excels of
the logarithm of the antecedent above the logarithm
of the confequent, meafures the ratio of thofe terms.
The meafure of the ratio of a greater quantity to a
leffer is. pofitive ; as this ratio, compounded with any-
other ratio, increafes it. The ratio of equality, conrw
pounded with any other ratio^ neither increafes nor di-
miniHies it ; and its meafure i&.nothlng. The meafure
of the ratio of a leffer quantity to a greater is ncgna-
tive ; as this ratio, compounded with any other ratio,
diminiihes it. The. ratio of any quantity A to unity»
compounded with the ratio of unity to A, produces
. the ratio of A to A« or the ratio, of equality ; and the
meafures of thofe two ratios deftroy each other when
added together ; fo that when the one is confidered aa
pofitive, the other is to be oonfidered as negative. By
fuppofing the locrarithms of quantities greater than oa
(which is fjuppo&d to rq>refent unity) to be pofitive,
and the logarithms of quantities lefs than it to be ne»
gativcr the fimie rules ferve for the operations by lo^
garithms^ idiether the quantities be g^rater or lefr thaa-
ao. When op increafes pnmortionally, the motion of/
is perpetually accelorated; for the fpaces nf, cdt dtf &c»
that are defcribed by it in any equal times that conti^
nually fuccced afUr each other, pexpejtudl; increafe ia
the fame proportion as the lineao^, oet ed^ &c. When
the point / movea from a towards o\ and •/ decreafes
proportionally, the motion of/ is perpetually retarded^
tor the i^acet defciibed by it in any equal timet that

a. II.

L O' G A R ! T H M S.

»ftruc. continually fuccecd after each ether, dccreafe in thi«
^^-^ cafe in the fame proportion as of decreafes.

If the velocity of the point f be always as the di-
ftance of, then will this line increafe or decreafe in the
manner fuppofed by Lord Napier ; and the Telocity of
the point f being the fluxion of the line ofy will al*
"ways vary in the fame ratio aa this quantity itfelf.
"FhiSy we prefumey will give a clear idea of the genefia
or nature of logarithms ; but for more of this dodrine^
fee Maclaurin's Fluxions.

The conftrudtion of liis tables of logarithms -was
firft publiihed in his pofthumous work of 1 619. The
conftrudlioR of his canon was chiefly effe^ed by gene-
rating» in an eafy manner^ a feries of proportional
numbersy and their anthmeticak or logarithms ; and
^hen finding by proportion the logarithms of the na»
tural fines from thofe of the nearefl numbers among
the original proportionals. Beginning then at the ra*
dius lOyOOOyOOOy he firft conllru^ fevend defcending
geometrical feries, of fuch a!nature that they are quicks
ly formed by an eafy addition or fiibtra£tion, or divi-
fion by 2, 1O9 10O9 &c. His firil table confifb of
proportionals in the ratio of 1 0,000,000 to 99999f999$
the method of doing which may be eafily underitood
from the following example : Suppofe it were requi-
red to find a feries of defcending proportionals in the
ratio of 100 to 99 ; it may be done by adding two
cyphers to each of the two firfl terms, and continual*
ly adding i to the decimal place fartheft to the right
hand; Thus the iiril term will be 100.00, the fecond
99.00, the third 96.01, the fourth 98.03, &c« Na-
pier's firfl table contained 100 terms of a feries, as we
already mentioned, in the proportion of 10,000,000
to 99999»999* The firft term of which feries was
10,000,000.0000000; thefecond 9,999,999.0000000;
the third was 9,999,998.0000001, and fo on till the
looth term, which was 9i999»900.ooo4950. The
fecond table coniiflcd of 50 numbers nearly in the pro«
portion of ioOiOOO to 99^999 ; and this was formed by
fubilituting the units I, 3, &c. in the third decimal
pkce inftead of the laft place towards the right hand.
The reafon of conflru^Ung this table was, that he might
have a feries in the proportion of his firft term of the for-
mer to the laft term of it, viz, of 100,000 to 99^999; and
the laft of the fecond feries* was 9995001.22 992 7.
In all thefe feries the method of finding the terms
is exadly the fame. Thus ia the firfl example, where
we begin with 100, each term decreafes by the
1 00th part of the former | and thiss 1 00th. part ia found
by removing the number two places of figures lower»
and fubfbraSing them from the former terms. Thus
99 is le& than 100 by unity^ which, ia the tooth part
ofthclaHer; the next term is left than 99 by the Looth
part of "99, and ia therefore ^8.01. But the divifioa
by 100 can be petConned wiUumt anj trauUe,. only
letting the decimal point tiro j^acea. farther forward,
as that by 10 is penonned by fetting it one placefiifc
ther forward ; thus 9H-io=rr9$ 99-rioo;=:.99. Now
by fubfera&ing 99 from 100,. we have 98.0 1 for the third
termoftheferies. Tofindthefeuithtennthen,remoTethe
decimal point two fipmaa fiucther to the right hand^and
iubtrad it from the tomei:; and we have-then 97.0299
for the fourth tenn of the feries. Thu4 wc kCf that
the mmiber of decimal, places muft contiauaHy increafe ;
but as in this fiuiea we want ao more than two decimil

125

places inftead of 97^0299, the term is made 97*03, Conftrac-
as the nearefl number which has only two decimal placesi - ^^°^
and differs from the truth only by one thoufandtlkpart r*^^" f
In like manner, in the long firing of ciphers, the fi>urtb
term of the feriei differs fomewhat, but very little, froiar
the truth : and this muft always, be the csife while the
radius is fuppofed to confift of any finite number of
parts ; though, by going on for a very long time in
this way, the error, by. being continually repeated and
augmented at every term, would at lait become percep«
tible ; and therefore none of thefe feries are carried on
to a very great lengrth.

Hii next ftep was to conftru£^ a third table, confift*
ing of 69 columns, and each column of 21 numbers or
terms in the continual proportion of loooo to 9905 ^
that is, nearly as the firft term of the fecond table into
its laft term. As this proportion is the aoooth of the
whok, the method of finding the terms will be by di-
viding each upper number by 2, and removing the figurea
of the quotient three places lower, and then fubtra£lin^
them. In this way, however, it is proper to coUe6t
only the firft column of 21 numbers, the laft of whicbb
will be SK)^^473*57^<) < ^^ ^^ ^^ fecond, and thirds
&c« numbero in all the other columns are in the continual
proportion of 100 to 99, or nearly of the firft to the;
laft in the firft column ; whence thefe are to be found
by remo^ng the figures tvro- places lower, and thea
fubtradting them, as has ahready beca explained.

By thefe three tablcH, hin lordiihip was (umifhed with
about 1600 proportional^ir nearly coinciding with all
the natural feried from 90 to jp degrees.- To obtain
the logarithms of thofe proportionals, he dcaionftrated
and applied fome of the. properties and relations of the*
numbers and logarithms $. the principal of which are#
I. That the logarithm of any fine is greater than the
difference between that .fine and the radius, but leia
than that difference when increafed in the pruportioa.
of the fine to the radius* 2.. That the difference be*
tween the logarithms of two fiaesis kfs-than the difV
ference of the fineB increafed in the proportion of the
leffer fine to the radius,»but greater than. the differenct
of the. fines increafed. in the pxoportioa of the greater
fine to the radius.. Thefe properties now ferved him
as theorems for. finding the logarithma themfelves in
an eafy. manner. From the firil of them it appeared,
that the radius being io,ooc,ooo, the firft term of the
table, the logarithm of 9>999f999« the fecond term^
muft be greater than the dift'erencc betwixt that term
and the radius,, which is. i,. but Icfa than the dif*
fierence when increafed in the proportion' of the fine
to the radius ; but this proportion is.only one ten miU
lionth part^for. 9,999,999:>< 1.0000001.=: io,ooo»ooo i;
whence the logaridim of the radius, or 10,000,000
being, o,, the logarithnL of 9»999,999>th« fecond term
will ht- between i and x^oopoooi, or very nearly
1.00000005, this being the- arithmetical mean betwixt.
I and K.D000001. Inis will alfe be the common dif-
ference hetwixt every twa fuec6eding terms in the firffc
table ; becauiie alLthcterma/therft are ia the iam^ pro**
portion of Lo,ooo,ooo to 9v999>999> Hence by the
continual addhion of this logarithm we have the loga«^
rithms of the whole feries, and therefore that of Uie
laft termof the feries nuz, 9999900*0004950 will bei
ico.oooc5.

The fecond table*, at we have alceady laidi confifta

92« L O G A R

CortOruc- of a fencs of numbers in the continual proportion of
tion rf ioooooto99999whencethefiTftt<rm being io,ooo»ooo
yg^'^.' the fecond will be 9,999,900; the diffewncc betwixt
this and the lad term of the former feries i$ .0004950*
But by the iecond theorem, the difference between
the logarithms of 9,999,900.0004950 and 9,999'»900,
the fecond tern of the fecond table, will be lefs than
•0004950, inereafed in the proportion of 99999 to
I 00000, but greatef than .0004950» increafed in the
proportion of 9,999,900.0004950; that is to fay, if
we augment .0004950 by one hundred thouiandth part,
h will be greater than the difference betwixt the ioga- '
rithms of the two terms. The limits, therefore, are
here fo extremely {inaU, that we may account the dif-
ference betwixt the two terms and that of the Ioga*
rithms themfelves the fame : adding therefore this dif-
ference .0004950 to 1 00.000005, we have roo.0005000
for the logarithm of the fecond term, and likewife for
the common difference of all the logarithms of the terms
of the fecond table. -• Again, by the fame theorem,. the
difference between the logarithms of this laft propor-
tional of the fecond table and the fecond term in the
iirft column of the third table, will be found to be
1.2235287; which added to the laft logarithm, gives
5001.2485387 far the logarithm of 9,995,060, the
fecond term of the third table: and in a fimilar manner,
by the fame theorem, he finds the logarithms of all the
other terms of the reft of the ecdumns.

Thus our author completed what he calls his radi-
cal table, horn which he found his logarithmic fines
by taking, according to the fecond theorem, the fum
and difference of each tabular fine, and the neareft num-
ber in the radical table. Annex then feren ciphers
to the difference ; divide the number by the fum, and
half the quotient will be the difference between the lo-
garithms of the tabular fine and radical number ; and
confequently, by adding or fubtrading this difference
to or from the logarithm of the natural number, we
have the logarithmic fine required.

In this manner were completed the logarithmic fines
from radius or fine of 90^ to the half of it, or fine of
30". To complete the other 30", he obferves, that
the logarithm of the ratio of 2 to I, or of one half
the radius, is 693 1469.22 ; that of the ratio of 4 to t
i<i double of it ; that of 8 to i, triple of it, Sec. ; and
thus going on to compute the logarithms of the ratio
between i and 40, 80, loo, &c. to 10,000,060: then
multiplying any given fine for an arc lefs than 30° by
fome of thefe numbers, he finds the produd nearly
equal to fome number in the table ; and then finds the
logarithm by the fecond theorem as already diredted.

Another, and much eafier method, however, of per-
forming the fame thing is fotmded upon the following
proportion, which he demonftrates, vre. that as hatf
the radius is to the fine of half an arc, fo is the co-
fme of the half arc to the fine of the -whole arc ; or
as one half the radius is to the fine of any arc, fb is
the cofinc of that, arc to the fine of double the arc.
Hence the logarithmic fine of an arc is found by add-
ing the logarithms of half the radius and the fine of
double the arc, and then fubtra^Ung the logarithmic
cofine from the fum. In this way^ he obferves .that
the fines for full one half of the quadrant may be
fou|id| and the remainder by one eafy divifioui or

I T H M S. Sefll

ndditioa »d fuhCnAioii for eadiy n AcMij direft- ^'

ed.

This wm founded itpoa principles neaily fimilar t#
that of Ni4>ier. He firft ot all ere& a fyftem of pro-
portions, and the meafiires of proportion, founded up-
on principles purely mathematical; after which he ap-
plies thefe pnnciples to the oonftm6tion of his tablct
containing only the logarithms of 1 000 numbers. Tlie
propofitions on which his method it founded are in fub*
ftance the f<dlowing«

1. All equal proportions equal amon|^ themfeKet
are exprefied by the £une quantity, be the terms many
or few ; as the proportion of 2, 4, 6, &c. In geome*
trical progrefiion u expreffed by a ; and of 2, 6, 18,

2. Hence the proportion of the extremes is com*
pofed of all the proportions of the intermediate terms t
thus the proportion of a to 8 its compounded of that
2 to 4, and of 4 to 8.

§• The mean proportional betwixt two terms di-
vides that proportion into two equal ones. Thus the
proportion between a and 32 is divided by the mean
proportional 8 into two equal proportions of 4 ; for
2 is to 8, as 8 is to 52.

4. In any number of proportionals regularly in-
creafing, the means divide the proportion of the cx«
tremes into one more than their own number. Thus, in
the feries 2, 4, 8, 16, the proportion of the extremes
2 and 16 is by Uic tnoo means 4 and 8, divided into
three proportions, via. that betwixt 2 and 4, 4 and 8»
8 and 16. In like manner, in the feries 3, 6, 18, 54,
162, 486, the proportion betwixt 3 and 486 is divided
by the four means into the five proportions of '3 to 6;
€ to 18 ; 18 to 54 ; 54 to 162 ; andi62 to 486*

5. The proportion betwixt any two terms is di^i-
fible into any number of parts, until thefe become lefs
than any afiignable quantity. Thus the proportion
of 2 to 8 is divifible, by multiplying the two together
and extracting the fquare root, into two parts by the
number 4 : by multiplying 2 and 4 together, and ex-
trailing the fquare root, and doing the fame with 4
and 8, the proportion would be divided into faur parts,

viz. 2. v^8. 4.^/32.8; or in numbers, 2 ; 2.8139 &c«

• 4 • S*^^S^ &c. : 8.

6. By drridin? the ratios in this manner, the ele-
mentary part will become at laft fo finall, that it may
be denominated by the mere difference of terms of that
element. This is evident from the diminution of the
ratios or proportions already inftanced : for the pro-
portion between 2 and 2.813 is only 1.406, &c. and
if we were to find a mean proportional betwixt 2 and
2.813, the ratio betwixt that proportional and 2 would
be much lefs. But it muft always be remembered, that
fuch evamfcent quantities, as they are called^ cannot
^ive us any condufion with abfolute exa6inef8, how-
ever they may anfwer every ufcful purpofe to us : for
it is evident that neither mean proportional nor ratio
can ever be found exaftly ; and therefore the error ac-
cumtdated in all the operations muft become very con-
fiderable, if any circumftance (hall happen to make it
appear. •

7. In three continued proportionals^ the difference
« of

k.n. L O G A R

Iruc^ of the ttrti firft has to tke 4ifiereQce between tbe
\^ two laft the fame proporttoa that the firil term has
''^to the fecondy or the iecood to the third. Thu6» in

the three terms^ 4, S^ 169 the difference between the

two firft terms 4 sod 8» 'viz* 49 is in proportion to 8 ;

and the difference between the two hfts as 4 is to 8».

ox 8 to 16.

8. In contiaaed proportionals, the greateft terms
have the greate& differences^ and vice verfom Thus
Che difference between 8 and 16 is evidently greatex^
f faaa between a and 4 or 4 and 8«

9. If the difference betwixt the two greateft terma
be made the meafuve of the proportion between them»
the difference between any two others will be lefs than
the true meafure of their pro^rtion. Thus in the,
feries 4» 2» i» t» i> &c* where the difference z betwixt
the two greateft terms expreffes their true proponion^t
if is plain, that the difference i betwixt 2 and i is lefs
than their ratio^ as wtU as between i and ^^ dec.

lo« Ip any feries of propoxtionals> if the difference
hetwixt the greateft term and one not immediately
next to it^ be taken as the meafure of the proportion^
tlieik the proportion betwixt the greateft tenn and any
<itlier greater than the term before taken, will be lefs than'
the difference of thofc terms ; but the proportion which
ia between the greateft teim and any one lefs than
that firft taken, will be greater than their difference*
As proportionals of this kind do not readily occur,
wc ihall, in order to avoid ebfcurity, ftiow once for
alls that there is a poflilMlity of finding geometrical
proportionals of fuch a nature^ that the ratio may be
equal to the difference betwixt the greateft and third,
or any other term diftant froni it. Thus let us be-
gin with any two auabera we pleafti, fiippofe ^ and
10 : though thefe are in the natural arithmetical pro»*
portion, yet if we make the rado i.i 1 1 » they will alfo
be geometrically proportional^ and the fex&s will run
thus:

I ft 2d 3d 4th 5th 6th
term term term term term term
10 : 9 L 8.099 * 7-^^9 ' 6^560 : 5-904C ^e*
Here the difference betwixt the firft and thiid terns
fc 1.901, which ia greater than the ratio ; that be»
liwixt the fecond and fourth) ris*. 1.7 ii„i» ft ill greater,
but nearer to it than the £bmer; the difierence be-
tween die third and fifth terms, riz. 1.5391 ftiU. ap*
proximates, as does that between the fou^ and fixth,
'viz. 1*385 r and indeed by continuing this feries
only for two terms longer^ the difference will become
finaller than the ratio. It is not worth while, howy
ever, to feck for fcricfes of this kind, as the prefent
propofitioQ will now be fuiEciently intelligible without
aay farther iUuftration.

11. If quantities be arranged according to the or*
der of their magnitudes, and if any two fucceffive pro*
portions of thefe be equal, the three fucceffive terms
which conftitute them will alfo be equal! Thus, if
the two quantities 12 and 8 conftitute the proportion
V, and each, of them be leffened by 6| tne half of
X2» we have the proportion 4- ; whi<di is more than
double the original proportion; for t^3x su><l' V ^

12. When quantities are placed in the order pf their
magnitudes, ii the intermediate magnitudes lying be-
tween any two terms be not among the mean proportio*

I T H M a. 127

nak which can be inteipofed'betwixt thefe two termsi, Conamc^
then thefe intermediates will not divide the proportion ^^^^^ of
of thofe two termsinto commenf arable proportions. Thus ^^^ , , ^
in the magnitudes 343 : 246 : 125 : 64 : 27 : 8, neither
of the two intermediate terms* 1 25 and 64 are mean pro*
portiomds betwixt 27 and ai^, nor do they divide the
proportion betwixt thefe into conunenfurable parts.

13. All the proportions taken iaojlter, which are
between expeeiCble terms that are in arithmetical. pro«
portion, are incommenfurable to one another ; as- be-
tween 8, 13, and i8.

X4« When quantities are placed in the order of
their magnitude, if the difference between the two^
greateft be made the nMa{ure of their proportion, the
difference between any two others will be lefs than
tlie meafure of their proportion \ and if the difference
between the two les^ terms be made the meafure of
their proportion, the differences of the reft will be

S eater than the meafure of the proportion between,
elr terms.

1.5. If the meafure of prc^ortion between the great^
eft exceed their difference^ then the proportion of this,
meafure to the difference will be le£i than that of ^
following meafure to the difference of its terms ; be<*
caufe proportionals have the lamjB ratio.

16. If three equidifferent quantitiea are taken in
ord£r, the proportion between the extremes is more
than double that betwixt the two ereater terma. Henct
it follows, that half the proportion of the extremes-
is greater than the proportion between the greateft
terms, but lefs than the proportion of the two Icaft*

17. If two quantities conftitute a proportion, and.-
each be leffened by half the greater^ the remainder will'
conftitute a proportion more than double the former.

x8« If 1000 numbers foUow one another in the na-
tural ocder, looo, 999, 998^ &c. and by continual'
multiplication and extraction of the fquare root we*
find mean proportionals, and thus hlfi&x as it is catted,,
the ratio between the two greateft, fo that the parts
into which the ratio is divided become ultimately
finaller than the excefs of proportion betwixt the next
two over the former (for 998 bears a gi-eater propor-
tion toi999 than 999 bears to 1000) ; the meafure of"
this very fmall part 6r element of the proportion may:
be fuppofed to be the difference between 1000 aB4
that mean proportional which i^ the other term of the
dement. Thus, for the fake of an eafy explanabon^ .
let us fuppofe the numbers to be 10, 9, 8,. &c. the.
ratio of 9. to 10 is i.ii, that of 9. to 8 is 1.125, ^^^
difference between which is .014, which we may cali:
the elementary part of the ratios. By fix extra6lions
of the fquare root we have the mean proportionaL
9.985, &c. differing from 10 by no more than .015^^
which is very near the element juft mentioned. The -
number of parts into which the ratio is thus divided"*
is^expreffed by the 6th power of 2 or 64. Dividing;
therefore the ratio between 9 and 10 or i.ii by 64^
we have .01 7 for the elementary part thus obtained ^
which near coincidence with the real element, and^
the difference between 10 and the mean, proportionali
itfelf, ftiow» that in large numbers we may take^'
the difference between the mean proportional and:^
greateft term for the elementary part without any fen^
£ble error.
JSuppofe now^ that the proportion, between looO'

and^

Cwrol* I. By this means other chiliads are added to
the former.

Carol. 2. Hence arifes the method of performing
the Rule-of-three, when looo is not one of the terms.
Namely, from the fum of the oneafures of the propor-
tions of looo to the iecond and third, take that of
xooo to the firft, and the remainder is the meaAirc of
the proportion of lOOO to the fourth term.

Defimtioiu The meafure of the proportion hetween
lOOO and any Icfs number, as before defcribed, and
cxprefled by a number, is fet'oppofite to that kli
number in the chiliad, and it caUed^its logaritbm^ that
is, the number .(«p<6^»c) indicating' the proportion
(\«7«y) which I GOO bears to that number, to which the
logaiidHn is annexed.

22. Prtip, If the firft or greatefl number be made
the radius of a circk, or Jinut toitu ; every kfs number
confidered as the cofine of fome arc, has a logarithm
greater than the verfed fine of that arc, bnt lefs thaa
the difference betweeo the radius and fecant of the
arc ; except only in the term next after the radius, or
greateft term, the logarithm of which by the hypo-
thefis is made equaito the verfed fine.

That is, if CD be made the loga-
rithm of AC, or the meafure of the v
proportion of AC to AD ; then the ^
meafure of the proportion of AB
to AD, that is, the logarithm of
AB, will be greater than BD, but
lefs than £F. And this is the fiune A BCD
as Napier's firft rule in page 44.

23. Prop. The fame things being fuppofed ; the fom
of the Terled fine and exceto of the fecant over the ra-
dius, is greater than double the logarithm of thd co-
fine of an arc.

Corol, The logarithm cofine is left than the arith^
metic mean between the verfed fine and the exceia of
the feoant*

Prtcepi I. Any fine being found in the canooof
fines, and its defeft below radius to the exceft of the
fecant 8d>ove radius ; then (hall the logarithm oi the
fine be left than half that fum, but greater than the
faid defeft or coverfed fine*

nS LOGARITHMS. Sefl.

Cenfbiic- and 998 be divided into twice the number of parts firft to the fecond as the third to the fourth, and the €a±
l-6^*"rfiL *^*^ former was, It will be -equally plain that the proportions of 1000 to each of the three former are ^«
^^ 'difference betwixt 1000 and the next mean proper- known, there will alfo be known the proportion of^
tional will be the meafure of that element. Proceed- looo to the fourth number,
ing in like manner with the other numbers 1000 and
997, 1000 and 996, &c. it is evident, that by divi«
duig into a proper number of parte, aD the elements will
be reduced to an equal degrree olijmtnefs^ if we may fo
call it, and in calcidationa may be made ufe of without
any fev of error.

19. The number of elementary parts being thus
known which are contained in any proportion, it will
be cafy to find the ratios between thofe numbers which
are 'in continued proportion to the firft term of the
fcries. Thu^ having faund the proportion between
1000 9Uid 900,

we know alfo that of jooo to 810, and 729 ;
And from looo to 800, aHb 1000 to 640, and to 5 1 2 ;
And from 1000 to 700, aUb lOOO to 490, and to 343 \
And firom 1000 to 600, alfo 1000 to 360^ and to 2 16;
And from 1000 to 500, alfo icxx> to 250, and to 125.
CoroL Hence arifes the precept for Squaring,
cubing, 5cc. ; at ^o for extrafUng t^e fquare root^
"Cube root, Stc; out of the firft figures of liumbers. For
it win be. As the greateft number of the chiliad as a
denominator, is to the number propofed as a numera-
tor, fo is this to the fquare of the fraftion, and fo is
this to the cube.

20. Prop. The proportion of a number to the firft,
or 1 000, being known ; if there be two other numbers in
the fame proportion to each other, then the proportion
of one of thefe to 1000 bein? known, there wiU alfo
be known the proportion of the other to the fame
-1000.

Cwoh I. Hence from the 15 propoyticMis mention-
ed in prop. 1 8. will be known 120 others below loop,
to the fame looo.

For fo many are the proportions, equid to feme one
or other of the laid 15, that are among the other in-
teger numbers vi^ich are left than icoo.

CoroL 2. Hence arifes the method of treating the
Rule-of-Three, when 1000 is one of the given terms.

For this is effe^bed by adding to, or fabtm£ting
from, each otfier, the meafures of the two proportions
of .1000 to each of the other two given numbers, ac-
cording as 1000 is, or is not, the firft term in the
Hule^f-three.

^u Pfxf* When four numbers are propo rt ional, the

jLot there be the fine 99970-1490 of an arc ;

jEu defed below radius is 29.8510 the covers, and left than logarithm fine }

Add the exceft of the fecant ^9-8599

Sum 59.7109
Its half or 29.8555 greater than the logarithm,

Thwefore the fegarithm is between { ^9-85 10 and

Precept 2. The logarithm of the fine being found,
you will alfo find nearly the logarithm of the round or
integer number whi<;h is next left than your fine with
a fraction, by adding that fractional exceft to the lo-
garithm of the faid fine.

Thus the log^thm of the fine 99970. 149 is found
to be about 29.854 ; if now the logarithm of the round

W184.

number 99970,000 bereqr.ired, add 149 the fndioiid

part of the fine to its logarithm, obferving the pointf

thus, 29.854 ^

1 49 r is the logarithm of the round nun*

— r^ber 999700.000 nearly.

the fum 30.003 J

24. Pr€fkQ£ three equidifierent quantities, the m^

fttic

LII.

L O G A

s
A

111

1 C D

■ ft

bed

^ve- fufe of the proportion between the two greater terBi8»
° ^ with the meaUire of the propertioa betw«ea the two
" *^Ief6 terms^ will conftitute a proportion which will be
greater^than the proportion of .the two greater temif»
but left than the proportion of the two leaft. ^

Thus if AB, AC, AD, be three
quantities having the equal differeneea
BC, CD ; and if the meafure of the
proportion s>t AD, AC be cd, and
that of AC, AB, be be ; then the
|iropprtion of cd to cb will be great-
er than the proportion of AC to
AD, but lefs than the proportion of
AB to AC.

a^. Prop>, The (aid proportion between the two
meafures i« leia than half the proportion betweep the
extreme terma : that is, the proportion between bct
cd, is lefs than half the proportion between AJB, AD.
C^rol* Sii^ee therefore the arithmetical mean divides
the proportion into unequal parts, of which the one is
greater and the other lefs than half the whole ; if it
be enquired what proportion is between thefe propor-
tions, the anfwer is, that it is a little le& than the (aid
half.

R I T H M S: it9

the proportion between 199.80 and io6\bc be greater CmAnns

than the proportioo between 1060 and foty but left <^ ^

than the proportioo between 1000 and 500.

Coroim I. Any number below the firft itooo being
propoiedt as alfo its logarithm ; the diflferences of any
logarithms antecedent to that propofed, towards the
beginning of the chiliad, are to the firft logarithm
(vit. that which ia affigned to 999) in a greater pro^
portion than 1000 to the number propolod ; but of
thofe which f<^ow towards the laft bganthm, they ait
to the dune in a le(s proportion.

CaroL 2. By this means the places of .the chiliad
may eafily be nlled up, which have not yet had loga^
rithms adapted to them by the former prl»po(itioas.

17. Pr9f» The difference of two lo^rarithms, adapt-
ed to two adjacent numbers, is to the difference of thefe
numbers in a proportion greater than 1000 bears to
the greater of thofe numbers, but le(s than that of 1000
to the lefs of the two numbers.

This 27th propofition is the fame as Napier's feconA
rule.

28. Prop. Having given two adjacent numbers o^
the 1000 natural numbers, with their logarithmic in-
dices, or the meafures of the prpportions which thofe

An exMifk tffiuSt^ nearfy the Bmittf junatnr and abfolute or round numbers conftitute with 1000 the
lefif to the met^an tfwny fmpofed fnfortioH,^lt be* ^ateft ) the increments or differences of thefe loga-
ing known that the m&Sme of the proportion be* rithms will be to the logarithm of the fmall element

of the proportions, as the fecants of the arcs whofeco-
(ines are the two abfolute numbers is to the greatefl:
number, or the radius of the circle : fo that, however^
of the £ud two fecants, the kfs will have to the radius
a le(s proportion than the propofed difference has to
the iirft of all, but the greater will have a greater pro*
portion, and fo alfo wiQ the mean proportional between
the faid fecants have a greater proportion.

Thus if BC, CD be equal, alfo hd
the logarithm of AB» and cd the Io«
garithm of AC i then the proportion

tween 1000 and 900 is iof$6.o$9 required the mea^
fure of the proportion 900 to 8009 where the terms
1000, 900, 800, have equal differences. Therefore as
9 to 10, fo 10536.05 to 1 1706.72, which is lefs than
1 1 778.30, the meafure of the proportion 9 to 8. Again,
as the mean proportional between 8 and 10 (which is
8.9442719) is to 10, fo 10536.05 to 1 1779.66, which
is greater than the neafutt of the proportion between
9 and 8.
Aichtiu Every number denotes an czpreffible quan-

26. Pnf. If the 1000 numbers, differing by 1, foU of^torJwiU be greater than the

low one another in the natural orders and there be proportion of AG to ADj but lefs

taken any two adjacent numbers, as the terms of fome than that of AF to AD, and alfo

proportion ; the mea&re of this proportion will be to left .than that of the mean proper-^

the meafiire of the proportion between the two greateff tional between AF and AG to AD.
terms of the chiliad, m a proportion greater than that C«W. i. The fame obtains alfo when the two terms .

which Ae greateft term 1000 bears to the greater of differ, not only by the unit of the fmall clement, but by

the two terms firft taken^ but lefs than the jpropor- another unit which may be ten fold, a hundred fold, or

tion of 1000 to the lefs of the (aid two fdeded athoufand fold of that,
terms. Carols 2. I^ence the differenees w31 be obtained fuf->

So of. the xooo numben taking any two fucceffive ficiently exaft, efpecially when the abfolute numbers

terms, as 501 and 500, the logarithm of the former be- are pretty large^ by taking the arithmeucal mean be-

ing 691 14.92, and of the latter 69314.72, the diffe- tween two fmall fecants, or (if you will be at the la-

rence of which is 199.80. Wherefore by the defini^ bouJ') by taking the geometrical mean between two

tion, the meafure of the proportion between 501 and higer fecants, and then by continually adding the dif-

BCD

500 is 199.80* In like manner, becaufc the logarithm
of the greateft tern^ 1000 is o, and orthe next 999 ia
100.05, the difference of thefe logarithms, and the
meafure of the proportion between 1 000 and 999, is

ferences, the logarithms will be produced.

Cor^i. 3. Precept, Divide the radius by each term
of the affigned proportion, and the arithmetical mean
(or ftill nearer the geometrical mean) between the quoi»

100.05. Couple now the greateft tenn 1000 with tients will be the required increment, wHch being add

each of the felcAed terms 501 and 500 ; couple alfo ed to the lowithm of the greater term, will give tht

the meafure 199.80 with themeafure xoo*05 1 fo fhall logarithm of the lefs term.
VoL.X-PartL

'^ Example*

13©

Conftrue-

tMMlof

Logarithmi

L O G A

t H M S.

R I

Example.

Let there be given the logarithm of 70O9 viz. 35667.49489 to find the logarithm to 699.

Hereradiu} divided by 700 gives 142857I9 Sec.
and divided by 699 gives 14306729 &c.
the arithmetic mean is 142.963
which added to 35667.494S

gives the logarithm to
CoroL 4« Precept for the logarithms of fines.
The increment between the logarithms of two fines
is thus found : find the geometrical mean between the
cofccantSy and divide it by the difference of the fines,
the quotient will be the difference of the logarithm?.

ExAltPLB.

a> i' fine 2909 cofec 3437746S2

o 2 fine 5818 cofec 171887319

dtf. 2909 geom. mean 2428 neariy.

The quotient 80000 exceeds the required incre«
ment of the logarithms, becauTe the fecants are here
fo large.

Appendix. Nearly in the fiune manner it may be
Ihown, that the fecond differences are in the duplicate
proportion of the firft, and the third in the duplicate
of the fecond. Thus, for inftance, in the beginning of
the logarithm?, the firft difference is loo.ooooo, viz.
equal to tlie difference of the numbers looooo.ooooo
and 99900.00000 ; die fecond, or difference of the dif-
ferences, 1 0000; the third 20. Again, after arriving
at the number 50000.00000, the logarithms have for
a difiercnce 200^00000, which is to the firil difference
as the number 1 00000.00000 to 50000.00000 ; but
tlie fecond difference is 40000, in which loooo is con*
tained four times ; and the third 328, in which 20 is
contained fixtcen time.-*. But fince, in treating of new
matters, we labour under the want of proper words,
where£bre, left we (hould become too obfcure, the de-
mon flration is omitted untried.

29. Prop. No number expreffes exa^y the meafure
of the proportion between two of the 1000 numbers
conftituted by the foregoing method.

30. Prop. If the meafures of all proportions be ex-
preffed by numbers or logarithms ; all proportions will
not have afiigned to them their due portion of meafure,
to the utmoii accuracy.

31. Prop. If to the number 1000, the greateft of
the chiliad, be referred others that are greater than it,
and tlie logarithm of 1000 be made o, the logarithms
belongIj9g to thofe greater numbers will be negative.

Thia concludes the firft or fcientific part of the
work ; the principles of which Kepler applies, in the fe-
cond part, to the adlual conftrudtion of the firff 1000
logarithms, which is pretty minutely defcribed. This
part is intitled Avery compeuiTtaus method of coti/lruQing
the Chiliad of Logarithms s and it is not improperly fo
called, the method being very concife and eafy. The
fundamental principles are briefly thefe : That at the
beginning of the logarithms, their increments or diffe-
rences are equal to thofe of the natural numbers : .that
the natural numbers may be confideredas the decreafing
cofines of increafing arcs : and that the fecants of thofe
^ arcs at the beginning have the lame differences as the
cofines, and therefore the fame differences aj the loga-
rithms. Then, fince the fecants are the reciprocals of
the cofines, by thefe principles and the third corol. to
the twenty-eighth propofition, he eftablKbea the fd-

699 35810.4568

lowinff method of conftitnting the icx3 firft or fmalld
loganthms to the 100 lareeff numbers, 1000, ^99,
998, 997, &c. to 900, viz. Divide the radius locc, b
creafed with feven ciphers, by each of thefe nicrbei
feparately, difpofing the quotients in a table, and thri
will be the fecants of thofe arcs which have the dirifn
for their cofines ; continuing the divifion to tiie Sv:
figrure, as it is in that place only that the arithmetioi
and geometrical means differ.. Then, by adding fr-
ceffively the arithmetical means between every tvD L-
cefiive fecants, the fums will be the feries of loganthiri.
Or, by adding continually every two fecants, the k'
cefiive fuma wiH be the feries of the double Icp-
rithms.

Befides thefe 100 logarithmi thus conftnided, ^
conffitutes two others by continual bife^on or ciiX'
tions of the fquare root, after the manner defcnV^b
the fecond poftulate. And firft he finds the logamr
which meafures the proportion between iooooc.cc n:
97656.25, which latter term is the thinl propoitioiy
to 1024 and 1000, each with two cyphcn ; aod tiisi
cffe6led by means of tweaty-four continual extndioo
of the fquare root, determining the greateft ttm ^
each of twenty-four daffes of mean proportionals ; tbu
the difference between the greateft of thefe means ui
the firft or whole number xooo, with ciphen, ha:;
as often doubled, there arifes 2371.6526 fi>rtkIog>;
rithm fought, which made negative is the loganthmtf
1024. Secondly, the like procefii is repeated for tlf
proportion between the numbers 1000 and 500, fna
which arifes 69314.7193 for the lonrithm of 50c;
which he alfo catts the logarithm of duplication} b^
ing the meafure of the proportion of 2 to i.

Then from the foregoing he derives all theotbr
logarithms in the chiliad, beginning with-thofc of t^
pnme numbers i, 2, 3, 5, 7, &c. in the firft lo^
And firft, fince X024, 512, 256, 128,64, Sh^^^'
4, 2, I, are all In the continued prc^ortion of icocti
500, therefore the proportion of 1024 to I isdccu;^
of the proportion of 1000 to 500, and confeqtf^i;
the logarithm of i would be decuple of the logaritn?
of 500, if o vrerc taken as the logarithm of 1024; l^*
fince the logarithm of 1024 is applied negative!)') '^
logarithm of i muft be diminifhed by as much : ^•'
nilhing therefore 10 times the logarithm of 50c, ^i"-^
IS 693147.1928, by 2371.6526, the remain^"
690779.5422 Is the logarithm of i,orof 100,0^^^^

is fet down In the table.

Logarithmi-

230258.51-1'
4605 1 7'C^^''

921034.^5^'
1 15 1 292-5"^'

»38'55'-^+tl
i6iiBc9-59V

Nos.

And becaiife i, lo, 100,
1000, are continued proportion-
als, therefore the proporrion of
1000 to I i& triple of the pro-
portion of 1000 to 100, and
confequently-J-ofthe logarithm
of I is to be put for the loga-
rithm of 100, viz. 230258.5 141, i.oooi
and this is alfo the logarithm of
decupllcation, or of Uie proportion of 10 to i*

100

10
I

• I
•01
001

And

II. L O G A R

^«- hence mtJtiplyinff thi» logarithm of loo fucceffivdy by

hm»*» 3» 4» ^» "» *"^ 7» ^^^'^ arifc the logarithms to the
^ 'numbers in the decuple proportion, as under.
Alfo if the logarithm of

I* T H M S.

"31

•%

duplication, or of the propor-
tion of 2 to 1, be taken from
the logarithm of i, there will
remain the logarithm of 2 ;
and from the logarithm of 2 of c to i

Log. of 1
of 2 to I

log, of 2
log. of lO

^93'4>7'93l

log. of 5

621460.8229
460517.0281

60943.7948

529831.7474

taking the logarithm of 10,
there remains the logarithm
of the proportion of 5 to i ; which taken from the lo-
garithm of I , there remains the logarithm of 5. See
the margin.

For the logarithms of other prime numbers, he has
recourfc to thofe of fome of the firft or greateft cen-
tury of numbers, before found, viz. of 999, 998, 997,
«cc. And firft, taking 960, whofe logarithm is
4082.2001 ; then by adding to this logarithm the lo-
garithm of duplication^ there will arife the feveral lo-
garithms of all thcfc numbers, which are in duplicate
proportion continued from 960, namely 480, 240, 1 20,
60, 30,' 15. Hence the logarithm of 30 taken from
the logarithm of 10, leaves the logarithm of the pro-
portion of 3 to i ; which taken from the logaritlim of
1 , leaves the logarithm of 3, via. 580914.3 106. And
the double of this diminiftied by the logarithm of i,
gives 47 'o, 53.0790 for the logarithm of 9.

Next, from the logarithm of 990, or 9 X 10 X 11,
which is 1005.0331, he finds the lo^rithm of 11 ;
namely, fubtrad the fum of the logarithms of 9 and
10 from the fum of the logarithm of 990, and double
the* logarithm of 1, there remains 450986.0106 thc-

logarlthm of 1 1 .

Again, from the logarithm of 980, or 2 X 10 X 7
X 7, which is 2020.271 1, he finds 496184.5228 for
the logarithm of 7.

And from 5129.3303 the logarithm of 950 or
5 X lo X 19, he finds 396331.6392 for the logarithm

of 19.

In like manner the logarithm

to 998 or 4 X 1 3 X 19, gives the logarithm of 1 3 ;

to 969 or 3 X ^ 7 X 19, gives the logarithm of 1 7 ;

«o 986 or 2 X 1 7 X 29, gives the logaritlim of 29 ;

to 966 or 6 X 7 X 23, gives the logarithm of 23 j

to 930 or 3X10X31, gives the logarithm of 31.
And fo on for all the primes below 100, and for
many of the primes in the other centuries up to 900.-
After which he dirc6b to find the logarithms of all
numbers compofed of thefe, by the proper addition and
fubtra^kion of their logarithm$, namely, in finding the
logarithm of the produ6k of two numbers, from the
fum of the logarithms of the two faAors take the lo-
garithm of I, the remainder is the logarithm of the
produ.a. In this way he fhowa, that the logarithms of
all numbers under 500 nmy be derived, except thofe
of the following 3 6 numbers, namely 127,149, 167,173,
179, 211, 223, 251, 257, 263, 269, 271, 277, 281,
283, 293, 337f 347» 349» 353» 359» Z^l* 373> 379*

383, 389^ 397» 4^W 409* 419* 42'> 43'» 433> 439»
443, 449. Alfo, befides th« compofite numbers be-
tween 506 and 900, made up of the produAs of fome
numbers whofe logarithms have been before determin-
ed, there will be 59 primes not compofed of them ;
which with the 36 above mentioned make 95 num<

bers in all not compofed of the produfts of any before Conftnio>
them, and the logarithms of which be direds to be de- . '**«>.*^
rived in this manner ; namely, by confidering the dif- ^^ "^
ferences of the logarithms of the numbers interfperfed '

among them ; then by that method by which were
conftituted the differences of the logarithms of the
fmallefl: 100 numbers in a continued feries, we are to
proceed here in the difcontinued feries, that is, by
prop. 28th, coroL 3d, and efpecially by the appendix
to it, if k be rightly ufed, from whence thofe diffe-
rences will be very eafdy fupplied.

§ 3. Mr BriggtU MdM.

The methods principally made ufe of by thisgentle*
man were publifhed in Napier'a pofthumous woric. Ha-
ving fuppofed o to be the logaritlun of i, and i with
any number of ciphers annexed, fuppofe 10 to be the
logarithm of 10, this number is to be divided ten
times by 5, which in a logarithmic number is equiva-
lent to the extraction of the root of the fifth power ;
1^ which mean& he obtains the following numbers,
VIZ. 2 with nine ciphers to it ; 4 with eight ciphers ;
8 with feven ciphers; 16 with iiL ciphers; 32 with
five ciphers; 64 with four; 128000, 25600, 5120,
and 1024. Dividing this lait logarithm ten times by
2, we have a geometrical feries of ten numbers ; tlie
firft of which is 512, and the laft i. Thus 20 loga-'
rithms are obtained : but the labour of finding tlie
numbers belonging to them is fo cxceffivc, that it is fur-
prifing how it could be undergone by any body. 1 o -
obtain thofe corrcfponding to the firft ten logarithms,
the fifth root muft be extraded ten times, and the
fquare root as often, to obtain the numbers corrcfpond-
ing to the others. The power from which thefe ex-
tractions is made, muft originally be i , with a number
of ciphers annexed. Other logarithms might be form-
ed from thefe by adding them, and multiplying their
corrcfponding numbers ; but as this method, befides
its excciilvc labour, would produce only an aniilqgarhh'
mic canon like that of Mr Dodfon idready mentioned,
other more eafy and proper methods were thought of.

The next was by finding continually geometrical .
means, firil between 10 and i, and then between 10
and that mean, and fo on, taking the arithmetical
means between their correfpondiftg logarithms. The
operation is alfo facilitated by various properties of
numbers and their logarithms, as that the produ^sand
quotients of numbers correfpond to the fums and dif-
ferences of their logarithms ; that the powers and
roots of numbers anfwer to the pi^u6b and quotients
of the logarithms by the index of the power or root*
Thus having the logarithm of 2, we can have thofe of
4, 16, 256, &c. by multiplying the logarithms by 2,
and fquaring the numbers to as great an extent in that .
feries as we pleafe. If we have alfo that of 3, we can
not only have th«fe of 9, 81, 8561, &c. but of 6, j8«
27, and all poffible produ£ks of the powers of 2 and
3 into one another, or into the numbers themfelves*
The following property may alfo^e of ufe, viz. that
if the logarithms of any two numbers are given, and
each number be raifed to the power denoted by the
index of the other, the produfb will be cquaL Thus»
Log. Q I 2 3 4 5 6

Nat. numb. 1 2 4 8 16 32 64
Let the two numbers be 4 and 16 i it is plain, that if

R » wc

,34 LOGARITHMS. Sed^

QbikAnic- wen3e4to t&e.feurth power and i6 tothefiiuvej its number of plaoet ought to gite the loiprkhm of ^;

^**.^ the pit>du6b wiU be the fame ; for i6Xi6 =256,aQd and accoiding to the rule already laid down, /bould

togmrithim ^y^^ 1 5 . 15x4=64; and 645(4=1 256. • contain ei^ht places of figured: but by reafon of the
' " Another method mentioned by Mr Brigga depends cipher which Hands in the fecond place* it xa eafy to
«pon this property, that the lograrithm of amy number fee that it muft contain only feveo ; which therefore
in this fcale is i le& than tlie number of places or £• gives feven for the logarithm of four. The logarithzn
gtires contained in that power of that number whofe of 16 is then exprefTcdby the number of places of ii«
exponent is the logarithm of lo, at leait as to integral gures in tlie produ6k of the 2Ctk power of 2 into it-
numbers ; for Mr Briggs has ftiown that they really (elf ; and is therefore denominated by 1 3. That of
differ by a fra^on. To this Mr Hutton adds the fol- 256 is denoted by the 80th power of 2, conUtoing 25
lowing ;. viz. that of any two numbers, as the gpreater is phces of figture8« The logarithm of 2, therefore, having
to the lefs, fo is the velocity of the increment or decre- been already exprefi'ed by the icth power of 2, will be
ment of the logarithms at the greater ; " that is (fays again exprenedl>y the locth power. Adding, there-
by), in our modem notation, asX. Y : jr •* x; where fore, the numberof places contained in the Soth power,
X and y are the fluxions of X and Y. viz, 2$ to 7, the number of places contained in the 2oth«
In the treatife written upon the conftruAion of loga- we have 32 for tlie next expreifioo of that logarithm,
rithms by Mr Briggs himfelf, he obfervcs, that they On account of the cipher which ibmds in the fecoud
may be conftruded cliiefly by the two methods already place of one of tlie fadors, however, we mull deducl
mentioned, concerning which he premifes feveral lem- one from the number ; and thus we have 3 1 for the
mata concerning the powers of numbers and their in* logarithm of 2, which is a confidcrable approximation.
dices, and how many places of figures are in the pro- Proceeding in this manner, at tiie loobth power of 2»
du6ts of numbers. He obferves, that thefe products We have 302 for the logarithm of 2 ; at the 4 o.occth
will confid of as many figures as there are in both fac- power we have 301 1 ; at the ioo,oocth power, 30103 ;
tors, unlefs the firli figures in each fadtor be expreiTed at the i, 000,000th, we have 301030 ; and at the
in one figure only, which fometimes happens, and then 10,000,000th power, we obtain 3010300 ; which is
there will commonly be one figure lefs in the produd as exad as is commonly expreiTed in the tables of lo-
than in the two hAon. He obferves alfo, that if in garithms ; but by proceeding in the fame manner we
any feries of geometricals, we take two terms, and raife may have it to any degree of exadnefs we pleafe. Thus»
one to the power denoted by the index of the other, at the 100,000,000th power, we have 3.0103000 $ and
or any number raifed to the power denoted by the loga- at the i ,000,000,000th, the logarithm is 30 1 029996^
rithm of the other, the produd will be equal to this hitter true to eight places of figures.

number raifed to the power denominated by the loga* The only difficulty in this method is to find the

fithm of the former. Hencc,if one of the numbers be 10, number of places of figures in the different powers

whofe logarithm is i with any number of cyphers, then without multiplying them ; but this may be detenni-

any number raifed to the power whofe index is the lo- ned by only multiplying the firft five ; or even the fiift

garithm of that number, that is, the logarithm of any three of the produ^s will be fufficient to determine

number in this fcale where i is the logarithm of i o, this; and the logarithms may thus be found witk

; is the index of that power of io> which is equal to the very great facility.

» given number. But the index of any integral power When the logarithms, however, are required to &

It of 10 is one lefs than the number of places of figures very gpreat degree of exadnefs, our author thinks that
It contains. Thus the fquare of 10, or 100, contains the method of mean proportionals is moft eligible,
three places of figures, which is more by one, than 2 This confifls in finding a great number of mean pro-
the index of the power; 100c, the cube of . 10 con* portionals betwixt i and the number propofed; that
tains four places, which is one more than the index, 3^ is, firft extm&ing the fquare root of the number it-
of the power.. Hence as the number of places of the fclf, then extradling the root of that root, 6cc. until
powers of • o are always exaftly one more than, the in- the laft root ihaU exceed i only by a very fmall de-
dices of thofe powers, it follows that the places of fi- cimaL Finding then the logarithm of this number
gures in the powers of any other number which is no by methods lieieafter to be defcribed, he mukipliea
integral power of i^, will not always be exadiy one it by the index of the power of 2, demoted by the
lefs in number than, the indices of the powers. Front number of extra Aions. of the fquare root ; and the re-
thefe two properties is deduced the following rule (at fult is the nquired logarithm, of the given number,
finding the logarithms of many prime numben» Iq this method, the number of decinud places contain-
Find the loth, looth^ loooth, or any otherpower cd in the hit ;root oi^t to be double the number of
of a Bumbeiv fuppofe 2, with the number of phoea oi true places required in die logarithm, itfelf, and the
figures in it, tl^a that number of figures (hafl ahvaya fixft balf of them ought to be cyphers ; the integer be-
exceed the logarithm, of 2, although the excefs will* be ing x. To find out the firft finall niunber and its fo-
conftantly lefs than f ;,. whence by proceeding to very garithm, our author begins with 10 and its logaritlim.
Ughr jpowers we will at laft- be abk to obtain the Vogar- i \ continually extra£dng the root of the former, and
ttChm of the number to great exadnefik bi£e6ting the hitter,. tiU he cornea to the 54th. root^
Thus, the logarithm of 2, found by other methods,, and' then finds, that at the 53d and 54th roota both.
k known to> be 30102999566389, &c. The tenth natural numbers and logarithms bear the fiuae pro-
of^er of 2 ia 1024 ^ which containing four placea of portion to each other, viz. that of a. to I. Thtts».
figures, gives 4 for the logarithm of 2, which exceeds " Numbers,
it, though not quite by i. The 20th power of 2, 5311 .00000,00000^)0000,1 55 63^i9S6k40o64,7o
•onfifting of the icth power multiplied into it&lf,.bf S4ti«oooocpoo€OtOoooo»U7Si^i493,soojs,35

uta, II.

Conil: uc«
tioi) •£
fOgaruhmt

LOG

iiogiritiuiifi

55|o.ooooo.ooooopoooo,i 1 101,43094,615x5,65404

54io^ooo«^ooooo,ocooop555 1 ,1 1 5 i 4,3 1 is 7 1^^ 70a

If now by eontmual extxa^on and bt£^oa we find
any other final! number, it vnH then be» a« 127811
&c. is to 555 1 1 &c. fo 13 that other fhiall dedoud to
the correfpondent l&gnificant figures of its logarithni.
To avoid, however, the ezcewe labour of fuch long
mnltiplics^otts and dlvifions, he reduces this ratip to
another, the antecedent of which is i. Thus, as
12781, &c. is to 5551, &:c. fo is I with as many ci»
phers annexed as precede the logarithms above men-
tioned, viz. 15, with another unit annexed to a 4th
number, which will be the fignificant figures of the loga-
rithm of the third term. The proportions then will be

13.711 t'(rc. : 5;;i ^c. : : i.oi>ooo,ooooo,ooooo,i : 4341944^1903x51804:

this laft number, with 1 7 ciphers prefixed, being the lo-
garithm of the one immediately preceding it. Having
therefore found by continual extra{lion any fuch fmaS
decimal as the above, multiply it by 43429 &c. and
the produ^ will be the correfponding logarithm of
the bil root.

Still, as the labour of fa many extradions muft be
intolerably tedious, it became neceifary to fall upon
fome contrivances to fhorten fuch operations ; and of
thcie the following is an example.

Let the number of which we fcek the logarithm
be involved to fuch an height that the index of the
power may be one, with either one or more dphera
next to it. Divide this power then by i with as many
ciphers annexed 'as. .the power has fignificant figures
^ner the fird ; or, fuppofing all the figures after the
ia*il to be decimals, the roots are extra^ed continually
from this power, till the decin\al becomes fufHciently
fmall, as when the firll 15 places are ciphers; then,
multiplying the decimal by 43429, &c. we have the
logarithm of this laft root ; which logarithm, m^ltiplied
by the like power of tlie number 2, gives the loga-
rithm of the firil number of which the extraction was
begun. To tliis logarithm if we prefix i, 2, 3, &c.
according as this number was found by dividing the
power by 10, 100, 1000, &c« and lalUy, dividing the
refult by the index of that power, the quotient will
be the required logarithm Qf the . given prime num-
ber.

Thus to find by this method the logarithm of 2,
Raife it firft to the loth power, which is 1024 ; then
cutting off for \iecimals the laft three figures, we' con-
tinually extrad thefquare root from I1O24 fbrty-feven
times, which gives

T.00000,00000,00000,16851,60570,53949,77 J the
decimal part of which multiplied by 43429, &c. gives
o.ooooo,QOOoo,ooooo^o75i8»55936,90623»9368 for
its logarithm, which ''being continuaBy doubled 47
times, or multiplied at once by the 47th power of 2,.
m. 140737488355328, gives for the logarithm of the
number 10240.01029,99566,3981 i,95265^27744,true
to 17 oc x8 placet of decimals; then prefixing, to this.

A R I T H M S.

T^3%

number 3, becaufethe divifion was made by 1000 (for Cotiftnw>
cutting off the three places of decimals^ is the fame as ^^^^-^.
dividing by 1000), we have for the logarithm of 1024, "^"'
|.o 1 0299566, &c» as above. Laftly, dividing by ro,
becaufe 1024 is the loth power of 2, we have the hs*
garithm of 2 itfelf ; viz. 0.30102, &c.

The involving of any number to a very high powet
is by no means a matter of fuch difficulty as might
at firft fight be imagined. A number multiplied by
itfelf produces ihcfyuare ; the fquare multiplied by it-
fdf produL^es the biquadrate ; the biquadratc multiplied
by itfelf gives the eighth power, and the eighth
power multiplied by the fquare produces the tenth.
The tenth power multiplied by itfelf .gives the 20th,
and the 20th multiplied by itfelf the 40th. The
eighth power divided by the original number gives
the feventh ; and the 40th power multiplied by the
feventh gives the 47th power required.

The differential method of conftruding logarithms
was likewife invented by our author, and greatly
ihertens the labour of findin? the mean prop<Mtionals«
Mr Briggs, in the courfe of his calculations, had ob-
ferved, that thefe proportionals, found by continual
extra^on of roots, gradually approach nearer and
nearer to the halves of the preceding root ; and that
as many fignificant figures as there are cyphers before-
them, agree exactly in this proportion. Subtradting
therefore each of thefe decimal parts, which he called
A, dr the firft differences, from half the next preced-
ing one, and by comparing together the remainders
or fecond differences, called B, he found that the fuc»
ceeding were always nearly equal to | of the next pre-
ceding ones ; then taking the difference between each
fecond difference and ^ di the preceding oue, he found,
that thefe third differences, called C, were nearly in th^^
continual ratio of 8 to 1 ; again taking the difference
between cuch C and -jr of the next preceding^ he found
that thefr: fourth differences, called I>, were nearly in
the continual ratio of 16 to i ; and fo on, the 5th (£),
6th (F), &c. differences, being, nearly in the conti-
nual ratio of 3 2 to I, of 64 to I, &c. : theiie pkin
obfervations being made, they very naturally and
clearly fuggefted to him the notion and method of con*
ftrudtiug all the remaining numbers from the diffe-
rences. of a few of the firft, found, by extracting the
roots in the ufual way. This will evidently appear
from the annexed fpecimen «f a few of the firft num-
bers in the laii examf^e for finding the logarithm of 6 1«
where after the 9th number the reft are fuppofed to
be conftru^ed from the preceding, differences of each*,
as here fhovn in the loth and nth. And it is evi-
dent that, in proceeding,, the tfouble will become al- ■
ways kfs and lefs ; the differences gradually vaniihing,^
tail at laft on^ the firft differences remain. And that,
generally eacL leis difference ia fhorter than the next
greater, by as many places as there are cyphers at the
beginnihg of the decimal in the number to be genera-^^
ted from.the differences..

»,co; 76,^6:.

>34

Conftrue- j
tion of j

*mm

3
4

LPGA

1^00776,96

i»oo387,72853,36962,456tf3,»4655,i
1,00193,67661,36946,61675,87022,9
1,00096,79146,39099,01728,89072,0
1,00048,38402,68846,6.2985,49253, 5

R I

T H M S.

1,00024,18908,78824,68563,80872,7
24,19201,34423,31492,74626,7
2 02,55598,62928,93754,0

Al
fA
B

i,oooi2,093^i,2$397,i3459,439i9,4 A

12,09454,39412,34281,90436,3 iA

73»'3oi5»2o822,465i6,9 B

73*i3899»65732t23438»5 i^

884,44909,^6921,5 C

1,00006,04672,35055,30968,01600,5 - A

6,04690,63 1 98,567 29,7 1 959,7 4-A

18,28143,25761,70359,2 B

18,28253,80205,61629,2 fB

110,54443,91270,0 C

A 0,5561 3,72 1 15,2 fC

1169,8 0845^ p

1 ,00003,023 3 1 ,60505,657 7 5,95479,4 A

3102336,17527,65484,00800,2 iA

4,57021,99708,04320,8 B

4>J7035»8i44o>42589,8 iB

^3»8i732»38269,o C

13*81805,48908,5 iC

73.10639.7 D

73.11302.8 tVB

9 1,00001,51164,65999,05672,95048,8

1,51 165,8025^,82887,98239,7

iti4253>772i5>03i90*9

Hitherto the 1,14255^49927,01080,2

fmaller diffei^nces i ,7 27 1 1 ,97 889,3

are found by fub- 1,72716,54783,6

tra£ling the larger from 4,56894,3

the parts of the like pre« 4,56915,0

tVD

ceding ones. 20,7

20,7

T^E

Here the greater differences 6j

tV£

remain after fubtradling 28555,89

T^jl)

the fmaller from the parts 28555,24

of the diflfcrence of 21588,99736,16

the next preceding 21588,71180,92

number. 28563,44303,75797,72

28563,22715,04616,80

75582,32999,52836,47524,40

1,00000,75582,04436,30121,42907,60

1784,70

tVE

1784,68

2698,58897,62

2698,57112,94

7140,80678,76154,20

7140,77980,19041,26

37791,02218,15060,71453,80

1,00000,37790,95077,37080,52412,54

Sea 15

ciciK

He then concludes this chapter with an ingeni-
ous, but not obvious, method of finding the diffe-
rences B, C, D, £, &e. belonging to any itumber, as
fuppofe the 9th, from that number itfelf, independent
of any of tlic preceding 8th, 7th, 6thj 5th, &c. j

B =4AS

C= .^A»+iA*,

£= .
F=s .
G= .

H=: .
1= .
Kss.
8cc.
Thus in

iA*+4A»+TVA«+ iA' +

. 2fA'+ 7A«+ ioJfA' +

. I3-.VA*+ 8i4A'+.

I A B

i2,VTrA« +

834rVfrA^ +

• i937iVyA«+47i5irVirA* +

7'r?4A«%

»953rHA'% &c.

706845||pA*S &c.
54902AVA'+ 2558465|iVl4A'°,&c.

28o5527A*®,&c.

he 9th number of the foregoing example,
omitting the ciphers at the beginning of the decimals}
we have

A = 1,51164,65999,05672,95048,8
=: - 2,28507,54430,06381,6726
= - • - 3,4542^,65239,48546,2
=r - - - • 5,22156,97802,288

= 7189316,8205

= 11,93168,1

2|A* -

7A,<^ .

20,71957
" - 83

A*
A»
A*
A'
A^

Confequently
Ai* = 1,14253,772 15,03 190,8363

lA^

^A*

1,72711,32619,74273
65269,62225^

iA'+iA* i,7^7ii»97889,36498
iA* 4.56887,35577

=rB

6,90652
iA^+^A'+^A^ 4,56894126234

VA«

2^A'+7A* ..." 20,72040 =E
which agree with the like difFcrcnces in the foregoing
fpecimen. '

§ ^ Of Curves rtlaied to Logarithms,

Several other ingenious methods and improve-
ments are laid down by our author in his treatife upon
this fubjeft ; but as all thefe were attended with
great labour, mathematicians flill continued their efforts
to facilitate the work ; and it was foon perceived that
fome curves had properties analog6us to logarithms.
Edmund Gunter, it has been faid, firfl gave the idea
of a curve, whofe abfciffes are in arithmetical progref-
fion, while the correfponding ordinates are in geo-
metrical progrefiion, or whofe abfciffes are the loga-
rithms of their ordinates ; but it is not noticed in any
pait of his writings. The (ame curve was afterwards

confidered

and it is this : Raife the decitnal A to the 2d, 3df
4th, 5th, &c. powers ; then will the 2d (B), 34
(C), 4th (D)| &c. differences be as here below,
viz.

«a. iL

L O G A R I

Cooftrac- confidcred by otherSy and named the bgantimic or Ich
tion of ^^ curve by Huygeni in hi^ DjfeHaihde Qaufa Gro"

oga.ruhtn8 ^^^^ where he enumerates all the principal properties
of. thiB curve, (hoiying its analogy to logarithms. Many
other learned men haye^ alfo treated of its properties ;
particularly Le Seur and Jacquier in their comment
on Newton's Principia ; Dr John Kiell in the elegant
little tra6i on logarithms fubjoined to his edition of
Euclid's Elements ; and Francis Maferes, Efq; cura-
tor baron of the exchequer, in his ingenious treatife
on Trigonometry; in which books the do6bine of lo-
garithms is copiouHy and learnedly treated, and their
analogy to the logarithmic curve, &c. fully difplayed.
It is mdced rather extraordinary that this curve was
not fooner announced to the public ; fince it refults
immediately from Baron Napier's manner of concei-
ving the generation of logarithms, by only fuppofing
the lines which reprefent the natursd numbers to be
placed at right angles to that upon which the loga-
rithms are taken. This curve greatly facilitates the
conception of logarithms to the imagination, and af-
fords an almofl intuitive proof of the very important
property of their fluxions, or very fmall increments,
vift. that the fluxion of the number is to the fluxion of
the logarithm, as the number is to the fubtapgent \ as
alfo of this property, that, if three numbers be taken
very nearly equal, fo that their ratios to each other may
differ but a little from a ratio (^ equalityi as for example,
the 3 numbers io,ooo,OCo, 10,600,001, 10,000,002,
their differences vrill be very nearly proportional to the
logarithms of the ratios of thofe numbers to each other:
all which follows from the logarithmic arcs being very
little different from their chords, whea they are taken
very fmall. And the conftant fubtangent of this curve
is what was afterwards by Cotes cbUmI the modulus of
the fyflem of logarithms : and flnce, by the former of
the two properties above mentioned, this fubtangent is
a fourth proportional to the fluxion of the number, the
fluxion of the logarithm, and the number, this pro-
perty afforded occafion to Mr Baron Maferes to give
the following definition of the modulus^ which is the
fame in effed^ as Cotes's, but more clearly expreflcd ;
namely, that it is the limit of the magnitude of a fourth
proportional to thefe three quantities, ^4%. the diffe-
rence of any two natural numbers that arc very nearly
equal to each other, either of the faid numbers and
the logarithm or meafure of the ratio they have to
each other. Or wc may deflne the modulus to be the
natural number at tliat part of the fyftem of logarithms,
where the fluxion of the number is equal to the fluxion
of the logarithm, or where the numbers and logarithms
have equal- differences. Arid hence it foflows, that
tlie logarithms of equal numbers or of equal ratios, in
different fyftcms, are ta one another as the moduB of
thofe fyftems. Moreover, the ratio whofe meafure or
logarithm is equal to the modu/usf and thence by Cotes
called the ratio modularise is by calculation found to be
the ratio of 2*71^2818284^9, &c.^to i, or of i to
•367879441171, &c.: the calculation of which Hunv
ber may be feen at full length in Mr^aron Maferes's
treatife dn the Principles of Life-aanuities, p. 2 74 and

.275- - .

The hyperbolic curve alfo afforded another fource

ior developing and illuftrating the properties and con-

ftru&ioa of logarithms. For the hyperbolic areas ly-

T H M S. 135

ing betw^n the cmfve add one afymptote, wfcn they Conftruj.
are bounded by ordinates parallel to the other ^fymp-'L !*^"j^j^
tote, ar^ amdogous to the logarithms of their abfcifies
or parts of the afymptote. And fo alfo are the hy-
perbolic fetors ; any fe6^or bounded by an arc of the
hypetbola and two radii being equal to the quadrilate-
ral fpace bounded by the fame arc, the two ordinatea
to either afymptote from the extremities of the arc and
the part of the afymptote intercepted between them*
And although Napier's logarithms are commonly faid
to be the fame as hyperbolic logarithms, it is not ta
be underlbood that hyperbolas exhibit Napier's loga-
rithms only, but indeed all other pofllble fyftems of lo«
garkhma whatever. For, like as the right-angled hy*
perbola, the fide of whofe fquare infcribed at the vcr*
tex is I, gives us Napier's logarithms; fo any othdr
fyllem'of logarithms is expreffed by the hyperbola
whofe afymptotes form a certain oblique angle, the
fide of the rhombus infcribed at the vertex of the hy-
perbola in this cafe alfo being flill i, the fame as the
ude of the fquare in the right-angled hyperbola. But
the areas of the fquare and rhombus, and confequent*
ly the logarithms of any one and the fame number or
ratio, wul differ according to the fine of the angle of
the afymptotes. And the area of the fquare or rhonv-
bus, or any infcribed parallelogram, is alfo the fame
thing as what was by Cotes called the modulus of the
fy^tm of hgar^hms $ which modulus will therefore be
exprefled by the nuiherical meafure of the fine of the
angle formed by the afymptotes, to the radius i ; at
that is the fame with the number expreffing the area
of the faid fquare or rhombus, the fide being i : which
is another definition of the modulus to be added to
thofie we before remarked above in treating of the lo-
grarithmic curve. And the evident reafon of this is,
that in the beginning of the generation of thefe areas
from the vertex of the hyperbola, the nafcent incre-
ment of the abfcifle drawn into the altitude i, is to
tlie increment of the area, as radius is to the fine of
the angle of the ordinate and abfcifle, or of the afymp-
totes ^ and at the begrinnlng of the logarithms, the
naicent increment of the natural numbers is to the in-
crement of the logarithms as i is to the modulus of
the fyflem« Hence we eafily difcover, that the angle
formed by the afymptotes of the hyperbola, exhibiting
Briggs's Syftcm of Logarithms, will be 25' 44' 25 r ;
this being the angle whofe fine is 0*4342944819, &c.
the modulus of thid fyftem.

Or indeed any one hyperbola, as has been remarked
by Mr Baron Maferes, will exprefs all pofllble fyftcms
of logarithms whatever; namely, if the fquare or
rhombus infcribed at the vertex, or, which is the fame
thing, any parallelogram infcribed between the afyinp*
totes and the curve at any other point, be expounded
by the modulus of the fyftem ; or, which is the fame,
by expounding the area, intercepted between two or-
dinates which are to each other in the rati© of 10 to
I) by the k^rithm of that ratio in the propofed fy-
flem. • • :

. As to: the firfb remarks on the ^analogy between lo^
•garithms and the hyperbolic fpaces ;. it having been
fliown by Gregory iit Vincent, in his ^uadratura Ctr-
euU ei SeSknum Coni^ publifhed at Antwerp in 1 647,
that if one afymptote be divided into parts in geomes
trical progreffion, and from the points of dirifion or-

dinatcs

136 L O G A R

Coofttne^ ^aMjn^itmm pa^bl ta tlte eAer a%iniptote» thqr

iwarithnii '"^ dtridfi the i^ace between tht jtfjrmptote uid ciunre

^ _ J * iBta equa] portionn ; from hence it'WM flidwik by Mcr»

ienniia> that, by: t^ing the continual fonts enf thoCs

. part9> there would be obtained areas- m arithmecicai

progrefliony adapted to abfciflea in geoilietrical prch

greffion^ and which therefore were analogous to a fy^-

fiem of logarithma. And the fame iwalogry was ne*

marked and illuftrated foon after by Huygens and

ioany others, who ihow how to fquare the hyperbolic

fpaces by means of the logan'thms. There ase Hke^

wife many other geometrical figures which bane piD»

perties aiialogous to logarilthms ;. fuch as the ei|ui^

Angular fyixal, the figures' of the tangents and fecantSf

Sec.

§ 5* Mercaiof^s Method.

This is purely arithmetical, and is founded upon
the idea of logarithms already mentioned; via^. that
they are the meafiires of ratios, and expsefs the num-
ber of ratkmcuis contained in any ratio into which it
may be dirided. Having (hown then that tiiefe lo>-
garithmsy or numbers of finall ratios, or meafures of
ratios, may be all pxopeily reprefented by numbers ;
and that of i, of the ratio ci equality, the logarithm
or meafure being always o, the logaziehm of vOf or
themeafure of the ratio of lo to s, is moft conveni-
ently reprefented by i with any number of ciphers;
tie uien proceeds to AK»wbowthemeafaresof aUodier
iratiM may be found firsm Iftiis iaft fnppofition. And
lie explains the principles by the tsiro fbUdttii^ e»-
sunples.

Firft, to find the logarithm* of 400*5^ or to'find
how many raihmenU are contained in the initiaof 1005
to If the number Oii ratiuiuuU in the deaq»le ratio, or
tatio of 10 to I, being i.o,ooo,ooo.

The given rado 100*5 to i he firft dirides into its
|iarts; namely, loo'j; to loo, 100 to 10, and 10 to i;
the laft two of which being decuples, it follows that
the charaderifUc will be a, and it only remains to find
Itow many parts of the next decuple belong to the
■ftrft ratio of 100*5 to loo. Now if each term of this
ratio be multiplied by itfelf, the pTodu6b will be in the
duplicate ratio of the firft terms, or this laft ratio will
contain a double number of parts ; and if thefe be nrahi-
plied' by the ^ft terms again^ the ratio of the laft
produfU will contain three times the number of parts,
and fo on ; the number of times of the firft parts con«
tained in the ratio' of any like powers of the firft terms,
' being always denoted by thn exponent of the power.
If therefore the firft terms 100*5 '^^ 100 be conti-
nually multiplied till the fame powers of them have to
each other a ratio whofe meafure is known; as fuppofe
the decuple ratio 10 to i, whofe meafure is 10,000,000:
then the exponent of that power (hows what multiple
this meafure io,oo«,ooo of the decuple ratio is of die
required meafure of the firft ratio 100*5 ^ '^^ ' ^^
confequently dividing 10,000,000 by that exponent,
the quotient is the meafure of the ratio loo*^ to io#
^ fought. The operation for findings this .he Ms down
as here follows ; where the feveral muItij>ticatiott8 ait
nil performed in the contnded way by inverting the
figures of the multiplier, and retaining only the firft
number of decimals in each produ^

N^ 184*

1 T H M &

100*5000 •

500X •
10Q500D

1
t

ist4

IOt0035

5200101
1010025

XOIOO

^ L

X 020150
0510301

I 0201 50

20403

102

.1040706
60 70401

1083068
8603801

"73035
53037'!

1 3 7601 1

1106731

1893406
6043981

3584985
5894853

I2852II6

2
2

4
4

8
8

16
16

3*
3a

64
128

128

This power being greater than the decuple of the
like power of xoo, which muft always be x with ci-
phers, refinne therefore the 256th power, and multiply
It not by itfidf but by the next before it^ viz. by the
I28th^ thus. Power.

3584985 . - .;, 256
6043981 - . - 128

678783 » ... 384
iio673r . • . 64

9340130 ... 448

53037" ... 32

10956299 . p. . ^80

This power again exceeding the fame power of loe

more than 10 times,he therefore dniws the fame 4f8th

not into the 32d but the next preceding, thus.

Power.
9340130 ... 4^
8603801 - - - 16
1011599^ ... .464

This being again too much, inftead of the i6k
draw it into the 8th or next preceding, thus.

Power.

9340130

6070401

97*03^

t>5 10201

991619s

5200101

10015603

448
8

45«

4
460

462

wua

a.n.

LOGARITHMS.

3flruc- Which power again exceeds the limit : therefore
iriOmis ^^^ ^^ 460th into the I ft, thus. Power.

•9916193 ... 460

5001 ... I

'99<55774 - - - 4^/
Since therefore the 4623 power of 100*5 ia greater,

^nd the 461ft power is lefs, than the decuple of the
fame power of loo; he finds that thej^tio of loo-y to
100 is contained in the decuple more than 461 times,

"but lefs than 462 times. Again,

therefore the proportional part which the exaft power,
or 1 0000000, exceeds the next lefs 9965774, will be
eafily and accurately found by the Golden Rule, thus:

The juft power - - 1 0000000
. . and the next lefs - - 99657 74

the difference - - 34226; then,
As 49829 the dif. between the next lefs and greater,
: To 34226 the dif. between the next lefs and juft,
: : So is loooo: to 6868, the decimal parts; and there-
fore the ratio of ioo^5 to 100, is 461 '6868 times con-
tained in the decuple or ratio of i o to i . Dividing
now 1,0000000, the meafure of the decuple ratio, by
461.6868, the quotient 00216597 is the meafure of
the ratio of 100*5 ^^ '^^' which being added to 2,
the meafure of 100 to i, the fum 2,00216597 is the
meafure of the ratio of 100*5 ^^ '» ^^^ ^'^ ^^ ^^?* ^^
iOO'5 is 2,00216597.

In the fame manner he next inveftigates the log. of
99*5, and finds it to be 1,99782307.

A few obfervations are then added, calculated to
generalize the confideration of ratios, their magnitude
and affe^ions. It is here remarked, that he confidf^rs
the magnitude of the ratio between two quantities as
the fame, whether the antecedent be the greater or
*tlie lefs of the two terms ; fo the magnitude of the ra-
tio of 8 to 5 is the fame as of 5 to 8 ; that is, by the
magnitude of the ratio of either to the- other is meant
the number of n2/ftMiari4e between them, which will evi-
dently be the fame whether the greater or lefs term be
the antecedent. And he farther remarks, that of dif-
ferent ratios, when we divide the greater term of each
ratio by the lefs, that ratio is of the greater mafs or
magnitude which produces the greater quotient, ei vice
verfa; although thofe quotients are not proportional
to the mafles or magnitudes of the ratios! But when
he confiders the ratio of a greater term to a lefs, or of
a lefs to a greater, that is to fay, the ratio of greater
or lefs inequality, as abftra6led from the magnitude of
the ratio, he diftinguifhes it by the word nffeQim^ as
much as -to fay greater or lefs affcAion, fomething in
the manner of pofitive and negative quantities, or luch

as aiiB affedled with the figns -{- and — The

remainder of this work he delivers in feveral propoii-
tions, as follows :

Prop. I . In fubtra6^]on irom each other two quai^
tities of the fame affeAion, to wit, both pofitive, or
both negative.; if the remainder be of the fame- affec-
tion with the two given, then is the quantity iubtrac-
ted the lefs of the two, or expreffed by the lefs num-
ber ; but if the contrar)', it is the greater.

Prop, .2.J.n any continued ration, as ' •^"'"

a+2b ^ ^- , . , . , . ^ Conftruc*

— r-jf &c. (by which is meant the ratios of « to tion of

a+b, a-^-b to tf+23, a^ih to fl-|-33, &c.) of cquidif- ^'"'^
ferent terms, the antecedent of each ratio being equal
to the confequent of the next preceding one, and pro-
ceeding from lefs terms to greater ; the meafure of
each ratio will be expreffed by a greater quantity than
that of the next following ; and the fame through all
their orders of differences, namely, the tft, 2d, 3d,
&c. differences ; but the contrary, when the terms of
the ratios decreafe from greater to lefs.

Prop. 3. In any continued ratios of equidifferent
terms, if the i ft or leaft be « , the difference between
the I ft and 2d b^ and r, </, e^ &c. the refpeftivc
firft term of their 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. differences j thea
fliall the feveral quantities themfelves be as in the an-
nexed fcheme ; where each term is compofed of the
firft term together with as many of the differences as
it is diftant from the firft term, and to thofe differences
joining, for coefficients, the numbers in the floping or
oblique lines contained in the annexed table of figu-
rate numbers ; in the fame manner, he obferves, as the
fame figurate numbers complete the powers raifed frotti
a binomial «oot, as had long before been taught by
others. He alfo remarks, that this rule not only ^ye%
any one term, but alfo the fum of any number of fuc-
ceffive terms from the beginning, making the 2d coef-
ficient the I ft, the 3d the 2d, and fo on ; thus, the
fum of the firft 5 terms is $a\^ io^ + iO£ + 5^4*^

ift term - a

2d - - a + b

3d - - tf 4* 2^ + f

4th . . a + ^b + ic+ d

5th - - ^+4^ + 6^ + 4^ + ^
6cc. &c.

Vol. X. Part I.

a-^b .^4-2^

In the 4111 prop, it is (hown, that if the terms de-
create, proceeding from the greater to the lefs, the
fame tlieorems hold good, by only changing the fign
of every other term, as below,
ift term • - a
2d - - - a "^^ h
3d - •- a ^^ zb + c
4th - - . a -^ ^b + $c^ d
5th - - - a'-'i^+6c — 41/ + /
&:c. &e.

^rop» 6th and 7th, treat of the approximate multi-
plication and divifion of ratios', or, which is the fame
thing, the finding nearly any powers or any roots of a
given fftftion, in an eafy manner. • The theorem for

S raifio^

13« L O G A R

Conftrnc- raifjug any power^ when reduced to a fimplcr form^ u
tiou of o / * ^ — ^

l^ogBtithnu this, the m power of -t-» or -^ is z=

I T H M S.

Sei

z^=md

near-

ly, where i is = <i + ^> and d :=z a *^ 3, the fum and

difference of the two numbers, and the upper or under

a . ♦

figns take place according as^ is a proper or an inv-

proper frafUon, that is, according as a is lefs or great-
er than h. And tlie theorem for cxtrading the Twth

root ot-jT IS #

-r-orJl
h b

m ..

to the I ft quotient, to the fum add the 2d quotient, C«
and fo on, adding always t|»e next quotient to the Id ^
fum, the fevcral Turns will be the refpe£Uve loganthoi^
of the numbers in. this Ceries, joi, 102, 103, IC4, kz. "*"

The next, or prop. I cth, fhowi that, of two pair of
continued ratios, whofe terms have equal diSereaces, tie
difference of the meafure? of the firll two ratios is lu
the difference of the meafurcs of the other two, as the
fquare of the common term in the two latter is to
that in the former, nearly. Thua^ in the four ratioi
d a t a+h ^ /if 33^ a^^ ^ aa^id

-J nearly ; which zm. TTTa ^TZTa . ,a ^^ the mealure of =^-,

latter rule is alfo the fame as the former, as will be (the difference of the firft two, or the quotient of tic
evident by fubftituting — inftead of « in the firft tbeo- two fradiions) : the meafure of =-^ —

: : j[+4?2 : a+^^f nearly.

In fro^. 1 1 . the author (hows that flmilar proper-
ties take place among two fets of ratios, conilftlng each
of 3 or 4, &c. continued numbers.

Profi, 1 2. (hows, that of the powers of numbers in
arithmetical progreffion, tlie orders of differenceswbxb
greatly from unity. And in the 7th prpp» the author become equal, are the fecond differences in the fquares,
thows how to find nearly the error o: the theorems. the 3d differences in the cubes, the 4th differences in

In the 8th prop, it is (hown, that the meafurcs of the 4th powers, &c. And- from hence it is ihon,

rem.

So that univerfally 4.— is = ^EE^nearly.

Tliefe theorems, however, are nearly true only in fome
certain cafes, namely, when -r- and -— do not differ

ratios of equidiffercnt terms, are nearly recipro-
cally as the arithmetical means between the terms
of each ratio. So of the ratio) \^ ||, f;, the mean
between the terms of the firft ratio is 1 7, of the 2d 34,
of the 3d 5 1, and the meafurcs of the ratios are nearly

** "»T» T7> TT*

From this property he proceeds, in the 9th prop,
to find the meafure of any ratio lefs» than iV^.V> which
has an equal difference ( i ) of terms. In :the two ex-
amples mentioned near the beginning, our author found
the logarit*hm or meafure of the ratio, of f^S to be
2I769tV» ^^^ ^^^ of y^ J to be 21659TV > there-
fore the fum 43429 is the logarithm of tttVt* or
-?li/ X ^\s%T^ or the logarithm of r%%U is nearer
43430, as found by other more accurate computations.
— No\y, to find the logarithm of 4^?, having the fame
difference of terms ( i ) with the former ; it will be, by
prop. 8. as 100.5 (the mean between loi and 100) :
100 (the mean between 99*5 and 100*5) : : 43430
: 43213 the logarithm of|^?, or the difference be-
tween the logaritlims of 100 and loi. But the loga-
rithm of 100 is 2 ; therefore the logarithm of loi is

2,0043213. Again, to find the logarithm of 102,

we muft firft find the logarithm of ^tt » the mean be-
tween its terms being 101*5, therefore as 101*5 : 100
: : 43430 : 42788 the logarithm of 4§t» or the dif-
ference of the logarithms of loi and 102. But the

how to conftruft all thofe powers by the continual ad-
dition of their differences : ' As had been long before
more fully explained by Briggs.

In the next, or 1 3th prop, our author expk'ns his
compendious method of railing the tables of iogi-
rithms, ihowing how to conftruiEt the logaritlims by
additlon only, from the properties contained in the
8th, 9th, and 1 2th propofitions. For this piu3)ofe be

makes ufe of the quantity ■ . » which by divilioD he

refolves into this infinite feries

a ac ac ar
T + TJ" + P "'"F
&c. fin infin.) Putting then a = lOO the arithmetical
mean between the terms of the ratio iV^fs »^= koo^x»
and c fuccefiiTely equal to 0*5, 1*5, 2*5, &C that fo
A— tf may be refpcAi\ely equal to 99999*5* 9999^*5»
99997*5, &c. die correfponding means between the
terms of the ratios

\X)<S

) cro o»

fm^>

f^ Ji, &c It

is evident that t — - will be the quotient of the 2d tcnn

divided by the ift in the proportions mentioned ia
the 8th and 9th propofitions ; and when each of thefe
quotients are found, it remains then only to mukiplf
them by the conftant 3d term 43^20, or lathcr
43429*8, of the proportion, to produce the logarithiBi
Of the ratios ^J^J>^^, ^^J|, ^-2^^, &c. till "

I oooa.

logarithm of loiwa* found above to be 2,0043213 } *•"=" **^^"? t.'*^^' continually to 4 the logandm «t

therefore the logarithm of 102 is 2,oo86ooi.-So 10000 the leaft number, or fubtraftrng then from f

that dividing continually 868506 (the double of the logarithm of the higheft term 1 00000, there wiU

434298 the logarithm of .ViV or iU) by each num. "f^^* ^^^ loganthms of aU the abfolute number»*o«

ber of the ferie» 20 1,' 203, 205, 207, flee, then add 2 ^°°°° *° 1 00000. Now when r » = 0.5, tha

= .001, TT =

ac
bb

ac'

= •000000005, "Is ='oooopoooooooo25, -T4 =•000000000000000000^25,
Ice. ; therefore Jt— =4- + !^ + ff

zz— + f£. + -27> &c. is ='oorooo(jp5oooo25oooi25,

In like manner, if c= r.5, then jr^ ^'^ ^ = •001000015000225003375 j
and if < =2*5, then - — ^ will be =:*oo 10000250006250x5625;

kt.^

r.ir, t O A R

^ of &c. But tnftcad of c6nftru£Ung all the vducs of r—

in the ufual way of railing the powers, he direds them
to be found by addition only, as in the
lafl propofition. Having thus found all

the valued of J^# the author then

43429
86858

130287

173716

5
6

217145
260574

304003

8
9

347432
390861

fhow.«, that they may be drawn into the

conftant logarithm 43429 by addition

only, by the help of the annexed table

of the firft 9 produ6l8 of it.

The author then diftingulfhes which

of the loearithmft it may be proper to ^^_______

find in thiB way, and which from their

component part«. Of thefe the logarithms of all even

numbers need not be thus computed, belne compofed

from the number 2 ; which cUts off on« half of the

numbers : neither arc thofe numbers to be computed

which end in 5, becaufe 5 is one of their faftors ; thefe

laft are ttj of ^c numbers 5 and the two together

i'+rV n^a^e J of the whole : and of the other f , the

As 10048, the arithmetical mean between I0033 and 10063,
to 10018, the arithmetical mean between 10003 and 10033,

I T H M S. %^f

y of thetn» or ^V of th<; whoIe» arc compofed of 3 j Coaftnic-
aiid hence f + rV> or ^y of the numbers, are made ^Pi.-^i^,ai
of fuch as are compofed of 2, 3, and 5. As to the J^ ^^ -
other numbers which m<iy be compofed of 7, of 1 1 ,
&c. ; he recommends to find their logarithms in tlie
general way, the fame as if they were iiicompoiites, as
It is not worth while to feparate them in fo eafy a
hiode of calculation. So that of the 90 chiliads of
numbers from loooo to 100000, only 24 chiliads aie
to be <;omputcd. Neither indeed are all of thefe to

but

be calculated from the foregoing feries for ^ — »

only a few of them in that Avay, and the refl by the
proportion in the 8th propofition. Thus, having com-*
puted the logarithms of 10003 ^"^ ^^^^3^ omitting
10023 as being diyiflble by 3, efUmate the logarithms
of 10033 and 10043, which are the 3cth numbci^
firom 10003 *°^ 10013 ; and again, omitting 100534
a multiple of^ 3, find the logarithms of 10063 and
10073. Then by prop. 8.

fo 13006, the difference between the logarithms of 10003 ^^^ ^^33*
to 12967, the difference between the logarithms of 10033 and 10063 j

I 100481
•< 10078 V

C 101083
100^8
ioc88
10118

r 100681

And with this our author concludes his compendium
for conflruAing the tables of logarithms.

§ 6. Gregory^ s MethoJL

That is, ift As

Again, Ad

And 3dly, As

13006

• ^ &c.

I 10028 : s 12992 1

10038 : : 12979

' '^9S3
&c«

12940
6cc«

might have been found by compucinff, by means ol
the feries, only a few logarithms of fmaU ratios, iit
which the terms of the feries would have decrcafed
byxhe powers of 10 or fome greater number, the nu^
This is founded upon an analogy between a fcale of »»?«*<>" of «n the tcmi. being unity, and theif dano*

rarithmic taneentJ and Wrijtht'. i»rotraaion of the «»"»*«'» »,•»« P<«»" i \° * ^'*'"* p«er number? and

then employing thew tew logarithms, fo computed^

to the finding of the logarithms of other and greater
ratios by the eafy operations of mere addition and fub*
tradion. This might have been done for the logSk
of the ratios of the firfi ten numbers, 2» 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8»
9, 10, and 11, to I, in the following manner, conunu-
nicated by Mr Baron Maferes. — In the firil place the
logarithm of the ratio of 10 to 9, or of 1 to ,^5, or of i

r I

to I— I'o-, w equal to the feries ,^+b;nrr+-"^

logarithmic tangents and Wright's prot
tiautical meridian line confifting of the fums of the fe-
cants. It is not known by whom this difcovery wai
made ; but, about 1645, it was publifhed by Mr Henry
PiOnd, who mentions this property in Norwood's Epi-
tome of Navigation. The mathematical demonflration
of it was firft invefligated by Mercator $ who, with a
view to make fome advantage of his dif<;overy, offeredf
in the Philofophical Tranfadions for June 4th 1 666,
to lay a wager with any one concerning it ; but this
propofal not being accepted, the demonflration was not
pubh'ihed; Other mathematicians, however, foon fouqd
out the myflery; and in two years after, Dr Gre-
gory publifhed a demon ftrat ion, and from this and
other fimilar properties he fhowed a^ method of com-
puting the logarithmic fines and tangents by means
of an infinite leries. Several of thefe were invented
by him, and the meth^ of applying them laid down
by himfelf and others ; but Mr Hutton thinks that a
Hiorter' and better method than any they propofed

+T;

2X100 ' 3X1000
Sec. In like manner are eafily

4X10000 5x100000
found the logarithms of ihe^tios of 11 to 10 ; and
then by the fame feries thofe of lai to 120, and of 8]
to 80, and of 2401 to 2400 ; in all A^'hich cafes the
feries would converge fliU fafler than in the two firft
cafes. We may then proceed by mere addition and
fubtradion of logarithms, as follows.

I X

+L.-^,^

Log

f-r ^ 2Aj. '•p ,

L «!•«-. T «*»_lT Sf

1 1 o^T

« 2 i

L.
L.
L.

f 1 O

i ■•

» C .

L.4, 1

T «o — T . • *— T * »

2L. 1,

t J T " ^

L.V+L.J,

L. i=U^°,

2L.I,

L. i srL. 4 -li> f

Having

HO LOGARITHMS.

Cmfknc' Having thu$ got the logarithm of the ratio of 2 to from thofc of the odd numbers which are their cocf- Co
X. OTi^wf '» °'"* *" common language, the logarithm of 2, the ficienU with 2 or it« powers. We may then proceed ti
logarithms of all forts of even numbers may be derived as follows. ^

L. io=iL. -»^^+L. 4,
L. 3=i L-9.

L. 100= 2L. 109
L. 8 = 3L. Zf
L. 24= L. 8+L. 3,
L. 24Do=L.ioo+L.24.

L. 240i:=Jb. T7VO+L* 2400,
L, 7=iL- 2401,
L. ii=:L.-*^-hL. 9.
L. 6:=lL. 2-f-L« 3*

Thus we have got the logarithms of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, authors fmce Napier's time. And the fame or a iiml.
8, 9, I o, and .1 1. And this is upon the whole, per- lar property is evidently true in all the fyftcms of loga^

Laps, the beil method of computing logarithms that can
be taken. — This method of computing logarithms is
very nearly the fame witli that of Sir Ifaac Newton
in his fecond letter to Mr Oldenburg, dated O^ober
l6y6.

$ 7. ConflruQion of LogarUhms hj Fluxions.

FaoM the definition and defcription of logarithms
given by Napxer» aad of which we have already taken
notice, it appears that the fluxion of his, or the hy-
, perbolic logarithm of any number, is a fourth propor-
tional to that number, its logarithm and unity ; or,
which is the fame, that it is equal to the fluxioa of the
number divided by the number : For the defcription
ihows that si : sfi or i : :.«! the fluxion of si : '%0f

which therefore is = -^ ; but xa is alfo equal to the

fluxion of the logarithm A, 5cc. by the defcription ;
therefore the fluxion of the logarithm is equal to

JbI , •

---, the fluxion of the quantity divided by the quan*

tity ttfelf. The fame thing appears again at art. 2. of
of that little piece in the appendix to his ConfiruSlo
LogarUbmorum^ intitied HdituAnes Logarithmorum bf
fuwum natwraRttm numirerum hnvium; where he obferves,
that as any greater quantity is to a lefs, fo is the ve-
Jocity of the increment or decrement of the logarithms
at the place of the lefs quantity to that at the greater.
No# this velocity of the increment or decrement of the
logarithms being the lame thing as their fluxions, that
proportion' is this » •- <i : : flux. loe. : flux. log. x ;

rithms whatever, namdy, that the modulus of the fy-
ftem is to any number as the fluxion of its logahthin
is to tlie fluxion of the number.

Now from this property, by means of the dodnne
of fluxions, are derived other ways for making loga-
rithms, which have been illudraied by many writers
on this branch ; as Craig, Jo. Bernoulli, and abnoil
all the writers on fluxions. And this method chiefly
c6nfifts in expanding the reciprocal of the given quan-
tity in an infinite feries, then multiplying each term
by the fluxion of the faid quantity, and laftly taking
the fluents of the terms; by which there arifes an in-
finite feries of terms for the logarithm fought. So,
to find the logarithm of any number N, put any com-

pound quantity for N, as fuppofe X — ^ then the flux.

of the 'log. or -r? being

K^X

• • •

N . • X X XX t

--being—- =-.-^_+_
N n-tx X im n^

,&c.

the fluents give log. of N or log. of ^- =- ;+

—J— — ;, &c. And writing — x for

n 2a'
X gives log.

&c. Alfo, becaufe

so-— log.

1st

have log. Jl-s-— f + -4 ^+-fl> &C. and log.

n+x n 2/1* 311* 4ii*

«• . *'

frV+

&c.

3"' '4«''.

r - I. And by adding and fubtra6^ing any of thefe fcriei

hence if d be=:i, as at Uic bcginnmg of the table of to <^ from one another, and multiplying or dividing

numbers, where the fluxion of the logs, is the index or ^^ correfponding number, various other feries for

«hara£^eriftic r, which js alfo one in Napier's or the
hyperbolic logarithms, and 43429, &c. in Briggs's, the
fame proportion becomes x : i : : r : flux. log. x ; but
the conftant fluxion of the numbers is alfo i» and there-

fore that proportion is alfo thisx i itiiei — = the
fluxion of the logarithm of k : and in the hyperbolic lo-

garithms, where ^ is s if it becomes -^ =the fluxion
«f Napier's or the hyperbolic logarithm of ^. This

kmt property has aUb been

logarithms may be founds converging much quick^T
tlun thefe do.

In like manner, by afluming quantities othemir^
compounded for thie value of N, various other formi of
logarithmic feries may be found by the fame means*

§ 8. Mr Long's Method,

This method was publiflied in the 339th BumbcF
of the Philofophical Tranfaftions ; and is performed by
means of a (mail table containing eight clafles of lo»

by many other garithms, as foHows.

k. 1I»

Lo. Nat. Numb. Log.

.7
>6

»5

>4
»3

7
6

5
4
3

7,943282347

^>309573445
5,011872336

3,981071706

3,162277660

2,511886432

1,995262315

1,584893193

1,258925412

^..^.^.^— _^^ '

1,230268771
1,202264435

M 7489755 J
1,1481536211

1,122018454

1,096478196

»>07 15 19305

1,047128548

1,023292992

O G A

Nat* Numb.

■i^»

1,020939484
1,018591388
1,016248694
i»oi39ii386
1,011579454
1,009252886
1,006931669
1,004615794
1,002305238

1,002074475
1,001843766
1,001613109
1,001382506
1,001151956
1,000921459
1,000691015
1,000460623
1,000230285

Log.

,00009
8

7
6

5
4

♦ 2

1 TH

Nat. Numb.

M S.

1,000207254
1,000184224
1,000161194
1,000138165
1,000115136
1,000092106
1,000069080
1,000046053
1,000023026

,000009 ; I»000020724

8 1 1,000018421
7 .1,000016118
6 1,000013816
5 1,000011513
4 1,000009210
. 3 1 1,000006908
2 1,000004605
1 f 1,000002302

Log.

,0000009
8

7
6

-4

Nat. NmnbT

1,000002072
1,000001842
1,0000016 n
1,000001381
1,000001151
1,000000921
1,000000690
1,000000460
1,000000230

14*

Conftru c«

tioo nf
JLog^ritlunf

,00000009 1,000000207
8:1,000000184
7 1 1,000000161 1
6 1 1,000000138
51 1,000000115
4 1,000000092
3 1,000000069
2 1,000000046
1 1,000000023

Here, becaiife the logarithmt in each ckfs arc the which figures coUeded together give 31301029995 for
continual multiples i, 2, 3, &c. of the loweft, it is Briggs's logarithm of 2000, the index 3 being fup-
evident that the natural numbers are fo many fcales of plied ; which logarithm is true in the lail figure.

geometrical proportionals, the loweft beine the com-
mon ratio, or the afcending numbers are the 1, 2, 3,
8cc, powers of the loweft, as exprefled by the figures
I, 2, 3, &c. of their correfponding logarithms. Alfo
the lau number in the firft, fccond, third. See. clafs, is
the loth, loothjL 1000th, &c. root of 10; and any

number in any clafs is the 10th power of the corrc- ' hers as in the fecond column, found
iponding number in the next following clafs. from their refpe^liveift, 2d, 3d, 3cc,

To find the number anfwcring to
any given logarithm, as fuppofe to
3,3010300 : omitting the charafter-
iliic, againft the other figures 3> o,
1 9 0, 3, o, o, as in the fird column
in tlie margin, are the feyeral num-

3^9952^^3«5

1,002305238

1,000069:80

00
00

To find the logarithm of any number, as fuppofe of claiTes ; the effedtivc numbers of which multiplied con-

2000, by this table :. Look in the firft clafs for the tinually together, the laft product 18-2,000000019966,

number next lefs than the firft figure 2, and it is which, becaufe the charaderiflic is three, gives

1,995262315, againft which is 3 for the firft figure of 2000,000019966 or 2000 only for the required num*.

the logariUim fought. Again, dividing 2, the number ber anfwering to the given logarithm.

propoled, by 1,995262315, the number found in the x ^ mr z/^, » d a* / d i 1- .1 r> /i «.

iabCthe quotient is 1,602374467$ which being look- * ^' ^' ^"''^ * ^'""f"^ ^.ff"- '^' ConflruBton^of
ed for in the fccond dafs of the table, and finding nci- . J^ogaruhms.

thcr its equal nor alefs^ o is therefore to be taken for The netht)ds kid down' in the above fe&inns arer

the fecond figure of the logarithm; and the fame quo- ahurfdantly fufficient to (how the various principles

tient 1,002374467 being looked for in the third clafs, ^V^^ which ' logarithms may fee conftrufted ; though

the next lefs is there found to be 1,002305238, againft ^^^^ *«^ ^^^ a variety of others which our limits wiU

which IB 1 for the third figure of the logarithm ; and ^^ a<*"u^ of our infcrting: The following rule is adJtd

dividing the quotient 1,002374467 by the (kid next lefs ^^^ ^^ Hutton's Treatife on the fubje6t, for the fake

number i,oo2305238,the new ouotientis 1,000069070;. of thofe who do not choofe to entci* deeply into thcfc

which being fought in the tourtli clafs gives o, but inveftigations.

fought in the fifth clafs gives 2, which are the fourth , ^^ * ^^ ^"* ^^ *°y number whbfe logarithm
and fifth figures of the logarithm fought: again, dir " fought, and the number next lefs by unity; diyidc
^ding the laft quotient by 1,000046053, the next '8685889638, &c. (or 2^- 2.3025, &c.) by «, and
lefs number in the table, the quotient is 1,000023015, rcferve the quotient ; divide the refcrved quotient by
which gives 9 in the 6th clafs for the 6th figure of the ^^* fquare of z, an.d refcrve this quotient ; divide this
logarithm fought : and again dividing the laft quotient laft quotient alfo by the fquare of s, and again rc-
by 1,0000207241. the next lefs number, the quotient is fwe thisc quotient ; and* thus proceed continually,
1,000002291, the next kfs than which in the 7th. dividing the laft quotient by the fquare of. z as loiig
cbft gMt 9,fQr the 7th figure «f the logarithm : and *• divifion can be made. Then write thefe quotients
dividing the laft quoticnthy 1,000002072, the quo-i orderly-undcr one another, the firft uppermoft, and di-
tient is 1,000000219, which gives 9 in the 8th dafa vide them refpe^'vcly by the uneven numbers r, 3, 5,
for the 8th figure of the logarithm: and agai» 7»9» ii> &c..as long as divifion can be made; that is,
the laft quotient 1,000000219 being divided by ^videthe-ift rcferv^ quotient by i, the 2d by 3, the
l,0O0OO02p7 the next lefs, the quotient 1,000000012' 3^ by 5, the 4th by 7, &c. Add all thefe laft quo-
gives 5 in the fame 8th clafs, when one figure is cut tients together, and the fum will be the logarithm of
«ff,. foi the 9th figure o£ the logarithm Ibught. AIL ^'rtf# auod therefore to this logarithm add ^o the lo-

gariihaa-.

f4i

L O G A R

C<Mjftruc- garithm of d the next kfs number, aiid the fum wiil be
\ * °° ?V^the required logarithm of B the nwnber propofed.

"^^ jBx. I. To ^nJ the Log of 2.— Ptere the next !cfi

number Is i, and 24-1=23=2, whofe fquare is 9*
Then,

3)-868588964 iV289529654('289y»9654

9I.289529654
9) 32169962

3574440
397160

44129

9)
9)
9)
9}

4903

545
61

3) 32169962I

5)
7)
9)

"!
13

15)

3574440I
397160)

441 29(
49031

Log. T
Add L. I

10723321
714888

4903
446

-301029995

ocoocooco

Log. of 2 - •301019995

Ex. 2. Tofnd the hgk of 3. — Here the next lefo
tlu^ber 18 2, afid 2 + 3 = 5 = 1:, whofe fquare is ^5, to
divide by, which always multiply by •04. Then

5 )-868588964

25)'i737i7793
25) 6948712

25) 277948

25) 11118

25) 445

3.
5)
7)
9)
II)

*i737i7793('i737i7793
69487i2(

2779481
iiii8(

448
i8(

2316237

55590
1588

50
2

L^i - - •176091260
L. 2 add - •301029995

L.3 * - -477 1 21 255 •
Then becaufe the fum of the logarithms of numbers
gives the logarithm of their produd, and the difference
of the logarithms gives the logarithm of the quoiient of
the numbers, from the above two logarithms, and the
logarithm of lo, which is i, we may raife a great many
logarithms, thus :

Ex* 3. Becaufe 2X2=4, therefore

to L. 2 - - '301029995^

addL. 2 • - •20102000 c4

fum is L. 4

£.v.4. Becaufe 2X3
to L. 2

add L. 3 *

fum is L. 6

• jBx. 5» Becaufe 2^;

mult* by

gives L. 8

J&x. 6.- Becaufe 3*
L.3 .

jnult. by

gives L* 9

•301029995^

•602059991 f

6, therefore

-30^029995
•477121255

•778151256

8, therefore

'30i02{>99f|.

• *903o89987

;9> therefore

•477iii254jV
2

'954242509

I T H M S^

Ex.f. Becaufe -^^=5, therefore

from I«% 10 • I'OOOOOOOOO

take L. 2 • ^3010299951

Seft

leaves L« 5

•698970604-}

Ex. & Becaufe 122:3X4, thereiforc

to L.3 * . * •477121255

addL. 4 « *6o2e>5999i

gives L. 1 2

I»079i8i246

And thus by computing, by the general rule, the
logarithms of the other prime numbers 7, ii» 131 r^
19, 23, &c. : and then ufing compofition anddivifioni
"^ may eafily find as many logarithms as we plcalitj
or may fpeedily elcamine any logarithm in the ui}k.

§ 10. Mr Thomas Athtnfori of BalliJbaanfuCi Mdbodi

In any ferics of numbers in a geometrical progrc&
fion, beginning from unity, as in the
margin, the fcries is compofed of a 10 too 1^3
fet of continued proportionals, of
which the n^ember Handing neareft to unity is the
common ratio or rate of the proportion* If over or
under thefe ariotlier feries is placed^ as in the example,
of numbers in an arithmetical progreflion, beginning
viith nought, and whofe common difference is unity,
the members of this feries are called indexes ; for they
ferve to fhow how many fucceflive multiplications have
been made with the common rate to produce that mem-
ber of the geometrical |)rogreflion over which each 01
thefc indexes does feverally ftaild.

This theory maybe confidered in another light ;
If the fquare root of lo (that is, of the common rate)
is found, it is a mean proportional between i and lo^
and becomes a new common rate for a new fet of con-
tinued proportionals, as in ^ . - ^ ^i*
the marcrm. And if the ■' ^ if ,^ -t/?
naif of unity, which m •' ^
the former cafe was the addittonal difference of the
arithmetical progre0ion, is nflade the additionid diffc'
rence of this new feries, and ndtcd as Jrt the example^
a new combination is formed of two feriefes agreefn?
with the firft in thefe remarkable properties, viz. If
any two members of the geometri<!al progreffion arc
multiplied togethcri the fum of their correfpondicg
indexes will become the index of their produd ; and
converfely, if any of them is divided by any other,
the difference of their indexes will be found to be the
index of the quotient* This theory is indefinite ,* an<J
r'epeated extradlions may be made with any propofeo
number of decimals, and bifedlion made of the cottC'
fponding indexes, until one has no more number to.
work with ; and each of the mean proportionals thu»
found between i and lO, will be found a member 01
every new geometrical progrcfiion formed by every
fmalter roOt^ and confequently all the roots thus founi
together vi'ith their correfponding indexes, have, i«
cafes of multiplication or divifion, the fztme connexion
as has been juft defcribed.

Let thofe fucceflive roots be found, and noted in thi

form of a table, agd, in another column, let the cor-

reiponding indexes fottnd by thefe jjire^io"* ^ ^^^

3 ^^

t.tr.

LOGARITHMS.

kmc. larly noted, each oppofitt to its «*™ «»t^ Tfaefe J__i.,2.6. ^ith thl« quotieat let the taUe be ap-
\°' indexes arc commonly known by the denomination ot 1.77 . ^ ^ -

ithxns

logarithms; the roots thcmfelvcs may be caUcd natural pKcd to as before, .and 1.12469 &c. wOl be found to

be between i.i54» flee. &c. and. 1.074, &c. Sk. and
divifion to be made as In the exampfe. In this man-

'43

tion of
JLogaritbiBf

numbers*

Thefe roots are compofed of nattural numbers fel-
dom or never wanted ; but from them the logaiithms
of fuch as are of gencnd ufe may be thus found.

Suppofe 2'the propofcd number, one muft examine
the table of roots ; there he will find 3. 16, &c. &c. the
neareft to 2 of thofc which are greater; and 1.778,
&c. &c. alfo neareft to it oi thofc wliich are lefs. He

3 16

1.77
2

may make a diyifion at hk pleaijire, either ^
^ yet let the choice fall on whirt will yield the

fmaUeft quotient, and let the
ctrcumftances of the calcula-
tion be noted, as in the mar-
gin,for future direction. Here

si.i246,&c. &c.

1. 1 24

fl^C. &C.

ncr one is to proceed with each fucceffive quotient,
till at length he has one in which the number of the
initial decimal noughts is equal at leaft, if not greater
than that of the fignificant figures. Here the work
of divifion may be difcontinued ^ and as it will rarely
happen, that one will not have an additional initial
nought for every divifion, the number cannot be great
in calculations of a moderate extent. Having at laft
found a quotient fuch as waa defcribed, and fuppofing
the number of decimals to be 10, one may readily find
the logm. of that quotient thus :— Suppofe the quotient
1.0000057968 ; he is to look into the table of roots
for thofe noted with 5 initial decimal noughts, and
from any one of thefe and its correlponding lognu

ftate thus :

.0000087837, . • . 0000038147 its logm . • . • . .0000057968 of the quotient.
.0000025175, its logm. •

Thus knowing that 0.00000251 7 5<, or fuch like, is
the logm. of the laft quotient, one may have that of 2»
if he will but call to mind the following circum-
ftances.

In every cafe of divifion, if he has logarithms of
quotient and divifor, he has alfo that of the dividend,
hj adding the two iirft together : if he has the lo-
garithm of the dividend, and that of either the divifor
or quotient, he may find that of the otlier ^ for he has
only to fubtra£l what he knows from the logarithm- of
the dividend, the remainder is. what he wants : and
laftly, that in every divifion he made, he took one
number from the table of roots whofe logarithm is
known, being noted in the table, and which he*made
ufe of as his dire6lion either as a dividend or a divi-
for : From thefe circumftances, one may, by the
he^ of the logarithm juft found, difcover the .loga-
rithm of that number of the laft divifion, whether it
be dividend or divifor, whicli was the quotient of the
preceding divifion ; and thus, tracing his own work
backwards by his notes from quotient to quotient, be
they ever fc few or ever fo many, he will come at
laft hy addition and fubtradtion to the logarithm of
the propofed number.

By this method^ the logarithm of any number with-
in the compals of the table of roots may be found : if
a greater is propofed, fuppofe 9495, it muft be made
9*4959 ^o^ ^3 logarithm found ; tlien it muft be ne-

ftored to the propofed form, and have a proper in-'
dex noted before the diecimals juft found. How to do-
this is too well known to have occafion to mention it
here.

• The reafon for finding the logarithm of the laft quo-
tient by the common proportion is this : He who ha»i
made a table of roots, will find, by infpeftion only,,
that as initial noughts come into the decimal parts.
of the roots, the fignificant figures juft immediately-
following them do affume the form of a geometri-
cal progreffion, dl:fcending, whofe common rate
or divifor is 2, as is juft the cafe with the whole of
the decimals of the correfponding logarithms j and"
that the number of the fignificant figures endued with
this property is generally equal to that of the initial,
noughts : fo far as thi^ and no farther, the common
proportion will hold between the fignificant figures of
the decimals In the roots and the fame number of pla-
ces in the logarithms ; and for this reafon it was need-
ful to continue the fucceffive divifions tiU a quotient
was found fo circumftanced, that its logarithm could
be found by the proportion.

The fame gentleman hath alfo favoured us with the
following new method

Ofextraaing Roots ofFroQiont i^LoGARXTHMs*

The

exam

— 3.301029995664 the logarithm of the fra^ion g^vcn.

7 the power to which it is to be raifed;

«MMMW«^ ^i^^iP^Baft ^MMMMMaMM ^MlBV^taM*

—19. 1 07 209969648 the logarithm of the anfwer ..

r extraatng tutots oj rraaions iTyj^osAaxTHMs*

HS eafieft way- to explain this, ia firft to give an^
iple of involvbg fuch numbers..

I of the fraAion cnven.

This differs from the like work in whole numben
•nly in this, that, in multiplying the decimals, one has
at laft 2 to be carried bom them to the whole numbers;
this is to be confidered as + 2, then— 3X7= — 2i,
and — 21 -(-2==— 19 to be noted the mdex of the
anfwer. £xtra6kion of the roots is only the con-
▼erfe of this. Suppofe -^19.107209969648 given,
la find that root whofo exponent number is 7.

As 7 is the exponent number here, one may in his
mind multiply it by 2 for a trial, as in common divi-
fion ; but the produd =714 being lefs than 19, muft be

releaedj then he miy try it ....o^o^^^s^.g
With ^, this yields 21 for a pro- ^ ' yy^y h^
dua. This 3 inuft be noted with -^3-30 1 029995664
a negative fign for the index of the new logarithm, .
Then; on comparing 19 with %i^ the diffei«nce is

«44 L O O A R I T H M S. Sfj

?>pl^i^*^ 2* This 2 mull be carried as 20 to the decimals, and cimak with 7 for a divifor, as is ufually done in oder h
^ Tibic. ^*^ ^^ ^"* **^ *^^^ ®® ^^^ flivifion of the de- cafes.

Another Example. • ' v

Snppofc — 1*47^ 1 21 2545 given, to extra£% the root of its 5th power..
— 1.8954252 109 TOe logarithm of the root.

For 5, tW exponent of the root Xi is greater than tradion. Thus fuppofe it required to fiad the logi'

^he index of the given logarithm, and 4 is the remain- rUhm of ^he flradlion 4»
dcr. Then — i becomes the index of the logarithm Logarithm of 7 = 0.845098

of the root ; and 4s: the gyerplus, is to be carried as Logarithm of 5 =: 0.477121

4c to the decimals ; and from that, divifion is to be made _— — « — _—

«eith 5 as a divifor'for the reft of the work. Logarithm of 4- ^ — 0-367977

Sp-«, ITT c ^/ *' J rtr r s± cr Lf The reafon of the rule is, that a fradion bdnjr tk

EOT. 111. Explanation and Ufe of the Tabte^ *• * r ^u j- -j j 1. *u j •

... t ji ^ r^L ' ^ * ^ quotient of the nmncraior divided by the denommatt/r,

wttb a general Account of the variaus Saences to l^ logarithm muft be the difference of the logarita

Vfhtch Logaritffms may U applied. ^f thofe two ; fo that the numerator being fubtnacj

,§ I, Ta Jind hy the table the Logarithm of any number* from the denominator, the difference becomes n«-

If the number be under ico, "it is eafily found in g*^^«- Stifclius obferved, that the logarithms of a

the firil^livifion at the head ofthefirft p|jej if it be V^V^^ fradion muft always be negauve, if that of

betwixt 100 and 1000, over againft thV number 4n unity be o; which is evident, a fra6HDn being E

the firft column of the foHowiag pages, in the next "*^° ®"^'

column under o will be found the logarithm required. ^r, the logarithm of the denominator, thoj^4

If the number be betwixt 1000 and icooo, the firft g**«ter than that of the numerator, as m thecaftot

three figures of the number are to be. found in the co- * proper fradion, may be fubtraded from it, itgan!

lumn marked N" and the fourth figure at the top, and ^^^^ ^^^, ^^ ^^^, %« ^^ ^« ^"^^c^* ^^^h alone id

In the column unSerlt, lineally againft the firft three ^** cafe is negative. Thus,
figures, will be found the logarithm required, changring ' Log. of 3 =: 0.477121

the index 2 into 3. The column marked Diff. and ^^g- of 7 = 0.845098

Ihowing the common difference by which each of thefe ^ — —

•columns increafes, Terves to find the logarithms of . . * Log. of 4= 1.632023 which prodnccs the

numbers beyond loooo. Thus, fameyflfea in any operation as that before found, til

To find the logarithm for a number greater than any in —0.^7977, this being to be fubtraded, and ^t

the common canon, but lefs than looooooo.— Cut off four ^^^^ *® ^^ added.

figures on the left of the given number, and feek the Or again, the fraftion may be reduced to a dtc-

logarithm in the table 5 add as many unites to the in- ^^* and its logarithm found ; which differs from that

dex as there are figures remaining on the right ; fub- ^^^ ^^«'« number only in the index, which is to k

traft the logarithm found from the next fouowing it negative.

In the table ; then, as the difference of numbers in , "r an improper fraaion v. gr. f , its numcntoTb:.

.the canon is to the Ubular diftance of the logarithms *"ff greater than its denominator, its logarithm is ha^

anfwering to them, fo are the remaining figures of ^J fubtrading the logarithm of the latter from m

the given number to the logarithmic difference; which, ?* ^^^ former.

if it be added to the logarithm before found, the fum The logaptjim of 9=0.9542425

will be the logarithm required. Suppofe v. gr. the Logarithm of 5=0.698970^

logarithm, of the number 92375 required. Cut off . "^^ . ' "" '

the four figures 9237, and to the charafteriftic of the Logarithm f =0.29^725

logarithm correfponding to them, add an unit ; then, ^^ ^^'^ f*"^« manner may a logarithm of a iii:i:

From the logarith. of the numb. 9238=3.965578, number, as 3^ be found, it being firil reduced icto

-Subtraft logarith. numb. 9237=3.965531 animproper fraftion V-, ..

«__^_^_^ Or, this improper fraAion may be reduced to a mnw

Remains tabular difference 47 number, whofe logarithm muft be found as if itv<J«

Then 10 : 47 : : 5 : 23 wholly integral, and its index taken according to the

Now to the logarithm 4-965531 integral part. We fhall here obferve, that the loga-

Add the difference fpund zi rithms of whole numbers are added, fubtraded, &c^

The fum is the logarithm required. — 4.965554 according to the rules of thefe operations in deciiw.

Or more briefly ; find the logarithm of the firft four arithmetic ; but with regard to the management ot

figures as before ; then multiply the common diffe- logarithms with negative indices, the fame ndes are

rence which ftands againft it by the remaining figures ^o be obferved as thofe given in algebra for like ana

of the given number ; from the product, cut off as ^^^^^ figns. • j ^

many figures at the right hand as you muhiplied by^ ^^ addition, all the figures except the mdrt, vc

and add the remainder to the logarithm before found, reckoned pofitivc, and therefofc the iigmc to be ^r-

fitting it with a proper index. Thus 47X5 = 235 ; ^^ ^^ the index from the other part of the loga^o^

cut off 5 and add 23. takes away fo much from the negative index, i"^'

Tofttd the Icgarit/jm of a fraOicrr.^ SuhtmS: the lo- 1.8683326+37698972 = 175622918. In fubtraft'f '

garithm of the numerator from tliat of the denomi- if either one or both of the logarithms have nc^^^

nator, and^o the remainder prefix the fign of fub- indices, you -muft -change the fign of the index of tnc

'^^184. ^^

uin.

LOGARITHMS.

u^a- fubtralieiid, ftfler you hive carried to it what ma^anfe
^^^ from the decimal part, and then add the indices : thUs

»«*J 17^62298 — i,S6%^26zz^.6gSgj2. In multiplicatioa,
what is carried from the pn>dud of the other parts of
the logarithms muft be lubtra£led from the produ^

of the indices: thus 2*477121X5=28.385605. In di-
vifion> if the divifor will exadly meafure the index,

proceed as. in common arithmetic; a/. 4.924782

-^2 = 2^4j6239I« But if the dlvifor will not exsdiy
meafure the index, add units to the index, till you
can exa£Uy divide it, and carry thefe units to the next

number: ^.jr. 8'3856o5-^5=x2.477I2I.

Tojmdthi nvftitr e^rnjjfondmg to any given logarkhm.
«— If the logarithm 1>e within the limits of th« table,
«• e. if its index does not exceed 3, then negledling the
index, look down in the column of logarithms under
c, for tke two or three firft figures of your given lo-
(garithra ; and if you exa^^ly find all the figures of the
given logarithm in that column, you have the number
correfpondtng at t}ie left hand : But if you do not find
your logarithm exa6tiy in the column under o, you muft
run through the other columns till you find it exa6^Iy,
«r till you obtain the next le«dl Icmrithm ; and in the co-
lumn of numbers lineally againft it, you have the firft
5 figures of the number fought, to which join the
figure over the column, where your logarithm or itsi^
next leaft was found, and you have the correfponding
number, r. jr. the number «nfwering to the loga*
rithm 3.5448x2 is 5506.

If the index of this logafkhm had been i, then the

two laft figures of the number would have been deci*

. tnal ; with the index o, its correfponding number would

I havet>een 3.506; with 7, .3506 ; %vith 2, .03^06, &c.

If the logarithm cannot be found exii^» take the
next leaft, and make the differenoe between the given

I logarithmand the next leaft the numerator of a fradien

whofe deoominator fhall be tha conunon difference,
and' add the fiaftion to the number found in the

' table.

Tojind the wmher-twrrefpondxngfo a hgantbm greater
than any tn the taUe.-^tixkf from the given logarithm^
fubtra^ the logarithm of 10, or 100, or 1 00O9 or lOf 000,
till you have & logarithm thai mil tprtn within the
compafs of the table ; find the nundief conrcfpbnding
to thia, ayid multiply it by 10, or joo> or toco, or
10,000} the preduft is the number required.
' SuppoJEe, fdr Inftance, the. number corpcfponding to
4he lo«uitbm 7*7589982 be required : fubtra/£l the
logarithm of the number io,oco, which is 4.0000000,
from 7.589982 ; the remainder is 3.7589982, the num-
ber correfponding to which is 5 741 tVv - ^^9 muhi-
plied by i o>ooo, the produdk it 5 741 x X 00, the aumbex
required,

Otherwife ftek the decimal member of the logarithm

in the taUe» and if you can find it exa^y, you haye

.the four firft figures of the number in the table, to

irhich afiix as many ciphers as the given Index exceeds

3, and it is the number required. But if you eannot

find the logarithm exa&ly, take the next leaft, and

'find the four firft figures of the correfponding number ;

then take the diifefence betwixt the given logarithm

and the next lea^ and annex. to it iis many ciphers as

the index exceeds 3 ; then divide by the common dif-

VouX. Pari L

74s

fcrence, and affix Hie quotient to the four firft figures, £xpluit*
ahd you have the number requii^. J^^^ ^^^

Tojind the number correj^onding to a negative logarithm. * *' **
To the given negative logarithm add the laft logarithm
of the table, or that of the number loooo ; f. e, fub*
tra^ the firft from the fecond, and find the niunber
correfponding to the remainder ; this will be the nume*
rator of the fraction, whofe denominator will be ) 000 o i^
V* gr. fuppofe it to be required to find the fradlioa^
correfponding to the negative logarithm

a3679767, fubtraft this Froia

4.00000CO

The remainder is 3 •63 202 3 3^ the number corre-
fponding to which is 4285T-Vb» ^^ fi^^on fought-
therefore is t^Job^c-^' The reafon of the ruk is, that
as a frad^ion is the quotient, arifing on the ditifion
of U^ numerator by the denominator,, unity will be ta
the fra6Uon as the denominator to the numerator ;. but:
as unity is to the fra£Uon correfponding to the given
negative logarithm, fo is loooo to the number corre^-
fponding to the remainder : therefore, if 1 0000 be ta-
ken for the denominator, the number will be the nu*
merator of the fra£tioQ required.

The negative logarithm — C5-367977 is equal to tHe
logarithm 7.632023, and the number anfwering to«
it, found in the manner ahready direded„* will be

.4285TVr-

The fines, tangents, &c. 6f «any arch are cafily founds
by feeking the degree at tlie top, if dte arch be lefs •
than 45^, and the minutes at the fide, beginning from,
the top, and by feeking the degree, &c. at the bottom*,
if the arch is greater than 45®. If a given logarithm
mic fine or tan^nt falls between thofe in the ublea,
then the correQ)onding degrees and minutes may be
reckoned i, ^, or {, &c. minutes more than thofe belong-
ing to the neareft lefs logarithm in the tables,, accord*
ing ar its difference from the given one is -|, or f , or
f , &C, of the difference between the logarithm next
greater and next lefs than the given log.

§ 3« Oftbe v^frifui Saeneu to vthieh L^anthmi may-
be applied.
As thefe artificial numbers conflitutc » new fpecier
bf arithmetic capnUe of performing every tkiag vi'hich
can be done in the old vray, it is plain that tU ufie muft
be equally extenfive, and that in every fcienoe in u4iich
common arithmetic taa be ufeful, the logarithmicajL
arithmeric muft be much more fo, by reafon of its b^-
ing more eafily performed* Though the general prin-
eiple» of logarithmical arithmetic have been already
laid down, we fiiall here, in order to render the fubjeft.
ftill more plain, fnbjoin the following pradical rules.

I.. Multip&calkn by Logariilms*

Add together the logarithms of aQ the fa&ots, and'
the fum is a logarithm, the natural number correfpond-
ing to which will be the produA required.

Obferving to add, to the fum of the -affirmative indi-
ces, what is carried from the &m of the dcormal part»
of the logarithoiSk ^

And that the difference betwixt the affirmathre an*
negative indices is to be taken for the index to the lo^
garithro of the jrodttft.

14^

LOGARITHMS.

S«

Dififinn hy£pc. i; To multiply 23M4 by $*o62.
O^rithm. 23.i4it8log. is 1-3643634

5 *p62 its log. is 0*704322 1

Produ6k II7-I347 - 2-0686855

jBx. 3, Tomult. 2-581926 by 3-457291.
2.581926 its log. is 0*41 19438
3-457291 - . 0.5387359

Prod. S.92647 - 0.9506797

JBx* 3. To mult. 3*902, and 597"i6, and '0314728
all together. .

3-902 its log. is 0*59 1 2873
597-16 - - 2-7760907

-0314723 - a-49793J3

.11 — - - \

Prod. 73*33533 • ''8653133
"The a cancels the 2, and the i to cany from the de-
cimals is fet down.

.£x. 4. To mult. 35*86» and 2*i045>

.and .0-83729 and 0*0294 all together.

3*586 its log. is 0*5546103

2-1046 - - 0*3231696

.0-8372 - - ^9228292

.0*0294 - - 7-4683473 ^

Prod. •1857618 - - 1^2689564
Here the 2 to carry canceb the tf and there re-
.main the 1 .to fet down.

II. Dht/im %y Logantlmf*

From the ioigasithm of the dividend fubtraft the lo-
garithm of the divifor» the remainder is a logarithm
whofe correfponding number will be the quotient rt-
• quired.

But firft obferve to change the fign of the index of
kthe logarithm of the divifor» viz. from ne^^tive to af«
.firmative» or froita afiSnnative to negative ; then take
the fum of the indices if they be of the fame kind, or
their difference when pf different figns, with the (ign
«of the greater, for the index to the logarithm of the
quotient.

And when i is bovowed in the kfi-haad place of
the decimal part of the logarithm, add it to the index
of the logarithm of the^dirifor when that index is af-
£rmative, but fubtra6t it when negative ; then let the
4ndex thus found be changed, and worked with as be-
/ore.
£x» X. To divide 24163 by 4567^

Divide 24163 its log. 4'383i509
Divif. 4567 - - 3'65963io

Quot. 5-290782 - Q7235199

. jffx. 2. To divide 37*149 by 523-76.

Divid. 37*149 Its log. I '569947 1
Divif. 523.76 • - 2*7191323

Quoti -07092752 - 2*8508148

£x» 3. To divide •o63i4.by •00724K

Divid. '06314 its log' 2-8003046
Divi£ '007241 - -. 3*8597985

Qupt. 8*719792 - 0*9405051

Here J carried from the decimab to the 3 makes it '

become 2, which taken from the other 2, leaves crM

mainlng. *-

£x. 4. To divide '7438 by 12*9476.

Divid. '7438 its log. 1-8714562
Divid 12*9476 - 1.1121893

Quot. ••05744694 - T-7592669

Here the i taken from the z makes it become Fto
"fet down.

III. Tie Rule of Tbree^ or Proportion.

Add the logarithms of the 2d and 3d terms togt*
^er, and from their fum fubtra6i the logarithm of th;
ift by the foregoing rules ; the remainder will be the
•logarithm of the 4th term required.

Or in aay compound proportion whatever, add to*
gcther the logaridims of all the terms that are to be
multiplied, and from that fum take the fum of the e*
thers; the remainder wiU be the logarithm of the tens
bought.

But inftead of fubtrafting any logarithm, we mzjr
add itS'CompIement, and the refult will be the fane.
'By the complement is meant the logarithm of the re-
ciprocal of the given number, or the remainder by u*
king the given logarithm from o, or from 10, changing
-the radix fix>m o to 10; the eafieft method -of doiog
which^ is to begin at the left hand^ and fubtrad eaci
figure from 9, except the laft Significant figure od the
^right-hand, which muft be fubtra&ed from 10. Eut
when the index is negative, add it to 9, and fubtrad
the reft as be£E>re. And for every <;omplement thtt k
added, fubtra£i 10 from the laft ium of the indicea.

Eie. I. Tofind a4th proportionalto 72*34, and 2*51^

and 357.4862.
As 72*34 - comp. log, 8*1406215
To 2*519 - - 0*4012282
80357*4862 • - ^-5532592

To 12-44827 - - 1*095 1089^
Exn %• To find a 3d proportional to 12*796 ainl
3*24718.
As 12^706 - - comp. log. 8*8929258
To 3*247i8 • • o*5ix5o64

•So 3*24718 • • 0*5115064

To •^240216 - - 7*9159386
Ex, 3. To find a number in proportion to •379145''
-85132 is to •0649.

As *o649 - comp. log. 1 1 • 1 87 7553

To '85132 - - "9300928

' So •379145 - - "-5788054

To 4*973401 - - 0*6966535
Ex. 4. If the intercft of 100 1. for a year or 365^!*
be 4*5 1. what will be the intereft of 279*25 1- ^^

• A

274 days ?

As J Jgy comp. log.

To 5^79-25

I274
So 4*5

To 9*43329^

C 8*0000000

Cr437707i
2-4459933
2*4377500
0*6532125

0.9746634 jy

%. ni.

X O G A R

IV. Involiaiont pr ralfing q/ Powers*

Multiply the loganthnr t>i the number gives by the
propofed index ^f the power^ and the produ6t will be
the logarithm o^ the poorer fou^t.

Note. In multiplying a logarithm with^a negntive
todex by any alErmative number, the produd^ will be
negative. — But what is to be carried from the decimal
part of the logarithnpi. will be affimuitive.— Therefore
the difference wi)l be tike index of the produ6b ; and i«^
to be accounted ef the fsime kind with the greater*

Ex* I. To find the 2d power of 2*5^91.

Root. 2*5791 iulog» - 0*4114682-

index • ^ 2

Power 6'6p 756

a"8a293$4

JBx. 2i To find the cube of 3*07145*

Roof3'07i46itslog, - 0*4873449^

index - - • 3

Power ^•97575 - - 1 •4620347:

£x. 3» To find the 4th. power o£*09i63.

Root. '09163 its log. - 2*9620377

index * •• 4

• -

Power '000070493S • 5'6^8i5o8
Here 4 timea the negative index being 8, and 3 to
oarry, the difference 5 it the index.of the produA*.

Ex* 4. To find the 365th power of 1*0045.

Root. 1^0045 ita log "^ O!ooi9499>

indexK - • 365

Power 5^48888

974951
M6994

58497

- o.^ll^x35

V. £voIutionf or ExtraOhn of Roots*

Divide the logacitlxm of the power or given number
by its indexy and the quotient will be tlie logarithm
of the root required*

Note. When the index of the logarithm is nega-
tBVCi and the divifor is not exadly contained in it with-
out a. remainder, increafe it by fuch a aumber a» will

I T H M. a 147

make it exadly divifible ; and carry the units borrowed. Evolution
as fo many tens, to the left-hand place of the decimal ^7, h^*^
part of the logarithm ; then divide the refults by the "^ '"*'
udex of the root.

Ex* I. To find- the fquare root of 365*

Power 365 - • 2)2*5622929

Root 19*10498 - - i'28ii465

Ex^ 2. To find the cube root of 12345.

Power 12345 " • 3)4*09^49^'
Root 23*11162: - - 1*3638304.

Ex* 3* To find the loth root of 2.

rower « - - 10)0*3010300

Root 1*071773 - - 0*0301030

Ex* 4* To find the 365th root of i'045«

Power P045 - • 365)0.0191163
R^oot 1*000121 - • 0*0000524

Ex. 5* To find the fquare root of *093.

Power •093. - 2)7*9684829

Root •304959 •• - 1*4842415

Here the divifor 2 is contained exa£Uy once in 2* the
negative index; therefore the index of the quotient

is T.

Ex* 6* To find the cube root of '00048*

Power. - . - 3)j.*68i24i2

Root •07849735 - 2*8937471 _

Here the divifor 3 not being exa&Iy contained in 4^.
augment it by 2, to make it become 6» in which the
divifor is contained juft 2 times; and the 2 borrowed ^
being carried to the other figures 6, &c. makes •
2*6812412, which divided by 3 gives *8p3747i.

lii trigonometry, the ufe of logarithmical fines, tan*
gents, dec* are ufed as weU as the common arithm^cal
k>garithms| arid by ufingthem according to the rules
d>ove laid down, the operations are fliovtened to a de-
gree altogether incredible to perfons unacquainted with
this invention* With equal facility are the problems -
in aftronomy and navigation folved by their means, as
well as thofe of the higher geometry^ fluxions, and in •
fliort every thing which requires deep and laborious »
calculation. For the pai^icular application of then^-^
to the different fciences, fee the articles Navigation*
Tricon OMETHY, &c.

X2i •

t^8

LOGARITHMS.

A Table of Looarithms from i to 10,000.

410

7
8

9
10

Logar.

0.000000
0.301030
0.477 1 21
.602060
0.698970

0.778151
0.845098
0.903090
0.954242

1. 00000c

1-041393

13
14

15
16

17
18

Lo^ar.

1 .079181

i-"394.l
1.14612b

1.176091

1. 204120

1.230449
1.255272
1.278754
1.301030
1.3222I9
I.342423I

N"| Logar.

23^1.36x728
24.1.380211
i5ji-39794c
26 1.414973

28
29

30
31
32

14313^4

M4715*
1.462398

1.477 1 21

1.491362

1. 505 1 50

t.5^8514

34
35

37
3^

39
140

4'
42

.ogar.

I -53^7^
1.544068

1.568202
1-579784

1\^

1.59x0^5
1 .60206c
1 .6 1 27 841
1.623249;
1.633468

1:^43453

45
46

47
48]

mtk

S3
54

Logar.

I 6532x2
1.662758
1.67209^
1 .63 1^41
1 .690 1 96

1.698970

1.707570
1.716003
1.724276

1-732394

57
58

59
60

el
62

Logar.

1.748188

^•755875
1.763428

1.770852

1.778x51

^'l^SSSO
1.792392

1.799340

I.806I80
1.8129x3

1.819544

w
67

68
69
70

75
76

Xogar.

1.826075
1.831508
1.838849
1.845098
X.85^258

1-857332
1.863323

1.869232

r .87506 1
1.8808x4
1 .8 8649 1

7"i

81
82

83
84

85
86

881

Logu*.

1^92095
X.897627
1.90^090
1.908485
1.913814

1.9 1907 8
1.924279
1 .9294 1 9
1.934498

I -9395* 91
1-94448311

9^-v.

N*^

100

lOI

102

1^3

104

105
106
107
X08
109

no
III
112

113

114

116

117
118

119

I2C

121
122
123

124

J 25
126

127

128

13^

133
134

^35
136

137
138
ii9

2.oeoooc
2.0045 ;i I
2.008600
2.012837
2.017033

2..021189
2.025306
2.029384
2.033424
2.037426

2.04x393

2.045323
2.049218

2.053078

2.056905

2,060698
2.064458
2.068186
2.071882

2.075547

2.0^9181
2.082785
2.086360
2.089905
2.093422

2.096910
2.100371
2.103804
2.107210
2.1 10590

2.113943
2.117271
2.120574
2.123852
2.127105

-^•^3^334

2.X33539
2.136721

2.139879
2.143Q15

2.00043412.000868
2.00475^ 2.005180
2.009026 2.0094^1
2.013259 2.0-13680
2.01 745 1 2.017868

2.021603 2.022016
2.025715 2.026124
2.029789 2.030195
2.033826 2.034227

2.037825

2.041787
2.045714
^.049606
2.053463
2.057286

2.061075
2.064832
2^68557
2.072250
2.075912

2.079543
2.083144

2.086716

2.000258

2.093772

2.097257
2.100715
2.104145
2.107549
2,110926

2.114277
2.1 17603
2.120903

2.124178
2.127429

2.130655
2.133858

2.137037
2.140194

2.143327

2.038223

2.^2182

2.046105
2.049993
2.053846
2.057666

2,061452
2.065206
2.068928
2.072617
2.076276

2.07 9904
2.083503
2.087071
2.09061 1
2.094122

2.097604
2.101C59
2.104487
2.107888
2.1 1 1 262

114611
2.117934
2.12123J
2.124504
2.127752

2.130977

2.I34177

2.137354
2.140508

2.143639

i» I

2.001^01
2.005609
2.009876
2.OI4IOO
2.018284

2.022438
2.026533
2.030600
2.034628
2.038620

2.042575
2.046495
2.050380
2.054230
2.058046

2.061829
2.065580
2.069298
2.072985
2.076640

2.080266
2.083861
2.087426
2.090963
2.094471

2.097951

01403
04828
08227
1x598

2.
2.
2.
2.

2.
2.
2.
2.
2.

2.
2.
2.
2.

14944
18265
21560
24830
28076

31298

34496
37670
40822

4i2^

2.001734 2.002166

2.006038
2.010300
2.01452c
2.018700

2.022841
2.026942
2.031004
2.035029
2.039017

2.042969
2.046885
2.050766
2.054613
i.058426

2.062206
2.065953
2.069668

2.073352

2.077004

2.080626
2.084219
2.087781
2.09x3x5

2.111(^4

2.006466 2.006894

2.010724
2.01494c

2.023252
2.027350

2.002598

2.011 147

2.015360

2.003029
2,007321
2.01 1570

2.OI9I16 2.019532

2,031408 2.031812
2.035430 2.035830
2.039414 2.039811

2.043362
2.047275
2.O51152
2.054996
2.058805

2.062582
2.066326

2.07003S
2.073718
2.077368

2,080987
2.084576
2.088136
2-09x667

2.09482c 2.0951692.095518

2.098297 2.C98644
2.101747 2.102090
2.1 05 1 69 2.105510
2.108565 2.108903

2.115278
2.118595
2.121888

2.II227O

2.1x5610
2.118926
2.122216

2.125I56 2.125481
2.128399 2.128722

2.131619
2. 1 348 1 4

2.137987
2.141136
2.14.^263

2-131939
2-I35133
2.138303

2.023664
2.027757

2.0X57791.0X6X97
2.019947 9.020361

2-043755
2.047664

2.051538

2.055378
2.059185

2.062958
2.066698

2.070407
2.074085
2.077731

2.08x347
2.084934
2.088490
2.092018

2.09899c
2.102434
2.105851
2.109241
2.112605

2.024075
2.028164
2.032216
2.036229

2.040207

2.044148

2.048053
2.05x924

2.055760

2-059563

2.003460
2.007748
2.0X1993I

2.024486
2*028571
2.0326x9
2.036629
2.040602

2-063333
2.067071
2.070766
2.074451
2.078094

2.081707
1.085291
2.088845
2.09237c
2.C95866

2.115943
2.1 19256
2.122543
2.125806
2.129045

2.099335

2.102777

1.106191
2.109578
2.112940

2.04454c
2.048442
2.052309
2.056142
2.059942

2.003891
2.008x74
2.0124x5
2.0 1 661 5
2.020775

2.024896
2.028978
2.033021
2.037028
2.040998

2-04493
2.04883c

393
38^

2.052694} 380
2.056524 382
2,o6c32c 379

2.063709
2.067443
2.07114 c
2.074816
2.078457

2.082067
2.085647
2.08919,8
2.092721
2.096215

2.099681
2.103119
2.106531
2.109916

2.1 13275

2.13226c

2.135451
2.138618

2.14145012.141763
2.144574I2.144885

2.116276

2.II'jjS6J2.
2.12^071^2.
2.126131

2.12930^

rvQ ->

116608

"9915
1.23198

126456

12969c

2.064083
2.0678x4
2.07x5x4
2.075x82
2.078819

2.082426 ^6
2.08600 1 1 35 7I
2.089552
2.093071
2.096562

2.100026
2.103462
2.106870
2.110253
2.1 13609

2.132580J2.
2.135768.2.

2.13^9342.
2.14207612.

2.14519612.

1 ^2QOC
136086

139M9

2^116940
2.120245
2.123523
2.1 2678 1

2.130012

2.133219
2.136403
2.139564

14238912.142702
1455072.14581

325
3-^3

LOaARITHMK

■ liiH

MMh

140 2. 1 461 28
I41I2.I49219
'2.152288

2.158362

142

143

144

145
146

147
148

149

2.146438
2.149527
2.152594
2.155640
2.158664

2.161368

2-1^4353

2.167317

2.170262
2.173186

15012.176091

151

154

2.178977
2.181844
2.1 84691
2.187521

155
»J7
159

2.190332
2.193 125
2.195900
2.198657
2.201397

160
161
162
163
164

2.204120
2.206826
2.209J15
2.212188

2.214844

2.217484
2.220108
2.222716

165

166

167

168 2.225309 2.225568

169

170
171

172

174

2.227887

2.161667
2.164650
2.167613

2-170555
2.173478

tmammmmm^m

•**i

2.146748
2.149835
2.152900

2.155943
2.158965

ijbta

2.176381
2.179264
2.182129
2vl 84975
2.187803

*■«■

2.190612
2.193403
J.I96176
2*198932

2.201670

■^

2.204391
2.207095
2.209783
2.212454
2.215109

2.217747
2.220370
2.222976

2.228143

.230449 2.230704 2.230960

2.232996

2.235528

2.238046

2.240549

175

176
1 7^

178

179

2.243038

2.245513

^•M7973
2.250420

^•252853

18c
181
182

184

2.255272
2.257679

2.26007 1
2.262451
2.264818

2.233250
2.235781
2.238297
2.240799

2.1619^
2.164947
2.167908
2.L70848
2.173769

■■■••i

2.176670
2.179552
2.1824I5
2.185259
2.188084

2.190892
2.19366 1
2.196452
2II 99206
jr.201943

2.204662
2,207365
2.2^10051

2.212720

2.215373

2.218010
2.220631
^.223236
2.225826
2.228400

2.147058
2.150142
2.153205
2.156246
2.159266

i^^b

2.147367
2.150449
2.153510
2.156549
2.159567

1.162266
2.165244
2.168203
2.171141
2.174060

•^tk

2.176959
2.179839
2.182700
2.185542
1.188366

2.191171

3^-193959
2.196729

1.199481

2.202216

-iOHU

2.204933
2.207634
2.210318
2.212986
2.215638

.AAta

2.218^3
2.220892
2.223496
2.226084
2.228657

2.162564
2.165541
2.168497
2.171434

2-ir435J

UH^.^

2.147676

2.150756

2.153815
2.1568^2

2.159868

UBh.

>l ■

2.16286^

2.165838

2.168792
2.171726
2*174641

2.147985

2.I5I063

2.154119
2»r57i54
2.160168

MB.

M*i

2.177248
2.180126
2.182985
2.185826
2.188647

II Jill* .III

2.191451

1.194237
2.197005

2-J99755
2.202488

2.205204
2.207903
2.210586
2.213252
2.215902

1 ■ ■ t ■!

2.243286

2.245759
2.248219

2.250664

2.255514

2.257918

2.233504
2.23603a
2.238548
2.241048

2.243534
2.246006

2.248464

2.250908

2.231215

2.233757
2.236285

2.238799

2.241297

2.253096 2.253338

186
187
188
189

2.267172
2.2695 I lj

2.27l84'2

2.274158
2.276462

19c

191

192

J94

2.278574

2.281033
2.283301

2.285557

2.287802

2.262688

2.265054

2.267406
2.269746
2.272074

2.274389

2.276691

2.278982
2.281 26 1
2.283527
2.285782
2.28802c

2-255755
2.258158

2.2603102.260548
2.262925
2.265290

2.267641
2.269980

2.272306
2.274620
2.276921

2.2792IC
2.281488
2.283753

2.286007

2.243782
2.246252

2.218535

1.221 1^3

2-22375}
2.2^6342
2.228913

wimmm

2.177536
2.I804I3
2.183270
2.186108
2.188928

■MMMMMi*.

2.191730
2.194514

2*200029
2^202761

1.163161
2.166134
2.169086
1.172019
2.174932

2.148294
2.15137c
2.154424

2.157457
2.100468

MM«

■MMh

2.177825
2.1^0699

2.r83554
2.186391
2.189209

2.192010
2.194792

2.197280 2.197556

2.205475

2.208172
2.210853
2.2I35I8
2.216-166

2.218798
2.22I4I4
2.224015

^mtamtt

2.231470
2.23401 I
2.236537
2.239049
2.241546

2.148709 2.248954

1.251151
2.253580

2.255996
2.258398
2.260787
2.263162
2.265525

2.244030
1.246499

2.251395

2.253822

2'.229170

2.231724
2.234264
2.236789
2.239299
2.241795

2.200303
2.203033

2./05745

2f.2o844i
2.21 II 20
2.213783
2.216430

irtMMM

■MW

2.I78II3
2.180986
2.183839
2.186674
2.189490

2.178401
2.181272
2.184123
2.186956

2.I8977I

2.192289
2.195069
2.197832
2.200577
2.203303

2.192567
2.195346
2.198107

2.200850
2.203577

2.206016

^.208710

2.-211388
2.214049
2.216694

2.206286
2.208978
2.211654

2.216957

.«•■

2.21906c

2.22rl675

2.224274

2.2266002.226858

2.229426

M.^

;

2.244277
2.246745

2.249198

2.251638

2.254064

2.231975
2.234517
2,237041

2.239549
2.242044

2.219322
2.221936
2-224533
2.227115
2.229682

m»mtm

2.244524
2.24699)
2.249443
2.25188]
•2.2-54306

2.256236
2.258637
2.261025
2^63399
2.265761

2.267875

2.268110

2.270213
2.272538
2.274850
2.277151

a.270446

2.279439
2.281715
2.283979
2.286^32

,2.275cih
2.277380

2.279667
2.281942

2.284205
2.2^0456

2,256477
2^258877
2.261263
2.2636^6
2.265996

2.268344

2.270679

2.2727702.273001

2.27531 1
2.277609

2.279895
2.282169
1.284431
2.286681

2.256718
2.2591x6
2.261501
2.263873
2.266233

2.268578

^•232233
2.23477c
2.2.37292
2.23980c
2.242293

2.244772
2.247236
2.2496^^7
2.252125

2.254548

2.219584
2.222196
2.224792
2.227372
2.229938

2.232488
2.235023

2.237544
2.240050

2.242541

2.164055
2.167022

2.163459

2» 166430

2.1693802.1696742.169968
2.172311 2.172603 2.172895
2.175222 2.175512 2.175802

2.148603
2.151676
2.154728

2-157759
1.160769

rtki

2-163757
2.166726

2.1 489 II
2.151982
2.155032
2.158061
2.161068

i^Mi

2.178689

2.1 8 1 558
2. 1 84 107
2.187239
2.19005 1

2.192846
2.195623
2.198382
2.201 124

2.203848

299
297
295

293
291

289
287
285

283
281

2.206556
2.209247
2.21192I

2^214314:2.214579

2.217221

2.219846
2.222456
2.225051
2.22763 c
2.230193

2.256958

^'^59355
2.261738

2.264109

2.266467

2.268819

2.270912 2.271144

2.2732332.273464
2.275542^2.275772

27554
2.277838

2.24501C
2^.247482
2.249932
2.252367
2.25479c

2.257189
2.259594
2.261976
2.264345
2.266702

2.232742
2.235276

2.237795
2.240299

2.242790

279

278
276

274

272

271
269
267

266

264

^262
261

259

25«
256

2.245266

2.247728
2.25017^
2.252610

2.25503'

2.26904O
2.271377
2.27369()

2.276002
2.278067 2.278296

2.28012312.280351
2.28239512.282622
2.284656:2^284882

2.280578
2.282849
2.285107

2.2869o5;2.287i30*2.287354

2.28^249 2^^88423 2.28869612.288920^289143 2.289366 2.289589I2.2898 1 2

2-257439

2.259833
2.262214

2.264582

2.266937

254

253
252

250

249

248
246

245

243

242

2.269279
2.271600
2.273927
2.276232

.278525

2.28c^c6
2.283075
2.285332
2.287578

241

239

23^
237

23i

234
233

230

229

228
227
226

225
223

I^O

LOGARITHMS

199

200 2.301030

30I 2.303196
2022.305351

203 2.307496

204 2.309630

205
206
207
208
209

210
211

212
213
214

215
216
217
.218
219

220
221
222
223
224

225
, 226
227
228
229

2302

231
232

234

235
236

%3»
239

240
241
242

243
244

245
246

247

248

2.290035
2.292256

2.294466(2

2.296665

2.298853

2,290257
2.292478
.294687
2.296884
2.299071

2-3 "7 54
2.313867

2.315970
2.318063

2.320146

2.322219
2.324282
2.326336

2.301247
2.303412

2.307710
2^309843

2*31 1966
2.514078
2.316180
2.318272

2.320354

2.322426
2.324488
2.326541

2.3283802.328583

2-3304^^4

2.332438

2-334454
2.336460

2.338456
2.340444

2.342423
2.344392

2.346353
2.348305

2.350248

2.352182
2.354108
2.356026

2-357935
2^359835

.361728
2.363612
2.365488
2.3^7356
2.369216

0682

2.371
2.372912

2^74748

^'37^511

2.378398

2.380211
2.3820x7

2.383815
2,385606

2.387390

2.3^9166

2.390935
2.392697

2.394452

2;22^

2.330617

2,332640

2.334655
2.336660

2.338656

2.340642

2.342620

2.344589
2.346540
2.348500

2.350442

2.352375
2.354301
2.356217

2.358125
2.360025

2.3619I7
2.363800

2.365675
2.367542
2.369401

371253
2.373096

2.374931
2.376759

2.378580

2.380392
2.382197

2.383995

2.385785
2.387568

2.389343

2.391 1 12

2.392873
2.394627

2.290480
2.292699
2.294907
2.297104
21299289

2,301464
2.303628
2.305781
2,307924
2,310056

2,312177
2.314289
2.326390
2.3 1 848 1
2.320562

2.322633
2.324694
2.326745
2.328787
2.330819

2.332842

2.334856
2.336860

2.338855
2.340840

2.290702
2.2^2920
2.295127

2.297323
2^99507

2.301 68 1

2.303844

2.305996
2.308137

2.310268

2.290925' 2.291 i47'2.29L369
2.29514112.293362 2,2935a3

T
2-2953472-295567

2.2975422,297760

2.299725;2,299943

2.30I898I2.302II4

2.304059 2.304275

2:313389

2.314499
•.316599

2.318689

2.320769

2.3062IQ

2.308351

2.3 1 048 1

2.306425

2.3P8564
2.310693

2.322839

2.324899

2.326950
2.328991

2.33io2a|a

2.325046
2.325105

2-327154
2.32919412.52

.33"*5

2.333044 2
2.3350562

^•337060

2.339054
^•341039

2.342817^2
2.344785

2.346744
2.348694

2,550656

2.352568

2.354493
2.556408

2.358316
2.360215

2.562105
2.363988

343014
2.344981

2.346939
2.548889

2.350829

2.552761
2-354684

2.356599
2.358506

2.360404

2.562294
2.364176

2.565862 2.366049
2.367728.2.367915
2.369587 2.36977

2.3714372.371622
•2.3732802.573464

2.3751152.375298
2.3769422.3771

2.378761

2.380573
2.382377
2.384175
2.385964
2.387746

242

2.378943

2.38075412
2.382557

2.384353
2.386142

2.387923

2.38^520
2;39i288

2.393048
2.394802

^•396^48

a.391464
2.393124)2

a-394977

2.312600

2.3x4710

2.516809

2.318898
2.320977

•333264

335257I2

2.33 >26o

2.3392531^

2.341255

2.34521 2I2

2.345178

2.347135
2.349083
2.351025]

2.352954
2.354876

2.356790

2.558696

2.360593

2.362482

2.364363

2.366236
2.368101

2.369958

2.371806

2.373647
2.575481

.377306
2.379124

2.5128x2
2,514920
2.5170x8
2,519x06
2,521x84

2.^23252
2,3253x0

2.327359

9398

2-351427

2-333447
-335458

2-337459

339451

2.34.1434

2.333649
^335^5^

2.337659
2.339650
2.541652

343409

2.345374
2.347330[2
2.349277
2,55x216

2.353146
2.355068
2.556981
2.558886
2.560785

X36267X

2.364551
2.366423

2.368287

2.370143

2.371991

2.373831
2.375664
2.377488

2.379305

•380954
2.382737

2.384533
2.386321

2.38810X

ii^

2.389874

2.591641
393400

2.395152
2.596869

2.38X1X5
2.382917
2.3847X2
21386499
2.388:179

2.390051
2.3918X7

2.393575
2.595326

2.397070

2,295787

2.297979
2.300160

2.302331
2,304490
2.506639
2.508778
2.510906

2.513025

2.315130
2.5X7227

2.319314
2.3215911

2.323458
2.325516

2.327563
2.5296OX

2.55X629 ^55^852

2.343605

2.345570

347525
2.349472
2.351500

2.353339
2.355260

2.357172
2.359076
2.560972

2.562859

2.364739
2.566700

2.368473
2,570328

2.372175
2.3740X5

2.375846
2.377670
2.379487

2.38X296
2.383097
2.384891
2.586677

2.590228

2.391993
2.393751
2.395501

2.29x591
2.295804
2,296007
2,298198
2.500378

2.302547
2.304706

2.306854

2.308991

2.311X18

2.3133242
2.31 5340)2

2.5 X

2.51952

2.5 2J 59

74362

2.29x813
2.294025
2.296226

2.2984162.298655

*.3oo595 2.3008x3

2.302764
2.304921
2.30706^
2.309204

2.3 IX

3302

313445
315550
5X.7645

2.319730
2.52x805

2.525664 a.52387
2.525721 2.3259*6
2.527767

2.329894 2.330008

2.333850^.334051
2.335859 2.336059

2.337858 a.338058 ^^ ^ ,

2.339*^492.340047 **34oa46
2.34x8302.342028 3.342225

^.345802 ,2.545999 2.544196
2.5457662.345961 2.346157
2.347720 2.547915 2.3481 xo
2.549660 2.549860I2.550054
2.351605 2,55x796 2.55x989

2.353532

2.355451

2.357363
2.559266

2.56XX6X

2.35372412

2-355643

2-35755413
2.

».36i350

2.363048
2,364926
2.366796
2.368659
2.37051

2.572360
2.374198
2.376029

2.377852
2.579668

2.581476
2.382277
2.38507
2,386855

2.388456 2^388634

2.395676

15ir

2.292054
2.294246
2.296446

2.502980

2.30513^
2.507282

2.509417
311542

2.313656
2.5x5760

2.317854
2-319938
2.322012

2.524077
2,526131

2.5279722.528176

2.5502 1 1

2-3320542.552236

222
221

22c
219
21S

2x7
2x6
215

213
2x2

2XX
2X0
209
208

207

2.334253
2.336259
2-338257

359456 2.359646

2.363236

2.365113
3.366985

2.568844

.370698

2.372544
2.374382
2.3762x2
2.378034
2.379849

2.381656

2.383456
OI2.385249

2.387034
2.5888 IX

2.3904052.590582
2.3921692.592545
2.5939262.594x01

2.395850

2. ^9^4 i8'2.gp75p2

•353916

2.355834

357744

202
201

2 CO

199

19H

197I
196

195
194
193

2.361539

2.363424
2.365301
2.367169

2.369030
2.370883

193I

192

191

190
189

188

187
186

1S5

2.372728

2.374565

2.376394
2.3782x6

2.380030

2.38x837

2.383636

2.385427
2.3872x2

2.388989

2.590758
2.392521
2,594x76
2.396025
2 .3p7] f66

l>le.

Tf!

250 2.397940 2.3981 14 2

251 2.39967412.399847 2

252 2.401 400| 2401 573 2

253 2.4031202.403292 2

254 2.404834 2.405005 2

255J 2.406540 2.400710

256 2.408240

257 2.409933

258 2.41 1620

^591 2-413300

260
261
262
263
264

265
,2661

268

269

2702

271
272

^73
274

275
276

277

278

279

280
281
282
283
284

285
286
287
288
289

290

29
29

MMM««*HM

LOGARITHMS.

t.414973

t.4 16640

2408409
2.410J02
241 1788
2.413467

^418301 2.418467
2.419956 2.4201 21
2421604 2421768

2.423rt46 2423410
2.424882 2.425045

2.42651 1
2.428135
2429752

•43 '3^4
2.432965

2.434569
2436163

2.437751

M39333
2440909

2442480

2.444045

2.445604

2.447158
2448706
2450259
2.451786

2453318

2454845
2.456366

2.45788

2.459392
2.460898

2.462

2463 _
24653.83

293 2466868

294 2.468347

2.415140
2.416807

2.426674
2.428297
2.42991

2431525
2.433129

2.434728

2436322

2.437909

2.439491
2.441066

2.442636

2.444201

2.44576

M473I
2.44886

2450403
2.451940

245347

2454997
2.456518

2458033

2459643
2461048

^548

2.462
2.464042

246553
246701

2468495

1.398287 2.398461 2

t.400020 2.400192
S.401745 2.401917 2
t.403464 2.403635
^4051752405346

2406881

2.407051

2.408579 2408749 2

410440

41 21 24

413802

S410271
L41 1956 2

^413635

415307
416973

24186^3

2.420286

2.421933

2423573
2425208

2426836

2.428459

430075

2.4316SS

2.434888

2.436481

243806712

2.439648

2.441224

.2442793

2.444357
>ol24459i

2.447468
2.449015

2450557
2.452093

2.453624

2415474

24x7139
2*418798

2.420451

2.422097

2423737

2425371
2426999

2.428621

2.430236

2.431846

433290 2433450

2.435048
2.436640

438226 2

2.439806
2.441381
2.442950

2444513
2.446071

2447623
2449170
2.4507 1 1
2452247

2453777

24551492455302
2.456670 2.45682

2.458184

2459694
2461198

2462697

24641 91

2 246568

02467164

2.468643

2.462847
2.464340
012.465829
2.46731
2.468790

295 2.469822 2469969 2.4701 16

296 2471 292[247i438}247 1585

297 24727562472903

298 2.474216 2.474362
2992.4756712475816

2473049
2.474508

2475962

^300 2.477I21J2.477266 2.477411

301 2478566 2.47871 1'2478855

302 2.480007 2480151 2.480294

303 248 1443 248 1 586 248 1 729 ..^..,„y^
30412.482^74 2.48.:^0 162483159 2.483302

2458336
2.459845

2461348

)263

2470

247173

24731^

2.474653
24761

2477555
2.478999

2.480438

2.48187

.398634J2.398808 2.398981 2.3991542.399327 S.399501

400365 24od538,2.4007ii 2.400883 2*401056 2.401228

4020892402261 2.402433 2402605 2.402777 2.402949

2403807 2.403978 2.404149 2404320 2:4044922.404663

2405517 2405688 2.405858 2.406029 2.4061992.406370

2.407561 2.407731 2.4079002.408070
2.409257 2.409426 2.409595 2.409764
0608 2.410777 2.410946 2.411114 2.411283 2.411451
412292 2.412460 2.412628 2412796 2.412964 2.413132
413970 2414137 2.414305 2.414472 2.414639 2.414806

2407221 2407391
408918 2.409087
241

2.415641 2.415808 2.415974 2.416141 2.416308 2.416474
2.417306 2417472 2.417038 2.417804 2.417970 2.418135
21.418964 2.419129 2419295 2.419460 2.419625 2.419791
2420616 2.420781 2.420945 242irio 2.421275 2.421439
2.422261 24I2426 2.422590 2.422750 2.422918 2.423082

2.423901 2.424064 2.424228 2.424391 2.424555 2.424718
2.425534 2.425697 2.425860 2.426023 2.426186 2.426349
2.427161 2.427324 2.427486 2427648 2.427811 2.427973
428782 2.428844 ^.429106 2.429268 2.429429 2.429591
2.430398 2.430559 2.430720 2.430881 2.431042 2.431203

2.432007 2.432167 2.432328 2.432488 2.432649J2.432809
2.433610 2433770 2433930 2434090 2.434249 2.434409
2.435207 2435366 2.435526 2435685 2.435844 2.436003
2436798 2.436957 2.437116 2437275 2437433 2437592
43838412438542 2438705 2.438859 2.439010 2.439175

2.439964 2.440122 2.440279 2.440439J2.440594 2.440752
2.441538 2.441695 2.441852 2.442009 2.442166 2.442323
2.443106 2.443263 2.443419 2.443576 2.443732 2.443888
2444669 2.444825 2444891 2.445137 2.445293 2.445448
2446226 2.446382 2.446537 2.446692 2446848 2.447003

^ 2*470410 2.470557 2.470704

2 2-.471878 2.472024 2.472171

2.473341 2.473487 2.473633

2474799 2474944 2475080
2.476252 2.476396 2.476542

2.479143 2.479287 2.479431 ,,,,,,
2.480582 2.480725 2.480869 2.481012
2 2.482016 2.482159 2.482302 2.482445
2. 483445 2.483587 2.48^^72oi2.48^87

^'^^"^■^^'*"^ —^^^^"^^-^^^ ■.^MlH^.^nB^l^iB ^•^^•^U^im^^^^^m
2447778 2447933 2448088 2.448242 2.448397 2448552

2.449324 2.449478 2449633 2.449787 2449941 2450095
2.450865 2.45IOI8 245II72 2451326 2.451479 2.451633

2.452400 2452553 2.452706 2.452859 2\453oi2 2.453165
2453930 2.454082 2.454235 2.454387 2.454540 2.454692

2.455454 2.455606 2.455758 2.455910 2456062 2.456214
2456973 2.457125 2.457276 2.457428 2.457579 2.457730
2.458487 2458638 2.4587892.458940 2459091 2.459242
2.459995 2460146 2460296 2.460447 2.460597 2.460747
2.461498 2.461649 2.4617992.461948 2.462098 2.462248

2.462997 2.463146 2.463295 2.463445 2.46359J2.463744
2.464489 2.464638 2.464787 2.464936 2.465085 2.465234
2465977 2.466125 2.4662742.466423 C.466571 2.466719
2.467460 2.467608 2.467756 2.467904 2.468052 2.468199
2.468938 2.469085 2.469233 2.469380 2.469527 2.469675

2477700 2^477844 2.477989 2.478133

2.470851 2.470998 2.47 1 145
2.472317 2.472464 2.472610

2473779 2.473925 2474070
2.475235 2.475381 2.475526
2.476687 2.476832 2.476976

2.478278

173

173
172

171
171

170
169
169
x68
167

167
166

165
164

2.4795752.479719
2.481156

2.482588

2.478422
2.479863
2.481299
2482731
2.48401512.484157

164
163
162
162
161

160
160

159
159
i5«

158

157

157
156

15J

155
154

154
153
153

152
152

151
151
15

150
149
148
148

147

147
146

146

145

144

144
143

ii3l

»5t

L O G A R I T

305 2484300 2.484442 2.48458412.48472712.484869
30612.485721 2.485863 2.486oo5'2.486i47,2.486289
307,2487138 2.487280 248742IJ2487563 2487704
308:2488551 2.488692 2.488833 2.488973J24891 14
309*2489958 2490099 2.490239 2490280.2.490520

310 2491362 2.491502 2491642 2.491782 2.491922

311 2.492760 2492900 2.493040 2.493 179 24933^9

312 2.494155 2.494294 2.494433 2.494572 2.49471 1

313 2.595544 2.495683 2.495822 2.495960 2.496099

314 2.4969302.497068 2.497206 2.497344 2.497482

315 24983 1 1 2.498448 2.498586 2.498724 2.498862

316 2.499687 2.499824 2.499962 2.500099 2.500236

317 2.501059 2.5QII96 2.501333 2.501470 2.501607

318 2.502427 2.5025642.5027002.502837 2.502973

319 2.503791 2.503927 2.504063 2.504199 2.504335

320 2.505150 2.505286 2.505421 2.505557 2.505692

321 2.506505 2.506640 2.506775 2.50691 1 2.507046

322 2.507856 2.507991 2.508125 2.508260 2.508395

323 2.509202 2.509337 2.509471 2.509606 2.509740
324I2.5I0545 2.510679 2.5I08I3 2.510947 2.51 I08I

325 2.511883 2,512017 2<5i2i5o 2.512284 2.512417

326 2.5I32I8 2.5133^1 2.513484 2.5I36I7 2.5x3750

^27 2.514548 2.514680 2.5I48I3 2.514946 2.515079
328 2.515874 2.516006 2.5 16 1 39 2.5 1 627 1 2.516403
32912.517196 2.517328 2.517460 2.517592 2.517724

332

348
349

34i M378'9 2.537945 2.538071

330 2.518514 2.'5i8645 2.518777 2.518909^2.519040
331. 2.519828 2.519959 2.520090 2.520221 2.520352
2.521138 2.521269 2.521400 2.521530 2.521661

333 2.522444|2.52257'5 2,522705 2.522835

33f 2.52374612.523876 2.52400612.524136 2.524266

^35*2.525045 2.525174 2.525304J2.525433 2.525563

336 2.526339 2.526468 2.526598 2.526727 2.526856

337 2.527630 2.527759 2.517888 2.528016 2.528145

338 2.528917 2.529045 2.529174 2.529302 2.529430

339 2.530200 2.530328 2.530416 2.530584 2.530712

340 2,531479 2.531607 2.531734 2,53186212.531989

341 2.532754 2,532882 2.533009 2.533136 2.533263

342 2.534026 2.534153 2.534280 2.534407 M34534

343 2.535294 2.535421 2.535547 2.535674 2.535800
S44 2.536558 2.536685 2.536811 2.536937 2.537063

1 346 2.539076 2.539202 2,539327 2.539452 2.539578
• 347 2,540329 2.540455 2.540580 2.540705 2.540830

2.541579 2.54^704 2.541829 2.541953 2.542078

2.542825 2.542950 2,543074 2.543199 2.543323

- - I - . -

■^••■^B -^K^^BiiKHMMaMiiW.aHiMiBaH^iBMiii^BM ^Kvi^^^^B^Ba^i^M ^mm^^mm^m^^m^ '•^^•^•'m^^^^^t^m

350 2.544O68J2.544I92 2.54^316 2.544440 2.544564

351 2.5453O7J2.54543I 2.545554 2.545678 2.545802

352 2.546543 2.546666 2.546789 2.546913 2.547036

353J2.547775;2.547898 2.548021 2.548144 2.548266
3542.549003^2.549126 2.549249 2.549371 2.549494

355 2.550228 2.550351

356 2.551450 2.551572

35^ ^'SSS^Z 2.554004
i9 2^555094*2.555215

357 2.552668,2.552790 2.552911 2.553033 2.553154

^•550473 '^'SS^S9S 2.55071.
2.551694 2.551816)2.551938

i84p

2.554126 2.554247 2.554368

2498999
2.500374
2.501744
2.503109
2.504471

2.522966

2.538197 2.53,8322

M S.

V ^ I

■ff

2.48501 1 J2.485153
2.486430 2.486572
2.487845*2487986

2489255
2490661

2*489396
2,490801

248529511485437
2.4867142486855
2.4881^7 2.488269

2492062 2.492201

2.493458 2493597
2494850 2.494989

2,496237
2497621

2.505828
2.507181
2.508510
2.509874
2.511215

2.5 1 255 1

2.513883
2.515211

2-516535
2.517855

2.519171

2.520483
2.521792
2.5 23096)2
2.524396

2.525692
2.526985
2.528274

2.529559
2-530839

2.532117

2.533391
2.534661

2-535927
2.537189

2.538448

2.539704

2.540955
2.542203

2.543447

2.544688

2.545925

2.547159

2.548389
2.549616

2.550840
2.552059
2.553276

2.554489
2.JJ5699

2.496376
2.497759

2.499137
2.5005 1 1
2.501880
2.503246

2.504607

2.505963
2.507316

2.508664

2.510008

2.511348

2.512684
2.514016

2.5 1 53441
2.516668

2.517987

2.519303
2.520614

2.52x922

523226

2.524526

2.525822
2.527 1 14
2.528402
2.529687
2.530968

2-532^45
2.533518

2.534787
2.536053

2.537315

2.538574
2.539828

2.541080

2.542327

2.543571

2.544812
2.546049
2.547282
2.548512

2.549739

2.550962
2.552181

2.553397
2.554610

2.555820

2489537
2490941

2492341

2.493737
2.495128

2.4965142.496653

2.497897

2499^5
2.500684

2.502017
2.503382
2-504743

2.506099

2.507451
2.50879Q

2.510143

2.511482

2.489677
2.491081

2493481
2.493876
2.495267

2.49^035

2.4994x2

2.500785
2.502x54
2.503518
2.564878

2.512818

2.514x49
2.515476
2.516799

2.518119

2.519434

2.520745

2.522053

2.523356
2.524656

2.525951

2.527243

2.528531
2.529815

2.55^^095

2.532372
2.533645
2.534914
2.536179
2.537441

2.506234
2.507586
^•508933
2,5x0277
2.51x616

T!C

2485579 M2

2486997 14:
2.488409I

2489818
2.491222

2.4^2621

2.494015

2.495405

2,496791
2.498173

2499549

2.500922
2.502290

2.503654

2.505014

2.5 1 295 1

1.514282

2.515609
t.516932^
2,518351

2.519565

2.520876
2.522183
2.523486

2.524785

2.507721

2.509068
2.5I04II

2.511749

14:

^''
14:

13^

2.513084

2.5144^5

2.5 1 5741
2.517064

2.518382

^3^
13J

n
I?.

2.319^1
2.521007

2.522314

2.523616

2.524915

^(.5 26081
2.527374
2.528660
1.529943
2.531223

2.526210

2.^7501
2.528788
2.530072

134

133
13^

131

132
13^

2.538699

2.539954
2.541205

2.542452

2.532499

2.53377*

^'5315^1

2.544936
a.546172

2-547405
2.548635

2.549861

2.551084

2.5^*303
2.553519
2.554731
2-5.^5940

2.538825
2.540079

2.541330
2.542576
2.543820

2.545060
2.546296

2.547529
2.548758

2.549984

2.551206

2.552425
2.553640
2.554852

2.556061

2.532627

2.533899
2.535167
2.53643^
2.537693

125
125
129
12!
128

2.53895^

2.540204

2.541454
2.542701

2.543^44

2.545183
2.546419
2.547652
2.548881
2.550106

2.551328
2.552540
2.553762
2.554973

12S

12]

126

n6
.125
125

124

122

123

111'

I2l

J2i

LOGARITHMS.

360
362

364

3^5
366

368
369

370
371
372

373

374

37i
376

377
378

379

380

382

3^3
384

385
386

387
388

389

39"^
391
392

393
394

•Ami

2.556302

2^551507
2.558709

2-559907

2.561 lOI

2.556423
2.557627

2.5;58828
2.560026
2.561221

2.562293
2,563481
2.564666
2.565848
2.567026

2.568202

2.569374

2.570543
2.571709

2.572872

2.574031
2.575183

2.576341
2.577492

2.578659

2.579784
2.580925

2.582063

2.583199

2.58433^

2.585461
2.586587
2.5877II
2.588832
2.589950

2.590953
2.592177

2.593286

2.594392
2.595496

395
396
397
398

399

400
401
402

403
404

405
406

407

408

409

410
411
412

413
I

2.596597

2.597695
2.598790

2,599883

2^500973

2.60206012

2.605144

2.604226

2.605305
2.606381

2.607455
2.608526
2.609594
2.610660
2.61 1723

2.562412
2.563600
2.564784
2.565966
2.567144

2.568319

2.569491

2.57066012

2.571825

2.572988

2.574147
2.575303
2.576456
2.577607

2-578754

2.579898P

2.581039

2.582177

2.583312
2.584444

2.58^5573
2.586700

2.587823

2.588944

2.590061

2.591176
2.592288

2.593397

2.594503
2.595606

2.596707
2.597805
2.598900

2.599992
2.601082

•602168
2.603253
2.604334
2-6p54i3
2.606489

2.612784
2.613842
2:614897
2.615950
2.617000

2.607562
2.608633
2.609701
2.610767
2.61 1829

2.556544
2.557748

2.558948 2.559068

2,560146

2*56x340

2.562531
2.563718

2.564903
2.566084

2.567262

if^

2.568436
2.569608
.570776
2.571942
2.573104

2.574263

2.575419
2.576572

2.C7772I
2.578868

.580012

2.581 153
2.582291

2.583425
2-584557

2.585686
2.586812

^•587935
2.589055
2.590173

2.591827

2.59239912
2-593508

2.594613
2.595717

2.596817
2.597914
2.599OO9I2

2.6ooioi
2.601 190

2.602277
2.603361
2.604442

2.605520
2.606596

2.607669
2.608740
2.609808
2.610873
2.61 1936

2.612890

2.613947

2.615003
2.616055
2.617105

2.612996

2.61405

2.61510!

2.6I6I60

2.617210

2.557868

2.560265

2.56x450

2.562650

2.563837

2.565021
2.566202

2.567379

2.568554

2.569725
2.570893
2.572058
2.573220

^'514319

2.575534
2.576687

2.577836

2.578983

2.580126
2.581267
2.582404

2.583539
2.584670

2.585799
2.586925

2.588047

2.589167

2.590284

2.591398

.592510

2.593618

2.594724
2.595827

2.59692.7
2.598024

599119

2.600210
2.601299

2.602386
2.603469
2.604550
2.605628
2.606704

2.607777
2.608847
2.609914
2.610979
2.612042

2.613102
2.614159
2.615213
2.616265
2.6173x5

2.556785
2.557988
2.559188
2.560385
2.561578

2.56^768

2.563955

2.565^39
2.566320

2.567497

2.568671
2.569842
2.57 lOIO

2.572x74
2.573336

2.574494 2

2.575650

2.576802

2.577951
2.579097

2.580240
2.58X38X

2*58 25 1 8

2.583652
2.584785

2.585912

2.587037
2.588160

2.589279
2.590396

2.591510

2.59202X

2.593729
2.594834
2.595933

2.597037

2-598134
2.599228

2.6003x9

2.60x408

2.602494
2.603577
2.604658
2.605736

2.6068 IX

2.607884
2.608954
2.6 1 002 X
2.6 XX 086

2.612x48

2.6x3207
2.6x4264
2.6x5319
2.6x6370
2.6x7420

2.556905

2.558x08
2.559308

2.560504
2.56x697

^562887
2.564074

2^565257
2.566437

2.5676x4

2.568788
2-569959

2.571x26
2.57 229 X

2.573452

.5746x0

2.575765
2.576917

2.578066
2.579212

2.580355
2.58x495

2.582631

2.583765

2.584896

2.586024

2.587x49

2.588272

2.589391
2.590507

2.59x621
2.592932
2.593840

2.594945
2.596047

2.597x46
2.598243

2.599337

2.600428
2.60x517

2.602602

2.603685

2.604766

2.60584

2.60691

2.607991
2.609060
2.6x0x28
2.6x1x92
2.6x2254

2.6133x3
2.6x4370

2.6x5424
2.6x6475

2.6x7524

2.557026
2.558228

2.559428

2.560624

2.56x847

2-563006
2.564x92

^'5^5315
^566555
2.567732

2.568905
2.570076
2.57x243

2.572407
2.573568

2.574726
2.575880

2.577032

2.578x8

2.579326

2.580469
2.58x608
2.582745

2.583879
2.585009

2.586x37
2.587262
2.588384

2.589503
2.5906x9

2.591732
2.592843

2.593950

^'595^55
2.596x57

2.597256

2.598353
2.599446
2j6oo537
2.60x625

2.6027x1
2.603794
2.664874
2.60595 X
2.607026

2.608098
2.609167
2.6x0234
2.6x1298
2.6x2360

2.6x34x9
2.614475
2.6x5529
2.616580
2.6x7629

VoLX. PartL

2.557x46

2.558348
2.559548

2.560743, .
2.56x9362.562055

2.563125
2.5643 X I

2.565494
2,566673

2.567849

232

2.5690

2.570x93

2-57135^
2.572523
2.573684]

2.574841
2.575996

2.577 M7
2.578295

2.579441

2.580583
2.58x722
2.582858

2-583992
2.585x22

2.58625c

2.587374
2.588496

2.5896x4
2.590730

2.591843

2.592954
2.594061

2.595^65

2.596267

2.597366
2.598462

2.599556
2.600646
2.60x734

2.6028x9
2.603902
2.604982
2.606059
2.607x33

2.608205
2,609274
2.610341
2.61 1405
2.612466

2.6x3525
2.6 1 458 X
2.615634
2.616685
2.6x7734

2.557266
2.558469

2.559667
2.560863

2.563237
2.564429

2.5656x2

2.566791

2.567967

.569x40
2.570309
2.57x476
2.572639
2.573800

2.574957
2.5761x1

2.577262

2.5784x0

2-579555

"Di

2-557387
2-558589
2.559787

2.56098a
2.562x74

2.563363
2.564548
2.565730

2.566909
2.568084

2.569257

2.570426

2.571592
2.572755
2.573915

2.560697

2.58x836

2.582972
2.584x05

2.585235

2.586362
2.587486

2.588608

2.589726
2.590842

2.591955
2.593064
2.594I7I

2.595276

2-596377

2.597476

2.598572
2.599665

2.600755

2.60x843

2.6029 2 S

2.604010

2.605089
2.600166
2.607240

2.608312
2.60938 X

2.6x0447
2.6XX5XX
2.6x2.572

2.613630
2.6x4686
2.6x5740
2.6x6790
2.6X7839

2.575072
2.576226

2.577377
2.578525
2.579669

2.5808x1
2.581950
2.58308-5
2.584218

2.585348

2.586475

2.587599

2.58872c

2.589838
2.590953

2.592066

^'593^15
2.594282

2.595386
2.596487

2.597585
2.598681

2-599774
2.600864

2.60x951

2.603036
2.6041 18
2.605x^7
2.606274
2.607348

2.608419
2.609488
2.6x0554
2.6116x7
2.612678

2.6x3736
2.614792
2.6x5^
2.6x6895
2.6x7943

20
to
20

8
8

:6
:6

5
5
5

4
4
3
3

3
2

o
:o

09
09
09

[08
08
08
:o7

07
07

07
:o6

[•06
06

:o5
05
•05

»53

»54

LOGAAITHMa

416

417
418

419

425
426
427
428
429

a.6 18048
2^19093

2.620136
2.621 176
2.622214

420x623249
421 2.624282
4222J625312
423 2.626340
4242.627366

2JS28389
2.629410
2.630428
2.631444

^<5Sa437

3.618257
2.619302
2.620344
2.621384
8bJ62242i

2.618 1 J

2.619x9

2.62024012.6203441x630449

x6 2 1 2801

X62231

2J62849T
2.62951 1
2.630529

^•63^54^
2.'632558

2.618362

2.619406

X61S466
2.6x9511
2.^20552

2.62x488 2.'6di592l2.62i695
2.622525 2J622628 X622732

^•6233*53 ^-623456

2.624385

2.6254x5

2:626443

2.627468

2.624488
2.625518
2,626546
2J627571

2.^23559
2:624591
2.625621
2J626648
2J527673

x6 28593
2.629613
2.630631
2.631647
2.632660

2:628695
2.629715
2-630733
X631748
2.632761

2.^23663

2.624694

2.625724
2.626751
2.627775

2.629S17

2.630834

X61857X
2.619615
2.620656

2.^9x799
2^622835

2.624798[2iS249oi

2J625827

^1^26853

2:627878

2.628797 2,628901

2J$3i849 2.631951

2iS32862

2J629919
2.630936

a.632963

x6x%75 24^18780 2j6i«8849<tf 18989 105

X619719

^620760 2J62b864

2.62J^0O2

2.630021
2^63x038
2.632052

fiiSijiSdj x6i99!»S 2^20032 104

2J621903

2.625766[2J52386^2j623^2[2.6^407o2.624I79

2*625209

2«62623S

2:625929 2.626032
2.626956 2.627058

2.629104
2.630123
2.63x139

2*622007

2^22110
2.623146

2.625OO4I2J625ZO7
2^626135

24627161

2.^7263

2^527980 2^28062 2J62BX64 2J628287

24^32x53 i.632355 2.632356

^•^33<^4|*^33x^5 *-^33«^ ^^3SB^1

2.629206
X.630224
2.63 1 24 1

2.629308
2*630326

^•^3>342

430
431
432

A33
434

435

437
43^

2.638489
2.639486
2I640481
12.641474

2.638589
2.6395B6
2.640581

^«4»573
439 a.642464 X642563

440
441
442

443
444

445 2.648360
4462.649335

447 -2-650307
4482.651278

449 12.652246

450

451

452

453
454

460
461

4^3
.464

465
466

467

468

2.63346S

^^•^34477
2.635464

2.636488

2.637490

^'^335^9\^'^3S67
2.634578 2.634679

2.6355842.635685

2.636588 X636688

X637590

2.643453
X644439

2.645422

2.646404

2.647383

2.644537

2.645520

2.646502
2.647461

2.648458

2.64943212

2.650405

2-65x375

2-65234312.65

2.653222
2.654x76

2.655138

2.656098

2.657056

2.654273

2.655234
2.656194

2.6571 51

455[2-65fioxi
4562.658965

457 2.659016

458 2.660865
4592.661813

2.66275^
2.663701

462 2.664642

2.665581
2.666518

2.662B52
2.663795
2.664736
2.665675
2.666612

2.667453
2.6ry8386
2.669517
2.670246

r^6<|!a.<^7n73l

2.667546
2.668479
2.669410
2.670339

2.637690

•633771
2.634779

2.635785

2.636789

2.633872 2.633973
2.634680I2.63496I
X635986

2.635886
2.636889

2.6377902.637890

2J534074|2^34

2i$35oSi

2.6360861
2.636969I2J632089 2.63718912.637
2.637$^ X638090

. »75
2.635182

2.636x87

2.638190

2.634276

^'6^5^3
2.656287

289

2.638289

2.634376

2-«353^3
2.656388

^^37390
2.656389

X638689
2.639686
2.640680 2.640779

2.63:878912.638888
2.639785

2.64x672
2.642662

2.643650
2.644635
2.645619

2.646600 X646698

2.647578

2.648555

.649530

2.650502

2.651472

2440

9 2.653405
2.

^'^5533^
2.656290

2.657247

2.658107
2.659060
2.66001 1

2.660960I2.661055
2.661907

2,658202
2.660106

2^2002

X662947
2.663889
2.664830
2.665768
2.666705

.667640
2.668572

2:670431

2.6712652.6^135^

2.641771
2.642761

2.639885
2.640679
2.641870
2.642860

*.643749
2.644734

2.645717

X647676

2.648653
X649627
2.650599
2:651569

654369|2-654465
2.655427

2.656386
2.657343

2.658298
2.659250
2.660201
2.661 150
2.662096

2.663041
2.663983

2.638988

2.639088

2.639984 2.640084
2.640978 X641077

2.643847
2.644832
2.645815
2.646796
2.647774

2.648750
2.649724
2.650696
X651666
2.652633

2-655502 x65'5598

2J554562

2.655523
2.656481

2.657438

2.658393
2.659346
2.660296
2:66x245
2.662191

2.663135
2.664078

2.6649242.665018
2.6658622.665956
2.6667992.666892

2*6677332.667826
2.66866512.668758

2.669503 2.669596 2.669689

2.670524 2 J6706 17
2X5? 1 45 1 '2.67 1 543

2.641970
2J642959

.643946 X644044
X645029
2.64601 1

2.643946 X044O44[2.644i43
2.64493 '

2.6459*3
2.646894 X646991I2

2.647872 2.647969

2.648848 X648945 a.649043
2.649821 2.649919 2.650016
2.650793 2.650890 X650987
2US51762 2.651859

2J652730 2J652826

2.653695
2.654658
X655619

2.656577
2.657534

2.658488
2.659441
2.660391
2-651339
X662285

2:663230
2J564172
2.665112
2:666050
2.666986

2:667920
2.668852

2.671636

a.639188
2.640183
2X^41176

.6420692.642168

2
2.643058

2J645156

2.639287
2.640265
2.641 276
X642267

2-643^55

2.659387

2^40382

2-64x375
3«642366

2^643354

2.644242 2.644340

2.645127 2.645226

2.646x09

.64708$
2.648067

2.653791

2.654574
2-655714
2.656673

2J65762

2.655888
2.654850
2.655810
2.656769
9I2.657725

2.658584
^65955
2.660486
2.661454

2.6623^0

2.663324
2.664266
2.665206
2j666i43

2J667079

2.668013
2J(968945

2.6697822.669874
2J670710 2.670802

'67x728

2.651956
2.652923

2.658679

6I2.659631

2.660581

2.661529

2US62474

2.663*418
2.664360

2-
2J666237

2.667173

2.646208
2.647187
2.6481

2.645324
2.646306
2.^47285

65 2.64826:

2.649140 2.649237
2.650115 2.650210
2.651084I2.65I 181

2.652053
2.653019

2.653984
2.654946
2.655906
2.656864
2.657820

2.658774
2:659726
2.660676
2.661623
2.662569

2.652150

2.653116

2.654080
2.65504a
2*656002
2.656960
2J657916

2.658870

2;65982i
2.660771
2.661718
2^662663

2.6635122.665607

2.664454

66529^2.665393

21^66331

2.667266

2.664548
2.665487
2.666424
2:667359

1J668106J2.668199 2^668293
x669038j2;66923i 21669224
2.66996712^70060 2.670153
2.670895. 2*670988 2*671080
2.671821 2.671913 2.

1100*

ic.

L O G A R t T

471 a^joax a^jrrj 2.673205 1675397 »^59o ^34*3 *-^J574 «-67l666 a.673r3fl :«-673»5o

472 tt.679m2 2^4034 %6r4^ 2^4«** ^43^5 ^4^2 ^^4494 ^^4S^ ^^74^77 2.674769
.473 l».674«6x 1^74953 W3»*5p«^7J'36 2^5^28 2.675520 2.6754^2 0.675503^2.6755^5 ^-675687
474[3j67577S[2US75S70t2^596i u676cr53|2.676i45|2«676^6[2.676^[2.6764i9f2.6765xx 2.676602

.676694|2iJ767»5b.676876fe;676968|2i»77D5d2.677X5d2^242 2.677333 ^^^77424 2.677516
_^, _ .677607 2^577698 2J677789 2^77^1 2.677972 2.678063 2^154 2.678245 (2.678336 2JS78427
477 2-6785i8Ji2.6786o9 2.678700 2J678791 2j678d82 2^678973 2.675P64 2.679155 2.679246 2.679337

476 2^7607 2^577698 2J677789 2.677^1 2.677972 2^8063 »«678f 54 2.678245 (2.678336 2JS78427

2.678973 2.679064 2.679155 2.679246 2.67

,,,-,^ ,^^_^, ,, _ 2^679882 2/S79973 2.680063 2.680154 2.68

,680335 2.680426^680^7 2.680607I2.680698 2.680789I2J680879I2.680970I2.681060I2.68

479

■ ' -- -

4802.68J24] 2.681332 2iS8i422 2iSBxfx3 2ii8x6o3 2j68i<^3 2.681784 2i»8i874|2.68x964{2.682055
481 2XS82X45 2.662235 2J682326 2.682416 2.682506 2J662596 2.682686 2^682777 2.682867 2.682957
482 2,68304712.683137 2.683227 2.683317 2.683407 2.683497 2.683587 2^583677 2.683767 2.683857

4O0 3.IMU241 2.0013333X^1472 2JO9I5Z3 2JDOXOO3 2JDDIO93 7.VOI704

481 2XS82X45 2.662235 2J682326 2.682416 2.682506 2J662596 2.682686

482 2.683047 2.683x37 2.683227 2.6833x7 2.683407 2.683497 2.683587

483 2/S83947 2.6840I7 2^584x27 2.6842x7 2J684307 2J684396 2.684486 2.68457612.684666 2.684756
4842.684845 2.684935 2J685025 2.6851x4 2.68520^ 2iS8594 2.685383 2.68547 2| 2.685563 2.685652^

4S5 2.68574212.68583 X 2.68592^2.6860x0 2.686100 2j586x89 2.686279 2^68636^2.686457 2iS86547

486 ^AU6^ iJSfi^^ 2J686815 2.6S6904 2^)86994 2i$87o83 2.687x72 2J68726X 2.687351 2.687440

487 2-687529 2^7618 2J687707 2ii87796 2.687885 2^7975 2.688064 ^^^*'53 a.688242 2.688331

488 2.688420 2.688509 2.688598 2.688687 2.688776 2iK(8865 2^88953 2.689042 2.689131 2.689220

489 2.689309I2.689398 2i$89486 2US89575 2.68966412.68^312.689841 2.689930 2.6900x9 2iS9oio7

490 2X$90X96J2.690285 2^(90573 2.&)0462 2.690550 2i$9o639 2.690727 2J6908X6 2.690905}2.690993

491 2^69x081 2.teix7o 2.69x258 2J691347 2^19x435 2.^x523 2.6916x2 2.MX700 2.691788 2.69x877

492 2.691965 2.692053 2X^92142 2.^2230 2i$933x8 2J^24o6 2J692494 2.692583 2.692671 2^692759

493 2.l^»847 2^^935 ^•^3023 2^93x11 2.693x99 2.695287 ^3375 2*693463 2.693551 2.693639
2-69572712^^38x5 2^39^3 **69399i 2.694078 2.694166 2iS94254 2^(^4342 2.694430 2.694517

494

2.7x1807 2.7xi89X

S^6 2.7x2650 2«7i2734

2.7134902.713574

521
522

J23
2

2.699491

.2699578

.699664 2US9975i

50012.698970 2.69S1057 2.699144 2J6^23o zJSgg^tj 2:699404

501 2.699838 2.699924 2.7000XX 2*700098 2.700x84 2.70027 ? 2.700557 2.7004442.700531 2,7006x7

502 2.700704 2.700790 2.700877 2*700963 2.70x050 2.70Z X36 2.701222 2*70x309 2.70x395 2*70x482

503 2.70x568 3.70x654 2.70174X 2*70x827 2*70x9x3 2.70x999 2*702086 2.702x72 2*702258 2.702344
I 5Q4 2.702430 2.7025x7 2*702603 2*702689 2*702775 2*70286x 2.702947 2.703033 2*7031x9 2.703205

505 2.703291 2*705377 2*705463 2.703549 2.703635 •.705721 2.705807 2*705895 2*705979 2.704065

506 2.704150 2.704236 2.704522 2*704408 2.704494 2.704579 2.704665 2*704751 2,704837 3.704922

507 2.705008 2*705094 2-.705I79 2*705265 2.7cr535o 2.705436 2.705522 2.705607 2.705693 2*705778

508 2.705864I2.705949 2.706035 2*706x20 2.706205 2*70629 X 2.706376 2*706462 2*706547 2.7066
509I2.706718 2.706803 2.706888 2.706974 2.707059 2.707x44 2.707229 2.707315 2.707400 2.707485

2-7«433o M»44i4 ^-714497 2.7x458

2.7x5167 2.7x5251

520 2.7x6003
2.7x6838
2.7x7670
2.7x8502

510 2.707570 2.707655 2.707740 2*707826 2.70791 X 2.707996 2.708081

511 2.708421 2.708506 2.708591 2.708676 a.7o876x 2.708846 2.708931

512 2.7092^0 2.709355 2.709440 2*709524 2.709609 2.709694 2.70977!^

513 2.7101x7 2^x0202 2.710287 2*7i037x 2.7x0455 2.7x0540 2.7x0625
5142*7x0963 2.711048 2.7x1132 2.7XXW6 2.71x301 2.71x385 2.711470

495 2.694605 2.694693 2.69478X 2*^868 2^^94956 2.695044 2.695X3X 2j6952x(J2j6953od

496 2^5482 2.695569 2.(^5657 2.695744 2*t^5832 2.6959x9 2.696007 2.696094 2.696x82 2J696269

497 2.696356 2.696444 2.6g6s3i 2J696618 2.696706 2.696793 2.696880 2*696968 2.697055 2.697x42

498 2^229 2.697316 2ii97404 2*69^491 2^^7578 2^2^5 2.697752 2.697839 2J697926 2.698013
499I2J698X00 2.698x88 2^998275 2.698562^2iS98448 2.698535 2*698622^2*698709 2.698736 2^:98885

2.711976 2.712060 2.7x2x44 2.712229 2.7^23x3
2.7x28x8 2.7x2902 2.7x2986 2.713070 2.7x3x54
2.713658 2.7x3742 2.7^^383^ 2.7x3910 2.713994

2.7t04X4i2.7Xy^y Y 2.7XOC80 2.7x9665

2.7x6087 2.7x6170 2.7x62r4 2.7x6337 2.71642x12.7x6504

2.7X6921 2»7X70O4 2.7X7088 2.7X7X71 2.7X7254 2.717338 ^,,*74*a

^•7»77J4 2-7J'7«37 2-7«79*o 2.7x8003 2.718086 2.7x8169 2.7x8253 2.718336
2.7l»585J2*7X«668(2.7x857x|2.7i8834[«.7x89x7 2.719000 2.719083 2.7x9165

M 8.

>" jBif*]

2*7x4665 2.7x4749 2*714832 2.7x4916

— / — r-r^/ — /-.^jw- ^fM.,^^^^ mffa.afj«^y ^^fjLtfVjs, ««/ A ffyJtV X*y A jUUU*^.7 4.JUO4 Q4

^7*5335 2-7154I8 2.715502 8^7x5586 2.7x5669 2.7x5753 2^7x5836 2.7x5920 84

2.708166 i.7o8aji

2.709015 2.709100 2«709t8j 85

2.709863 2.709948 2.710033 Sji

3.710710 £.710794 2.710879 8j

2.7115^44.7116382.711723 84

2.7x2397 4.712481 2.712565 84

a.713238 2.713312 2.7x3406 84

2.714078 2.7x4x62 2.7x4246 84

2.7 15000 2.7 15084 84

2^95394 8J

87
87
87

2.708336 85

yi074<b.^xo8a8

2.7x6588 2.7 16671
2.7x7421 2.7175154

2.716754 63
2.717587 8.3

2.7x8419
2.7x9248

2.7 199 1 1 ia.7 1 9994'a.7aQor7

93
9

9!
9:

9«
9*
91
91
91

9a
9a

9<3

89
89
89

89
89

8S
8{

*^
8«

8(
8(
8(

85
8j

83
83

'5i

V *

15^

X O G A R I T H M S.

!5!

52^ 2.720159
5262.72O9S6
5272.72181I
528 2.722634
5292.723456

53^
531

533

534

535
536

537
538
539

540
541
542

'543
544

545
546

547
548

549

I 550

152

553
554

2.724276
2.725094
2.725912
2.726727
2.727541

^720242
2.721068
:i.72i893
2.722716

2.7^3538

2.7203:25
2.721I51
2.721975
2.722798
2.723620

2.728354
2.729165

2.729974

2.730782

2.731589

2.732394

2.733797

2.733999
2.734800

2.735599

2.73^39^

2.737193

2.737987
2.738781

2.739572

2.724358
2.725176

2.725993
2.726809

2.727623

.*.tai

2.728435
2.729246

2.73^055
2.730863

2.731669

2.724440
2.725258
2.726075
2.726890
2.727704

2.720407
2.721233
2.722058
2.722881
2.723702

2.732474

2.733277

2.734079
2.734880

2.735679

555
556
557
558

559

560

561
562

563
564

2.740363
2.741 1 52

2.741939

2.742725

2.743510

2.744293

2.745075

2.745855
2.746634

2.747412

S6S
566

567
568

569

570

57 1

572

573
574

2.748188
2.748963
2.749736
2.750508
2.751279

2.736476
2.737272
2.738067
2.738860

2.739651

2.740442
2.741230
2.742018
2.742804
2.743588

2.744371

2.745153

2.745933
2.746712

2.747489

2.728516

2.730136

2.730944
^-73^750

2.724522

2.7253401
2.726156
2.726972
2.727785

2.720490
2.721316
2.722140
2.722963
2.723784

2.728597
2.729408
2.730217
2.731024
2.73^830

2.732555
2.733358

2.734159
2.734960

2.735758

2.736556
2.737352
2.738146

2.738939
2.739730

2.740521
2.741309
2.742096
2.742882
2,743666

2.732635

2.734240
2.735040
2.735838

2.736635

2.737431
2.738225

2.739018

2.739810

2.724603
2.725421
2.726238
2.727053
2.727866

2.720573
2.721398
2.722222
2.723045
2,723866

2.728678
2.729489
2.730298
2.731 105
2.731911

2.732715

2.73343^2.733518

2.73*4320
2.735120

2.735918

2.724685

2.725503
2.726320
2.727134
2.727948

2.728759
2.729576

2.730378
2.731 186

•73*^991

2.744449
2.745231
2.746011
2.746790
2.747567

2.752048
2.752816

2-753583
2.754348

2-755"

2.755875

2>ys^^3^

2.757396
2.758155

2.758912

51 5 2.759668
576 2.760422
5772.761176
57812.761928
5792.762679

2.748266
2.749040
2.749814
2.750586
2.751356

2.752125
2.752893

2.748343
2.749118

2.749891

2.750663

2.751433

2.752202
2.752970

2.753660:2.753736

2.754425:2.754501
.755189 2.755265

2.740599
2.741388
2.742175
2.742961

2.743745

2.744528

2.74530P
2.746089

2.746868
2.747645

2.736715

2.7375"

2.738305
2.739097

2.739889

2.740678
2.741467
2.742254

2.743039
2.743823

^.748421
2.749195
2.749968
2.750740
2.751510

2.752279

2.744606

2.745387
2.746167

2.746945
2.747722

2.732796

2.733598
2.734400

2.735200
2-735998

2.736795
2.737590

2.738384

2.739177
2.739968

2.720655
2.721481
2.722305
2.723127
2.723948

2.724767

2.7*5585
2.726401

2.727216

2.728029

2.728841
2.729651

2.730459
2.731266

2.732072

2.720738
2.721563
2.722387
2.723209
2.724030

2.724849
2.725667
2.726483
2.727297
2.728110

2.728922
2.729732

2.730540

2.731347
2.732152

2.732876

2.733679
2.734480

2.735279
2.736078

2.740757
2.741546

2.742332
2,743118

2*743902

2.748498
2.749272
2.750045
2.750817
2.75*587

2.752356

2.7530472.753^23

2.755951 2.756027 2.756103
2.756712 2.756788 2.756878
2.7574722,757548
2.758230 2.758306
2.758988 2.759063

2.759743 2.7598 V
2.760498 2.760573

2.7612512.761326

2.762003 1.762078

2.762754 2.762829

2.753813
2.754578
2.75534.1

2.753889

2.754654
L2-7554I7

2.756180

2.756940

2.75762412.757700

2.758382

91^759894
2.760649
2.761402
2.762153
2.762904

2.758458

2.759*39 2.75»2i4

2.759970
2.760724
2.761477
2.762228
2*762978

2.744684

2.745465

2.746245
2.747023

2.747800

2.748576

2.749350
2.750123
2.750894
2.751664

2.736^74
2.737670

2.738463
2.739256

2.740047

2.740836
2.741624
2.742411
2.743196
2.743980

2.732956

2.733759
2.734560

2.735359
2.736157

2.736954

2.737749

2.738543

2.739335
2.740126

2.744762

2.745543
2.746323
2,747101

2.747878

2.752433
2.753200

2.753966

2.754730

2.755494

2.756256
2.757016

2-757773

2.758539
2.759290

2.7600452.760121

2.760799
2.761552
2.762303

2.26^222

2.748653
2.749427
2.750200
2.750971
2.751741

2.740915
2,741703
2.742489

2.743275
2.744058

2.720821
2.721646
2.722469
2.723291
2.7241 1<2

2.724931
2.725748
2.726564

2.727379
2.728191

2.725013
2-725830
2.726646
2.727420
2.728273

2.729003
2.729813
2.730621
2.731428
2.732233

2.733037

2.733839
2.734640

2.735439
2.736237

2.737034
2.737829

2.738622

2.739414
2.740205

2.720903
2.721728
2.722552

2-7^3374
2.724194

2.729084
2.729893

2.730702

2.73^508
2-73^3*3

2.733177

2.7339*9

2.734720

2.7355*91
2.7363*7

2.744840
2.745621
2.746401

2.752509

2-753277
2.754042

2.754807
2.755570

2.756332
2.757092

2.75785*
2.758609

2.759366

2.74873*
2.749504

2.750277

2.751048

2.751818

2.740994
2.741782
2.742568

2.743353
2.744136

2.744919
2.745699

2.747479

2.7471792.747256
2.747955 2.74»P33

2.752586

2.753354
2.754119

2.754883

2.755646

2.756408
2.757168
2.757927
2.758685
2.759441

2.760875 ;i. 760950
2.76^627)
2.762378
2,763*28

2.761702
2.762453
^-76^203

2.748808
2.749582

2.750354

2.75**25
2.751895

2-737^*3
2.7375K>8

2.73870*

2-739493
2.740284

2.74*c^3
2,741860

2.742647

2.74343^
2.744215

2.744997

2-745777
2.746556

2.747334
2.7481 10

2.752663

2.753430
2.754195

2.754960

2.755722

2.756484

2.757 244I2
2.758093

2.758761
2.7595*7

2.7601962*760272

2.761025
2.761778
2.762529
2^763278

2.748885
2.749659

2-75043 *
2.751202

2.751972

2.752740
^-753506
2.754272

2.755035
2-75579

82
8:
bz

82I

81
Si
81
81

2.756560

.757320
2.758079

2.758836

2.759592

2.760347
2.761101
2.761853
2.762604

2 .763353

79
19

7S
7^

78
78

7^
7S

\J1

77l
7;

771

7<J

76
7<5

-A

76
76

75
75
7S
7j|

LOGARITHMS.

580
581
582

584

585

^86

588
589

590
591
592

593

594

2.767 156
2.767878
2.76863:8

2.7<^9377
2.7701 15

595
596

597

598

599

600
601
602
603
604

2.763418 ^1.763503

2.764176
2.764923
2.765669
2.766413

2.76425 J

2.7649982.765072

2.770852
2.771587
2.772322

2-773055
2.773786

2-765743
2.766487

2.767230
2.767972
2.768711
2.769451
2.770189

2.763578
2.7643.26

2.765818
2.766562

2-774517
2.775240

2.775974
2.776701

2;777427

2,778151
2.778874

2.77959<5
2.780317

2.781037

605
606
607
608
609

6x0
611
612
613
614

6ii
616
617
618
619

620
621
622
623
624

625
626
627
628
629

2.781755
2.782473
2.783189
2.783904
2.784617

o 2

2.78533
2.786041

2.786751

2.78746012

2.788168

2.788875
2.789581
2.790285
2.790988
2.791691

2.792392 2

2.793092

2.793790

2.794488

2.795185

2.79588

^•796574
2.797268

2.797960

2.798651

^302.799541
631 2.800029
6322.800717
633:2.801404
634 2.802089

2.770926
2.771661

2.7*72395
2.773128

2.773860

2.767304
2.768046
2.768786
2.769525
2.770263

2.774590

2.775319
2.776047

2.776774

2.777499

2778224
2.778947
2.779669
2.780389
2.781109

2.781827
2.782544
2.783260

2.783975
2.784689

.785401
2.786112
2.786822

•787531
2.788239

2.788946
2.789651

2-790356
2,791059

2.791761

•792462
2.793162
2.793860
2.794558
2.795254

0I2.795949
2.796644

2.797337
2.798029

2.798720

2.799409

2.800098
2.800^^89
2.801472
2.802158

2.770999

2.771734
2.7;72468

2.773201

2.763653
2.764400

2.765147

2.765892

2.766636

«-767379
2.768120

2.768860

2.769599

2.770336

2.763727
2.764475
2.765221
2.765966
2.766710

2.763802
2.764550

2.7739332.774006

2.774663

2.775392
2.776120

2.776846
2.777572

2.778296
2.779019
a.779741
2.780461
2.781 r8 1

2.781899
2.782616

2.783332
2.784046
2.784760

2.785472
2.786183
2.786893
2.787602
2.788310

2.789016
2.789722
2.790426
1.791129
2.791831

2.792532
2.793231

2*793930
2.794627

2.795324

2.796019
2.796713
2.797406
2.798098
2.798789

2.799478
2.800167
2.800854
2.801541
2.802226

2.771073
2.771808

2.772542
2-773274

2.767453
2.768194

2.768934

2.769673

2.77041C

2.7652962.765370

2.766041
2.766785

2.767525
2.768268

2.769008

2.769746

2.770484

2.763877
2.764624

2.76611 J
2.766859

2.774736
2.775465

2.776193

2.776919

2.777644

2.778368
2.779091
2.779813
2.78o5g3
2.781253

2.781971
2.782688

2.783403
2.784118

2.784831

2.785543
2.786254

2.786964

2.787673

2.788381

2.789087
2.789792
2.790496
2.791199
2.791901

2.792602

2.793301
2.794000

2.794697
2.795393

2.796088
2.796782

2.797475
2.798167

2.798858

2.799547
2.800236

2.800923

2*801609

2.802295

2.771146
2.771881
2.772615

2.773348
2.774079

2.774809

2.775538
2.776265

2.776992

2.777717

2.778441
2.779163
2.779885
2.780605
2.781324

2.782042
2.782759

2.783475
2.784189

2.784902

2.785615
2.786325

2.787035
2.787744

2.788451

2.789152
2.789863
2.790567
2.791269
2.791971

2.792672

2.793371

2.794070

2.794767
2.795463

2.796158
2.796852

2.797545
2.798236

2.798927

2.799616
2.800305
2.800992
2.801678

2.771220

2.771955
2.772688

2.773421

2.774152

2.774882
2.775610

2.776338
2.777064

2.777789

2.778513
2.779236

2.779957

2.780677

2.781396

2.782114
2.782831

2.783546
2.784261
2.784974

2.785686
2.786396
2.787106
2.787815
2.788522

2.789228

2.789933
2.790637

2.791340

2.792041

2.792742

2.79344*

2.794139
2.794836
2.795532

2.796227
2.796921

2.797614

2.798305

2.798996

2.799685
2'.8oo373
2.801060
2.801747

2.80236312.80243 2

2.767601
2.768343
2.769082
2.769820

2.770557

2.763952
2.764699
2.765445
2.766190
2.766933

2.771293

2.772028
2.772762

2.773494
2.774225

2.774955
2.775683

2.776411

2.777137
2.777862

2.778585
2.779308

2.780029

2.780749

2.781468

2.782186
2.782902
2.783618

2.>84332
2.785045

2.785757
2.786467

2,787177

2.787885

2.788593

2.789299
2.790003
2,790707
2.791410
2.792111

2.792812
2.79351 1
2.794209
2.794906
2.795602

2796297
2.796990
2.797683

2.798374
2.79906*5

2.799754
^2.800442
Moil 29
2.801815
2.802500

2.767675
2.768416

2.769156

2.769894

2.770631

2.764027
2.764774
2.765520
2.766264
2.767007

2.771367
2.772102

2.772835

2.773567
2.774298

2.775028

2.775756

2.776483
2.777209

2.777934

2.778658
2.779380
2.780101
2.780821
2.781540

2.782258
2.782974
2.783689
2.784403
2.785116

2.785828
2.786538
2.787248
2.787956
2.788663

2.789369
2.790074

2.790778
2.791480
2.792181

2.792882

2.793581
2.794279

2.794970
2.795671

2.796366
2.797060
2.797752
2.798443

2.799134

2.799823
2.80051 1
2.801198
2.801884
2.802568

2.767749
2.768490

2.769230

2.769968

2.770705

2.771440
2.772175
2.772908
2.773640

2.774371

2.764101

2.764848

2.765594
2.766338

2.767082

2.767823
2.768564

2.769303
2.770042

2.770778

2,775100
2.775829

2.776556
2.777282

2.7780C6

2.778730

2.779452
2.780173

2.780893

2.781612

2.782329
2.783046
2.783761
2.784475
2.785187

2.785899
2.786609
2.787319
2.788027
2.788734

2.789440
2.790144
2.790848
2.791550
2.792252

2.792952
2,793651

2.794349
2.795045

2.795741

2.796456
2.797129
2.797821
2.798512

2.759203

2.799802
2.800580
2.801267
2.801952
2.802637

2.771514
2.772248
2.772981

2.773713
2.774444

BUT

75
75
75
74
74

2.775173
2.775902

2.776629

2.777354
2.778079

2.778802

2.779524

2.780245

2.780965
2.781684

2.782401
2.783117
2.783832
2.784546
2.785259

2.785970
2.7S6680
2.787390
2.788098
2.788804

2.789510
2.790215
2.790918
2.791620
2.792322

2.793022
2.793721
2.794418
2.795115
2.795810

2.796505
2.797198
2.797890
2.7^8582
2.759272

2.799960

2.800648
2.801335
2 802021
2.802705

74
74
74
74

741

74
73
73
73
73

73
73
73
73
72

72
72

72 V

72I

• 71

71
71
71

7i
71

70.

70
70
70 1
70
70

69,
69

69
69

>57

ti«

LOGARITHMS*

^35
636

631
638

640

3.802774 a.8o284a

2.803457
3.804139

3. 804821
2.805501

2.80352 j 2.803594 x803tf62 3.803730 3.803798 2.803867 2.803935 3.804003 !i.8o407

3.804308

3.S05569

641 2.806858

642 2.807535
6432.808211
644 2.^08886

645
646
647
648
649

2.806180

2.809560 2.809627

2.810235

2.81 1575
2.812245

6502.8129x3

651 2.813581

652 2.814248

653 2.8149x3
6542-815578

655
656

657

658

659

660
661
662
663
644

665
666
667
668
669

6742

2.806248
2.806926
2.807603
2.808279
2.808953

2,8039x0

3.804889 3.804957

2.804276 3.804344 3J044I 3

2.805637

3.805(3125
3.805705

3.802979 3.803047

2.8063163.806384
2.806994 3.807061

t^lammm^^

2.8x0300

2.8109043.810971

3.8x1642
2.8I23I2

2.8x2980

2.813648
3.8143x4

2.814980

2.807670

2.808346 2.8084I4I3.80848
3,809021 2.809088 2.809x55

2.809694 2.809763

2.8x0367
2.8 XX 038

2.81 1709 3.81 X776 2.81 X843

2.812378

2.8I624I
2.816904

2.817565

2.818226

2.818885

2.819544

2.820 20X

2.820858

2.8215 13
3.822168

Aifc

2.823822

2.833474

2.824x26
2.824776
2.825436

670 2.826075

671 2.826722

672 2.827369 2.827434

673 2.828015

.828660

675
676
677
678

rfWaa^

2.829304
829947

2.8X31X4
3.8X3781

2.814447

3.8I5XX2

3.8X56443.8157X013.8X5777

2.8X3047
2.8I37I4
2.81438I
2.815046

2.8X6308
2.81697c
2.8X7631
2.818292

2.8 1 895 1

2.8x96x0
2.820267

2.820924 2.820989
2.821579 2.821644

2.823233

2.822887

2.833539

2.8 241 9 1

2.824841
2.825401

2.826x40
2.826787

2.828080
2.828724

2.829368
2.83001 X

3.8031x6 3.803x84 2.803353 3.8o333i{3.8o356

3.8^5093
^•805775

2.80645 X

2.807 1 29

3.807738 3.807806

3.810434

3.81x1063.8x1x73

3.813445

2.816374

2.817036

2.817698

2^x8358

2.8x9017

2.8x9675

2-820333

2.822299

laa

2.S22952
2.823605

2.826852
2.827498
2.8281442.838
2.838789

2.830589 2.830653

2.83X230

679 2^83x870

68d
681
682
683
684

2.832509
2-833x47

2-833784
2.83442X

2.835056

>*. ■■ii

2-832573
2.83321 1
2.833848

2.817764
2.8x8424
2*8x9083

2.819741
2.820398
2.821055
2.82x7^10
2.822364

2.8230x7
2.823670

2.82425^2.824321
2.824906 2.83497 X
2.82555^ 2.825620

? 1

3.804480 3.804548 3.8046x6 3^)4685 ii.8047 5;
3.80516X 3.805229^3.805297 ^05365 3^543;

2.80584012.805908 X.805976 2.806044 3.806X X

2.809829
2.8x0501

2.8125x2

2.813x80
2.8x3848

2^1 45 M

2.81644012.8x6506
2.817x02

2.8x8490
2.8x9x49

2.8065x9 2.8065873.806655 2.806733 2.806790
2.807x97 2^072613.807332 ,2.807400 2-807467
2.807873 2.807941 2.806008 2.808076 3.808x43

2.80854S 2^)86x6 3.8086S5 2.808751 2.8088 iL8
2.809323 2.809390 3.80933^8 2.809435 3.809492

2^09896)2.80996^2.91003 X 2.8100983-810165
2.8x0568 2.8x0636 2.8x0703 2.8x0770 2^x0837
2.8112402.8113072.8113743.81X44X 3.8x1508

3^8x19x0 2.81 1977 2.812044 2.8X2X11 3.812178

3.8x357$ 2.813646 2.8x2^x3 3.8X2780I3.8I2846

2.813247 2.8x33x43^x3381 2.8134472.8x5514

2.8x39x4 2.8x3980 2.81404S3.814XX43.8141 8 X
2.814580 2.8x4647 2.8147X4J2.814780I3.814847

2.8x5x792.8152462.8153x22.8153782.8154453,815511
2.8x584312.8x59x0 2.8x5976{l.8i6o42[2.8i6i09[2.8i6i75

2.816573

2.8x7x692.8x7235
2.8x78302^17896

2.8x9807
2.820464

2.82XX30
2-82x775

2.822430 2.833495

2.8262042.826269

2.836917

2.827563

209

2^38853

2.S39432
2.830075
2.8307x7
2.83x358

2.829497

2.823083
2-823735
2^24386
2.825036

2.836334
2^826981
2.827628
2.828273
1.8389x8

i*i<C

2.829561

2.818556
3.8192X5

2.8X7301
2.817962
2.8X8622

2.81928 X

2.8x9873
2.820536
2.82x186
2.82184X

2.823X48
2.823800

2.8 2445 x
2^25x01

2.835686 3.82^751

■kBaaiK^BM

2.83X294

2.831934 2.83199812.832062

2.835X30

685 2.835691

686 2.836324
6872.836957
6882.837588
^892.838219

2.832637

2.833^75
2.833912

2.834484 3.834548

2.8301392.330304

2.83078 1
2.83x422

2.835x83

2.832700

2.833338
2.833975

2.8346X I

i.835246

2*830845
2.83x486
2.832125

2.832764
3.833402

2,834675

2.816639 2.816705 2.81677 1

2.817367 2.817433 2.817499
2.8x8038 2.8x8094 3.818x00
2.8x8668 3.8x8754 2.818819I
2.819346 2*8;t94x2 2.819478

2.8x9939
2.820595
2.831 25 1

2.832560

2.8271x1
•827757

66
68
68
68

68
6^
6'.

6!S

2.82x9062.821972

2.820004I2.82007P 2.826x36

2.92C^I 2.820727 2.820792
2.82x3x7 2.8214822.82x448

2.822636

2.8232132.82^279

2.823865(2.83393012.823996 2.824061

2.834646 2.8247X 1

3.8245162.82458}
2.835x662.825231

2.825815 3<82588o 2.825945

2^26399 2r.836464l2.826528{2.836593

2.82704^

2.82769

2-837175

2.82782 X

2.838338}£.820402|:^38466

2.828982I2.829O46 248291 1 i

2.82969^

2.829625

2.83026812.83033

2.83 X

2.8321

830909 2.830973

.83x614

.832253

2.832828
2.833466

2*834039 2.834x03

2.8357542-835817
2.836387^.83645 X

2-837070
2.837652

2.838282

2.837083

3.8377x5

2.83588X

2.8365x4
2.837x16

2:837778

2.834738

2.835310 2.835373 2.835437

2.835944'2.836oo7

Ata

2.839754

2I2.83O396

3.831037

2.83X678

2^323*7

2.837886
2.62853

2316838

6
6
6

2.822037 2.822x03
2.832691I2J822756

2.833344 2.823409

2.835296 2.825361

3.8260x0 6j

2.836658

2^2724012.827305

6
6-

66
66
66
66

«
66
6i
€\
6;

6]
6;

2.8391752.839239

2.832892

2.83353<5
2.834166

2.834802

2.83657713.836640
2.837209I3.837273

2.83607 X

2.832956

2.833593
2.834230

2.834866

2.835500

2^298182.829882
3.830460 2.850524

2.831102

2.8317422.831806

2.83 238 X

2.833657
2.834293

2.834929

2.835564

2.836x34

2.836704*2.836767

2^83733<^;2.837J99

2-837«4x 2.837904 2.837967,2.838030 2.838093

^838345 2.^^a4o8(2.8.^847t'2.838x 34|2.8^8^97 3.8.i8660

3.836197

2.817950
2.828595

2.831x66

2.832445

2.8330192.833083

2.8337a'

2-834357

2-834993
2.835627

2.836261

3.836830 2.836893
2.8374622.83752s

3.838x56

2.8j823^|3.

6;
6]

6
6
6
6

^4
6.
64

6.
6

818786I 6^

LOGARITHMS.

690

692

693
694

695

597
598

^99

700
701
702

703

704

705
706
707
7c8
709

710
711
712

713
714

715

716

717
718
719

725
726

727

728

729

730
731
732

733
734

2.838849
2-839478

2.840106

2.840733
2.841359

2.841985
2.842609

2-843233

2.843855
2.844477

2.845098
2.845718
2.846337
2.846955

2.847573

2.848 1 89

2.84880512

2.849419

2.850033

2.850646

2.851258

2.851870

2.85248

2-853089

2^853698

2.851319
2.851931
042.85^541
2-853^5^
2.853759

2.854306
2.854913

2.855519
2.856124

2.856729

720 2.857332
7212.857935

722 2.858537

723 2.859138
7242.859739

2.860338
2.850937
2.861534
2.862131
2.862727

2.863323
2.863917
2.86451 1
2.865104
2^^65696

735
736
737
738
739

2.866287
2.866878
2.867467
2.868056
2.868644

740 2.869232

741 2.869818
7422.870404
743 2.870989
7,44 2>87i57J

2.8389122.838975

2.839541
2.840169
2.840796
2.841422

2,842047
2.842672
2.843295
2.843918
2.844539

2.845160
2.845780
2.846399
2.847017
2.847634

2.848251

.848866

2*84948 1

2.850093

2.850707^2

2.854367

2.85497^
2.85558c

2.856183

2.856789

2.85739*3
2-857995
2.858597
2.859198
2.859798

2.860398
2.860996
2.861594
2.862191

2.862787

2.863382
2.863977
2.864570
2.865163
2.865755

2.866346
2.866937
2.867526
2.S68115
2.&68703

2.839604

2.8402322.840294

840859
2.841485

2.842 no
2.842734

2-843357
2,843980

2.844601

2.845222
2.845842
2.846461
2.847079
2.847696

2.848312
2.848928
2.849542
2.850156
.850769

2.851381
2.851992
2.853602
2.85321 1
2.853820

2.851442
2.852053
2.852663

2.85327^
a«8'5388)

2.854427

2.85564c
2.856245
2.856850

2.857453
2.858056
2.858657
2.859258
2.859858

2.860458
2.861056
2.861654
2.862251

2.862847

2.863442
2,864036
12^64630
2^^5222

2.865814

2.866405
2^66996
2.867585
2.868174
2.^^68762

2.869 t9o[2.869349
2.869877 2.869935

2.870462 2.870521
2.871Q472.871106
.87r63i'2.B7i6QO

2.839038
2^39667

2.840921
2.841547

2.842172
2.842796
2.843420
2.844042
2.844^63

2.845284

2.84590

2.846523

2.84714]

2.84775S

2.848^74
2.848989
2.849604
2.850217
2>85o83o

_ 2.854488

8550341^.855093

2.855701

2.856306

2^85691012

2.8575^3
2:858116

2.858718

2.859318

2.859918

2.860518
2.861116
2.861714
2.86231c
2.86290^

2.863501
2.864096
a.864689
2.865282
2.865873

2.866465
2.867055
2.867644
2.86823 ^
2,868811

2.^69408
2.869994
2.870579
2.871464

2.839x02^ 2.839164 2.839227 2.839289

2.839729
2.840357

2.840984 2.841046

2.84x610

2,842235
2.842859
2,843482
2.844104
2.844726

2.845346
2.845^66
2.846584
2.847202
2.84781

2.848435

2.849051

2.849665

2.85027912

2.850891

2.851503
2.8521 14
2,85272412

2.853J33
2.853941

2.855761

2.856466
85697c

2.857574

2.858176
2.85877^5

2.859378

2.859978

2.860578
2.861176

2.861773

2.862966

2.863561
2.864155
2*864748
2.865341

2-865933

2.866524
2.867 1 14
2.86776^

2.868292

2.868879

2.870053
2.870638

2.871223

2.839792

z84042o 2.840482 2.840545

2.8416722.8417352.841797

2.842297
2.842921

2.843544 2.845666

2.844166
2.844788

2.845408
2.846028
2.846646
2.847264
.847881

2.849726

•850340

2.850952

2.851564

2.852175

.852785

2^853394

2.854002

2.85454912.85461012,854670

.855216 2.855277

2.855822 2.855882

2.856427 2.856487

2.857031 2.857091

2.8^855 2.839918

2.841 169 2.841 1 72

2.842360 2.842422

2.842983

2.844229
2.844851

2.845470I2

2.846090

2.846708

2.847326

2,847943

2.848497J2.848559
2.8491 12

2^49174
2.849788
1^850401
2.851014

2.851625
2.852236
2.852846

2.853455
2.854063

2.857634
2.858236

2.858838

2.859436

2.860038

2.860637

■■ 1.

2.862370 2.86243c

^61 236J 2*861 293J2.861355

2.861952

2.861833

2.863025

2.S64214
2.864808
2.86540c
2.865992

2.866583
2.867173
2.867762
2.86h^50
2.868938

2^8691466 2.869525

2.8701 II

2.858296

2.861895
2.862489
2.863083

2.86362c 2.86368c

2*86427-4
2*864867
^•865459
2.866051

2.866642
2.867232
2*867821

2.868997

2*869584

2.870696 2.870755
2.871 281I2.87J339

2.843046
2.845669
2.844291
2,8449x2

.845532
2.846151

2.84677a

2.847588

2.848004

>2Q I

2.8486

2-8 49235}*

2.849849
2.850462
2.851075

2.851686
2.852297
2.852907
2.853516
2.854124

2.85473'
2.855337

2-85594 _
2.856548"

2.85715112

2.8576942.857754

2.858357

2.859499 2.85955
2.86009H 2.860158

2:860697 2.860757 2.860817

2.86254912.86260^

2.863144

2.«63739
2.804333
2,864926
2.865518

2.86670 )
2.867291
2.867i;8::

2.868409 2.868468

2.869056

2.869642

2.870170 2*8702282.870287

2.870813

2.839352
2.839981
2.840608

2.841234 2.841297
2.841860 2.841922

2.842484
2.843x08

2.84373^
2.844353

2.844974 2.845036

2.845594
2.846213

2.846832

2.847449
2^48066

.848682

.849«96

2.849911

2.850524

«.85ii36

2.851747
^.85235^
2.852968

2-85357^
2.854184

2.854792

2.855398
2.856005

2^856608

.85721

2.857813

2.858898J2.85895g|2.859oifc 2.859078

2.8596x9 2.859679

2.861415
2.8620x2

2-863 79S
2:86439:
2.864983

2.865578

2.8661162.866169 2.866228

J. 86676c
2.86735c
2.867939
2.868527
2.869x14

2.869701

2.870872

2*87139812.87145612-8715^5

2.8394X5
2.840043
2.84067 J"

2.842543

2.843 « 70

2.843793
2-844415

2,845656
2.846275
2,846893

2.8475 XX

2.848x37

2.848743

2.849358
2.849972
2.850585
2.85x197

3.85x808

2*852419

2.853029

2.853^37

2-854245

2.854852

'.855459

2.856064

2.85^8
2.857272

2.857875

2.8*584x7 2:858477

2.860218 2.860278

2.860877

2.86x475

2.862072
2.d62668

2;863 2 04I 2.863 2^3

e.863858
2.864452
2.865045
2.865637

2.866819
2.867409
2.867997
2.868586
2,869173

2.869760

2*70345
2.870930

^3
^3

6f
62

63
61
62
62
62

6.2
6.x
61
61
61

61
61
6x
61

60
60
60

6o|

«0

59
59
59
59
59

59
59

2.87i748|2.87i8o6'2.87i86Y^.87.i9i3|x.b?.i9Sii24{<7204p'2.b7209.Si 5)%

■531

i€o

LOGARITHMS*

745 2.872156,2.872215 2.872273

746 2.872739.2.872797 2.872855

747 2.873321I2.873379 2.873437

748 2.87390» 2.873960 "

749 2.874482 2.874540

750,2-8750^1 2-87 ?i 19

75112.875640
7522.876218

753 2-876795
7542.877371

755
756

2.877943
2.878522

757 2.879096

758
759

760
761
762

763
764

765
766
767
768
769

770

771

772

773
774

775
776

777
778

779

780
781
782

783
784

78?
786
787
788

789

790
791

792
793

795

2.879669
2.880242

2.880814
2.881385
2.881955
2.882524
2.883093

2.883661

2.884229 2.884285

2.884795
2.885361
2.885926

2.886490
2.887054
2.887617
2.888179
2.888741

2.889302
2.889862
2.890421
2.890980

2.891537

2.892095
2.892651
2.893207
2.893762
2.894316

2.894870
2.895422

2.895975
2.896526

2.897077

2JB97627
2.898176
2,898725
2.899273

2.90036.7

7962.900913

2.875698
2.876276
2.876853
2.877429

2.878004
2.878579

2.879153
2.879726

2.880299

2.880871
2.881442
2.882012
2.882581
2.883150

2.883718

2.884852
2.885418
2.885983

2.886547
2.8871 1 1
2.887673
.888236
2.888797

2.889358
2.889918
2.890477
2.891035

2.891593

2.892150
2.892707
2.893262
2.893717
2.894371

2.894925
2.895478
2.896030
^.896581
2.897 F3 2

2.897682
2.898231

2.899328

2.874018
2.874598

2.875177
2.87 ^756
2.876333
2.876910
2.877486

2.878062
2.878637
2.879211
2.879784
2.880356

2.880928
2.881499
2.882069
2.882638
2.883207

2.883775
2.884342

2.885474
2J886039

2.886603
2.887167
J.887730
2.888292
2.888853

2.885^414
2.889974

2.890533
2.891091

2,891649

2.892206
2.892762
2.893318
2.893873
2.894427

2.895533
2.896085

2.897187

2.897737

2.872331 a.872389 2.8^2448

2.872913

2.873495 2.8735;3'2.8736i i

2.874076
2.874656

2.875235
2.875813
2.876391
2.876968
2.877544

2.878119
2.878694
2.879268
2.879841
2.880413

2.880985
2.881556
2.882126
2.882695
2.883264

2.883832
2.884399

2*884909 2.884965

2.885531
2.886096

2.886660
2.887223
2.887786
2.888348
2.^88909

2.889470

2.890589
2.891 147
2.891705

2.892262
2.892818

2.893373
2.893928

2.894482

2.894980 2.895036

2.895588
2.896140

2.S^66^6 2.896691

2.897242

2.897792

2.898286I2.898341

2.898780 2.89883512.898890 2.898944

2.8993832.899437

^94 2.899820 2.899875 2,8999302.899985 2.900039

2.900422 2.900476 2.900531

2.900968 2.901022 2.901077 2.901 131

7972.901458 2.901513 2.90156712.9016222.901676
795 2.902003 2.902057 2.902112 2.902166 2.902220

2.872972 2.873030

2.8741342.874192
2.874714,2.874772 2.874830

2.872506
2.873088
2.873669
2.8 7 4250

2.875293,2.875351
2.875871^1.875929

2.876449
2.877026

2.877603

2.878177
2.878751

2.879325

2.079898
2.880471

2.881042
2.881613
2.882183
2.882752
2.883321

2.876506

2.877083

2.877659

2.87823^1
2.878809

2.879383f2-879440

2.879956
2.880528

2.883889
2.884455
2.885022
2.885587
2.886152

2.886716
2.887280
2.887842
2.888404
2.888965

2.889526

2.890030 2.890086

2.890644
2.891203
2.891760

2.892317
2.892873

2.893984
2.894538

2.895091
2.895643
2.896195
2.896747
2.897297

2.897847
2.898396

2.899492

2.900586

2.881099
2.881670
2.682240
2.882809
2-883377

2.883945
2.884514
2.885078
2.885644
2.886209

2.886773
2.887336
2.887898
2.888460
2^889021

2.889582
2.890141
2.890700
2.891259
2.891816

2.892373
2.892929

2.893429 2.893484

2.894039
2.894593

2.895146

2.896251
2.896802

2.897902
2.898451
2.898999
2.899547
2.900094

2.900640
2.901186
2.901731

2.902275

2.875409

2.875987
2.876564

2.877141

2.877717

2.878292

2.878866)2.878922
2.879497
2.880070
2.880642

2.880010
2.880*585

2.88 1 1 56
2.881727
2.882297
2.882866
2.883434

2.884002
2.884569
2.885135
2.885700
2.886265

2.886829
2.887392
2.887955
2.888516
2.889077

2.889638
2.890197

2.890755
2.891314

2.891872

2.892428
2.892985
2.893540
2.894094
2.894648

2.895201

2.8956992.895754

2.896306
2.896857

2.897352^.897407

2.897957
2.898506
2.899054
2.899602
2.9^0149

2.872564

2.873727
2.874308
2.874887

2.875466
2.876044
2.876622
2.877198
2.877774

2.878349I2.878407
2.878981

2.879555
2.880127

2.880699

2.881213
2.881784
2.882354
2.882923
2.883491

2.884059
2.884625
2.885191
2.885757
2.886321

2.K86885
2.887448
2.88801 1
2.888573
2.889135

2.889694
2.890253
2.890812
2.891370
i.891927

2.892484
2.893040

2.893595
2.894150

2.894704

^•895257
2.893809

2.896361

2^.896912

2,897462

2.900695
2.901240
2.901785

-•9V329

799*2.902547 2.902601 2.9026552.9027 10 2.90276412.902818 2,902873

2.898012
2.898561

2.899656
2.900203

2.872622

2.873204

2.873785
2.874366

2.874945

«:

2.87*681 5W

2.873262 55

2.873843 5S5

2.874424 5?

2.875003 55

2.875524
2.876162

2I876680
2.877256
2.877832

2.881270
2.881841
2.882411
2.882980
2.883548

2.875582
2.876160

2.876737
2.877314

2.877889

2.878464
2.879038
2.879612
2.880185
2.880756

2.8841 15
2.8S4682
2.885248
2.885813
2.886378

2.886942

2.887505
2.888067
2.888629
2.889190

2.889750
2.890309
2.890868
2.891426
2.891983

2.892540
2.893096
2.893651
2.894205
2.8947^9

2.895312
2.895864
2.896416
2.896967
2.897517

2.898067
2.898615

2.899109 2.899164

2.8997 1 1
2.90025.S

2.900749 2.9008042.900858
2.901295 .2901349 2,901404
3.901840 2.901 8941
2.902384 2.902438
2.902927 2.902981

2.881328
2.881898
2.882408
2.883036
2.883605

2.884172
2.884739
2.88530?
2.885870
2.886434

2.886998
2.887561
2.888123
2.888685
2.889246

2.889806
2.890365
2.890924
2.891482
2.891039

2.892595
2*893151
2.893706
2.894261

2.894814

2.895367
2.895919
2.896471
2.897022
2.897572

2.898122
2.898670
2.899218
2.899766
2.900312

2.901948
2.902492
2.903 0^6

C"1

51
5'

5«
5fi

5^
n6

55
hi

55
hi
hi

5-;

L O G A R I T H M S.

8oa 2.903090
801 zj^36^t

803

804 2.905236 2^53x0

805 2.905796 2^5850

806 2.906^35

807 2.906873

808 2.90741 1

809

817

824

82<?

826

827

828

829

2^3144

2.904x74 2.904228

2^3687 2.90374X 2.903795

2.9047x5 2.904770 2.904824'2.904878 2.934932

2.907948 2.908002

2.908485J2.908539I2.908592

2.909128

810

811 2.90902J

8X2 2.

8132.
8142.9x0624

2-909074

909J56 2.909609

9I0090I2.9IOI44
2.910678

815 2.9x1x58
8162.91x690

8x8 2.912753
8x9 2.9x3284

820I2.9I38I4 2.9x3867

2.9x4396
2.9x4925

^15453

821 2.914343

822 2.914872

8232.915400

2.916454

,2.9x6980

830

831

832

833
834

2.906389

2.J^927

2.907465

•t

2.9031982.903253

2.9042832.904337

2.90536412.9054x8 2.9<^547^

2.905904 2.905958 2.906012

2.906443I2.906497
2.9069812.907035
2.9<^75X9 2.907573

2«9X12X1

2.911743

2.912222 2.912275

2.9x2806

^•913337

2.915927 2^x5980 2.916033

219x6507

2-917033

2.9175052.9x7558

2.918030 2.918083
2.9x85542.9x8607

^w<

2.919078
2.9x9601
2.920x23
2.920645
2.92x166

2.919x30

2.919653
2.920175

2.920697
2.921218

83^

836

837

838

839

1.92x686
2.922206

2.922725
2.923244

2.923762

2.92x738
2.922258

2.922777

2.923296

2.923814

840
841
842

843
844

845
946

847
848

849

850

851

852

853

2.924796
2.925312
2.925828

2.926342

2.926857

2.927370
2.927883

2.928908

3.930440

_ 2,930949

i 854^.9314^8

2.908056 2^908x09 2.908163

2.909663
2.9XOI97I2

2.^x0731

2.911792

2.912328

2^908646
2.909181
2.909716
9x0251
2.9x0784

2.9112642.9x1117
2.911850

2.912381

2.903307

2.903849
2.904391

2.903361

2.903903

2.903416

2^4445 »*904499 2.9045 53
2.904986 2,905040 2.905094

Z.90SS26

2.90708^

2.5)06065
906604

2.907626 2.907680

2^908699 2.908753
2^09235

2.909770
2.910304
2.910838

2.9128592.912912

2.913390

2.913920

2.914449 2.914502 2.914555

2.914977
2.915505

2.917085
2.91761

2-913443

2.9x3973

2.915030

2.915558
2.916085

2.917x38
2.917663

2.91X37X
2.9x1903

2.912435

2.912966 2.913019

2.913496

2.914026

2.915083
2.9x5611
2.916x38

2.916559 2.916612 2,916664 2.916717

2.9181352.918188

2.9x865

2.9x9x83
2.9x9705
2.920228

2.9x8712

1.917190
2-9x77x5
2,9x8240

2.92x790
2.9223x0
2.922829
2-923348
2.923865

2.9242792.924331

2.924848
2.925364
2.925879
2.926394

2.9265K>8
2.927422
2^27935

2.928396 2.928447

2.928959

2.9294192.929470 2.929521

2,929930 2.929981

2.930491

2.924.383
2.924899

2.925415

2.926445

2.926959

2.927473

2.928498
2.929010

^■ww.

2.931000 2.93X05X

2.919235
2.919758

2.920280

2.920749 2.920801
2.921270 2.921322

2.919287
2.919810
2.920332

2.920853

2.92x842
2.922362
2.922881

2-923399

2.923917

2.924951
2.925467

2.9259302.925982

2.9270XX

2-928549

2.929061

2.929572

2.930540 2.930592

2-93 XX02

2.92x894

2.907x42 ^^07196 2.907250 2.907304 2.907358

2.9082x7

2.908807 2.9o886o|2.{)o89X4|2.9o8967

2.909288 2.909342 2.909395

2.905)823 2.909877 2.909930

2.9x0358 2.9X04XX 2.9x0464

2.9X089X 2•9I05^4 2.910998

2.911424 2.91147712,911530
2.91 195612.91 2009 2.912063

2.912488

2-9^3549

2.9x407912.9 X4X 3 X 2.914184
2.914608 2.914660 2.914713
2.9x5136 2.915x89 2.915241
2.9x5664 2.9x5716 •2.915769
2.9x6191 2,916243 2.916296

2.918764 2.918816^2.918869

2.921374 2.921426 2.921478

2.921946

2.9224142.922466
2.922933 2.922985

2.924434 2.924486 2.924538 2.924589

2.926497 2.926548

2.917062

2,927524 2.927576

2,927986 2.928037 2.928088 2.928140 2.928191

2.928601

2.930032 2.930083 2.930134 2.930185 2.930236

2.930643
2.93 "53

VoklLPutl.

2.93150012^3x56012.53x6x0 2.33^661 2.^3

2.927627

'2.928652

2.9291 12 2.929163

2,929623 2.929674 2.929725

atumimm

2-903470

2.903958 2.9040x2

2.905580 2,905634

2.9061192.906173

2.5^06658

«.907734

2.9082702.908324

2.912541
1.913072
2,913602

2.9x67702.916822

2.917243 2,917295 2.917348
2,9i7^6b 2.917820 2.917873
2.918292 2.918345 2.9x8397

2.9x9862 2.9x991412.9x9967
2,920384 2.920436 2.920489
2.9205^0612.920958 2.92x010

2.921998
2.922518
2.923037

2.923088
2-923451 2.923503|2.923555|2.923<5o7
2.92396912.924021 2.92407^2.924124

_ ^ 2.92464X
2.925002J2.925b54J2.925 1 0612.925157
2.925518 2.925570 2.925621 2.925673
2.926034 2,926085 2.926137 2,926188

2-926702

2.926600 2.926951

2.9271142.927165

2.928703

2.9067x2

2.907787

2.91892X

2.9x9340 2.9x9392 2.919444 2.9x9496

2-903524

2.904066

2.5K>46o7
2.905x48

2.905688 2.905742

2.906227
2.5^16766

2.907841
2.908378

«NI*««i

2.903578
2.904X20
2.904661
2.5)05202

2.906281
2.5)06820

2.907895
24)08431

2-909449 2.909502
2.909984 2.910037
2.9X05182.910571
2.91X051 2.91 1104

2.911584

2.9125942.912647
2.913125 2.913178

2.9»3655 2.9x3708

2.9121162.9x2169

2.914237
2.914766
2.915294
2.915822
2.916349

2.916875
2.917400
2.917925
2.9x8450
2.918973

2.922050

2.919549

2.920015)12.920071

2.920545
2.92x062

2.9415302.921582

2.922102

2*9225702.922622

2.927216

2.927678 2S.927730

2.928754

2.9292x4 2.9292662.9293x7

2.929776

2.9306942.930745 2.9307962.930847

2-93

X 205 2 .93 x 254] 2.93 X i 05

X 71 2'2.9iX 76312.93x81 4

2.923658
2.924x76

2.924693

2.925724

2.926239

2.926754

2.927268
2,927781

2.9282422.928293

2.928805

2.929827

2.930287 12.930338

93x864

2.91X637

2.9X 2700
2.91323 1
2.9X376X

2.9x4890
2.914819

2-9^5347
2.915874

2.916401

2.916927

2.9x7453
2.917978

2.918502

2.919026

2.920593
2.921114
2.921634

2.922154
2.922674

2.9231402.923192

2.923710
2.924228

2.924744

2.925209 2.925260

2.925776
2.926291
2.926805

2.9273x9
2.927832

2.928345
2^28856

2*929368

2-929878

2-930389
2.930898

-^•93x 356 2.93x407

2»93x^x3

3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2

2
2

i5t

i6i

LOGARITHMS.

•w

^SS 2^319662.9^2017 2.932068 2.932x18 2.9321692.9322202.932^71 2.932321 2.93237212.932423

856 2.932474 2.932524 2.932575 2.932626 2.932677 2.932727 2.932778 2.932829 2.932879 2.932930

o o. 2.933082 2.933133 2.933183 2.933234 2.933285 2.933335 2.933386 2.933437

2-933588 2.933639 2.933690 2.933740 2.933791 2.933841 2.933892 2.935943
2.934094 2.934145 2.934195 2.93424612.93429612.934347 2.934397 2.934448

8562.932474

8572.9329812.953033
858 2.933487 2.933538

^S9 2.933993 2.934044

860 2.934498 2.934549

861 2.935003 2.935054

862 2.935507 2.935558

863 2.93601 1 2.936061
864 1.9365x4 2.936564

865 2.937016 2.937066

866 2.937518 2.937568

867 2.9380192.938069

868 2.938520 2.938570

869 2.939020 2.939070

8702.93195192.939569

871 2.940018 2.940068

872 2.940516 2.940566

873 2.94x0142.94x0642.9411x4

874

-.^^ ^-r--^- '^-r- -/ -^^"^, ^^ ;r-r— J- -;r.T-a— 2.942355 2.9424O5 2.942454J 5c

876 2.942504 2.942554 2.942603 2.942653 2.942702 2.942752 1.942801 2.942851 2.942900 2.942950I 50

1.943049 2.943099 2.943148 2.943198 3.943247 2.942397 2.943346|2^43|97 2.944445

877 2.943000 2^^^ ^_^_^ _^_,^_^^ _,_^^_^.

878 2.943494 2.943544 2.943593 2.943643 2.943692 2.9437^2 2.94379i 2.9438

879 2.943989 2.944038 2.944088 2.944137 2.944186 2.944236

884

885

2.941511

2.941561

2.934599 2.934^50 2.934700 2.934751 2.934801 2.934852 2.93490212.934953
^93515412.935205 2.935255 2.935306 2.9^s3S^ 2.935406 2.935457

2.935104

2.935608 2.935658 2.935709 2.935759 2.935809 2.935860 2.935910^2.93596
2.936111 2.9361622.9362122.936262 2.936313 2.936363 2.936413 2.936463
2.936614 2.93666412.936715 2.936765 2.936815 2.936865 2.936916 2.936969

2.940616

2.941611

2.944828

880 2.944483 2.944532 2.944581 2.944631 2.944690 2.94472912.944779

881 2.944976 2.945025 2.945074 2.945124 2.945173 2.945222 2.945272 2.945321
8822.945469 2.945518 2.945567 2.945616 2.945665 2.945715 2.945764I2.945813
883 2.945961 2.946010 2.946059

.946452 2.946501

2.946943 2.946992

886 2.947434 2.947483 2.947532

887 2.9479242.947973 2.948021

888 2.948413 2*948462 2.94851 1

889 2.948902 2.948951 2.948999

898 2.95327*
^99 2-953760

890 2.949390 2.949439 2.949488

891 2.949078 2.949926 2.949975

892 2.950365 2.950413 2.950462

893 2.950859 2.950900 2.950946
8942.951337 2.951386 2.951435

895 2.95182^ 2-9518722,951920

896 2.9^328 2.952356 2.952405

897 2.952792 2.952841 2.952889

2.937116 ^937^67 2.937217 2.937267 2.937317 2.937367 2.937418 2.937468 5

2.937618 2.937668 2.937718 2.937769 2.937819 2.937869 2.937919 2.937969 5CI

2.9381 19 2.938169 2.938219 2.938269 2.938319 2.938370 2.938420 2.938470 50

2.938620 2.938670 2.938720 2.938770 2.938820 2.938870 2.938920 2.938970 50

2.939120 2.939170 2.939220 2.939270 2.939319 2.939369 2.939419 ^.939469 5c

2.946550

2.94704r 2.947090

2.953325 2.953373
2.953808 2.953856

905 2.956649 2.956697 2.956744

2.947139

2.9546282.954677

900 2.954242 2.954291 2.954339 2.954387 2-954435 2.954484 2.954532 2.954580 _ . _ . _
-* - -'^ii 2.954869 2.954918 2.954966 2.955014 2.955062 2.95511b 2.955185

1 2.955399 2.955447 2.955495 2.955543 2-95559^ 2.955640

2 2.955880 2.955928 2.955976 2.956024 2.956072 2.956 1 20

2.956312 2.956360 2.956409 2.956457 2.956505 2.956553 2.956601

K)49 2.950097 2.950744I2.956792 2.956840 2.956888 2.956936 3.956984 3.957Q32I2.9570.80
90612.957128 2.9571762.957224 2.957272 2.957320 2.957368 2.957416 2.957463

907 2.957607 2.957655,2.957707 2.957751 i-nr*».Tno i.aefHA^ ^ocT^Oii "i.QCIQAQ.

j^8 2.958086 2.958 134' 2.958181 2.958229
^9|2.9585<!>4l2.9586i 2 2.958659 2.95a7o

2.946108 2.946157 2.946207 2.946256 2.946305
2.946600 2.946649 2.946698 2.946747 2.946796

2.947189

2.950023 2.950073 2.95OI2I -,^j^. ,^ -^^— _-,
2.950511 2.9505602.950608 2.950657 2.950705

2.950997 «-95io47 2.951095 2.951143 2.951192

^'y^^^yi ^-yj*^*!/ •'.y^'^y^ *-y3**^j -^j^j**^-
2.951483 2.951532 2.951580 2.951629 2.951677

^ w '*(2.94389o 2.943939 491

2.944285 2.94433512.94438412.944433 49

2.947238

2.947581 2.947630 2.947679 2.947728 2.947777 , „ , ^ ^ ^

2.948070 2.948119 2.948x68 2.948217 2.948266 3.9483x5 2.948364
2.5)48560 2.948608 3.948657 2.948700 3.948755 2.948804 2.948853
2.949048 2.949097 2.949146 2.949195 2.949244 2.949292 3.949341

2.949539 2.949585 2.949633 2.949^3 2.94973 1 N4978of2.949829

2.9501702.9502192.9502672.950316

2.9507542.650803
2.9512402.951289

-932372^2.!
.9328792.1

«b

EIE

2.947287

2.944877

2.944927

2.945370 2.945419 49

2.945863 2.94591 1 49

2-946354 2.946403 49

2.946845 2.946894 49

2.947336 2.947385
2.947826 2.647875

2.951726

2.95'774

51
51

50
50

49
49
49

49
49

LOGARITRMS.

912

914

915

916

917

918

919

920
921

922

923
924

9^5

926

927
928
929

930
931
93^
933
934

935
936
937
938
939

2*959041
2.959518

2.959995
2.960471

2.960946

2*961421
2.961895
2.962309
24962843

^•9633^^5

2.963788

2.964731

2.965202

2.9656721

a.963835
964260I2.964307

2.964778

2.965249

2.965719

2.966142
2.9666x1

2.967080

^•967548
2.9680x6

2.968483
2.968950
2.969416
2.969882
2.970347

940
941
942

943

944

945
946

947

948

949

950

951
952

953
954

955

956

957
958

959

960
961
962

963

964

2.970812
2.971276
2.971740
2.97220.^
2.972666

2.975051

2.959089
2.959566
2.960042
2.9605x8
2.960994

2.961468
2.961943
2.962417
2.962890

^•963363

2.966189
2^66658
2.967127

^•9^7595
2.968062

2.968530
2.968996
2.969462
2.969928

^•970393

2.970858

2,97x32

2.97x786

2.973128 2.973174

2.97359^ 2.973636 2.973682

2.974097

2.9745122.974558
2.974972 2.975018

2.975432 2-975478
2.9758902.975937

2.977724
2.978x80
2.978637

2.979093
2.979548

2.980003
2.980458
2.980912
2.981365
2.981819

^939^31
2.959614

2.960090

2*960566

2.96x041

2*961516
2.96195^
2.962464
2.962927
2*965410

2.963882

2-964354
2*964825

2.965296

2,965766

2.966236
2.966705
2.967173
2.967642
2.968107

2*968576
2.965P42
2.969509

2.969975
2.970440

2.970904
212.97x369

2.97x832
2.972249I2.972295
2.9727x2 2.972758

2-974343

2*959184
2.959661
2.960158
2.9606x3
2.96108912*96

2*961563
2.962058
2.9625x1
2.962985

2.963457

2*963929
2.964401

2.96487

2-965343
2.9658x3

2*966283

2.9667522

2.967220

2.967688

2*9681562.968

2.968623
2.969090 2
2.969556
2.970031
2.970

4862

2.970951
2.971415
2.971879
2.972342
2.972804

2.9732202.973260

2.973728

2-975524 2.975570 2.975616
2.975983

2.959232
2*959709
2.9601
2.960661
1156

852*96

2-965977

2.964448

.964919
2.965390

2*959280

2.959757
0253

2.960708 2*96

2*5X^1184

2.961658
2.962x52

2.961706
2.962180

2.96x611

2.962085

2.96255912*96260612.962653

2.963032

2.965504 2

a.959328
2*959804
2.960280
0756
2.961251

2.963079
.965552

242

2.965860 2*965907

292

2.9665

966798
2.967267

2-967735
205

2.96867d2.9687 16|2.968765
.969156
2*5^9602

2*970068

970533

2.970997
2.974461
2*971925
2.972588
2.972851

-:7,j^y^ -:7ijyDi\-':7fjy-o 2.976029 2.976075 2.976l2x|2.976x66 2.9762 I2J2.976258
2.97635c 2.976396 2.976442 2.976487 2.976533 2.976579 2.976625 2.976671 2.976717
i.976808 2,976854 2.976900 2.976949 2.976991 2.977037 2.977085 2.977x29 2.977175
2.977266(2.977512 2.977558 2.977403 2.977449 2.977495J2.977541I2.977586I2.977652

2.9640

2.964495

2.964966

2-965457

.966576
2,966845
2.967514
2.967782
2.968249

.9687
2.969185
2.969649

2.970x14

2.970579

2.971044
2.97x508
2.971971

2-9724341
2.972897

2.9733132.97335912-97340512.97345*

2.975774 2.9^5820 2.975866 2.975913

2.974189 2.974235 2.974281 2.974527 2.974573

2.974604 2.974650 2.974696 2.974742 2.974788 2.974834
2.975064 2.975110 2.975156 2.975202)2.97524^2.975294

2.975661

2.978155
2.978591

2.977769 2.9778^5 2.97786112*976906^ 2.977952^2,977998 2.97804 J2.978089
2.978226 2.978272 2.978517 2.978563 2.978409 2^78454 2.978506 2.978546 '••y/o^yi
2.978683 2.978728 2.978774 2,978819 2,978865 2.97891 1 2.978956 2.979002 2.979047
2.979138 2.979184 2.979230 2.979275 2.979321 2^79366 2.979412 2.979457 2.979503
2*979594 2.979659 2.979685 2-979730 2.979776 2.979821 2.979867 2.979912 2.979958

^——^—^'^—— m^m^^^ ^^■^K.^pi.^Bi^iM ^i^.^iiHMiB«M^B« aaaaiBIHaBM.MM^ ^^BBraaHK^I^BMa*

2.982271 2.9825r6 2.982262 2.982407 2.982452 2,982497 2*982545 2.982588 2.982655 2.982678
2.982725 2.982769 2.982814 2.982859 2.982904 2.982949 2*982994 2.985040 2.985085 2.983130
2.985175 2.985220 2.985265 2.985510 2.983356 2.983401 2.983446 2.985491 2.983536 2.985581
2.983626;2.98367i 2.9857162.9857622.983807 2.9838522.983897 2.9839422.985987 2.984032
2.984077 2.984122 2.984167 2.9842122.984257 2.984302 2.984347 2.984392 2.98443^2.984482

2.965126
2.965599

.964071
2.964542
2.965015
2.965484
2.965954

2.966425

2.96689

2.967961

2.5^7829

2I968296

2.96647
2I 2.966959
2.967408
2.967875

2.968543

2.969229
2.969695
2.970x61
2.970626

2.971090 2
2.971554

2.972018
2.97248^2

2,972945

2.975707

2-959375
2.959852

2.960528

2.959423
2*959900

2,960576

2*960804 2*960851

2*96x279

2.96x755
2.962227
2.96270X
2.965174
2.965646

1.964118
2.964590

2.965060

2.965531
2*966001

Ol 2.9665 XI

2.966986

2.967454

2.967922
2.968589

10 2

2.9688

2.969276

2.969742

2.970207

2,970672

2.975753

2.96x526

2.5^1801
2.9622)11
2.962748
2.96522X
2.965695

Tunr

2*95947f

2.959947
2.960425

2.960899

2.96x574

2.96^x848
2.962522
2.962795
2.965268
2*965741

2.964x65
2.964657
2.965108
2.965578
2.966048

.968856
2.969525
2.969788
2.970254
2.9707x9

97"37
2.97x600

2.972064

.972527

2.972989 2^75055

2.971183
2.971647
2.972110

2.972573

2-973497

2.973959
2.974420

2.975799

2.9642x2
2.964684

2.965155
2.965625

2.966095

2.966564

2.967053
2.967501

2.967969

2.5KS8456

2.968905
2.969569
2.969855

2.970500
2.970765

2.971224
2.971695
2.972x56
2.972619
2.973082

2.973543
2.974005

2.974466

2.974880 2.974926
2.975340 2.975386

2.975845
2.976304
2.976762
2.977220
2.977678

4«
4«
4{
48
47

47
47
47
47
47

47
47
47
•47
47

47
47
47
47
46

46
46

^^
4^

4<
4<

46
46
46
4^

i!
46

4<S
46

46
46

X a

45
45

1.63

»<Si

965 2.^45^7

966
967
968
569

970

973

974

9S1

2.984977

2.985426 2.98547 1

2.985875

2.986324 2.986369

975 2.9^1900512.999049

976 2.989450 2.989494
9772.9898952.989939
9782-9903392.990383
979 2»990783 2.990827

2^845722.9846x7

2.985022

2.985920 2.985965

2.98677212.986816
2.987219 0198726412.9873
2I2.987666 2.98771 1
2.988x132.988157
^98855912.98860312

2.99x669

98012.99x22612.99^27012.99x315

^•991 757

2.992642
9930391^993083

982 2.9921 XX

983
984

9^1
98a

989

^99*553
2-99*995

985 3-99343^ 2

986 2.993877

a-9943»7

2-994757
2.995196

990I2.995635
991

992

993
994

99S
996

997

2-991 7 13
2.992x56

2.992598

.993480
2.993921
2.994361
2.994801
2.995240

2.995679

2.996074 2.996XX 7
2.9965x22.996555

2.996949
2.997386

1232.

1259 2

2-99^993

2.99^8
2.998
2.998695]
998 2.999130 2.5)9917412.95^218

997867
.998303

2.998736

LPG A R I T H M S.

a I 1

2.985067

2.985516 2.98556X

2.986413

2.98686 X

2.987756

2.988202

.988648

2.989094

2-989539
2.989983

2.990

2.99087 X

4282

2.993524

2-993965

2.994405

2.994845
2.995284

2-995723
2.996161

2.996599
2-997037

2*997430 2^97474

'222^2

222^

2^84662

2.9851x22,985x57

2.9860x0 2.986055

2.986458

2.986906

2.987353
2.9878

2.988247

2.988693

002.

2.989x38
2.989583
2.990028
.990472
2.9909x6 2.99096

2*991359 2.991403

2.99x802
992200 2*992244 2
2.9926S6
2.993x27

2.993568
2.994009 2
2.994449
2.994889
2-995328

2.995767
2.996205

2.996643

2.997080

2.9975x7

2.9979x012.99795412.997998

2.998346

2.998782

2.998390

2.999261
999696

2(2.

2.984707

2.985606

2.986503

2.986951
2.987398

987845

2.988 29 X

2.988737

2.989183
2.989628
2.990072
2.990516

2.991846

.992288

2.992730

2.993x72

2-9936x3
994053

2-994493
2.994933
2.995372

2.9958x1
2.996249
2.996687
2.997x24
2.997561

2.998434

2.998326 2.998869

2.984752
2.985202

2.98565X
2.986100
t.986548

2.986995

2-987443
2.987890

2.988336

2.988782

2.989227
2.989672
2.9901x7
2.99056X
2.991004

2.99x448
2.99x890

2-992333

2-9927741
2.9932x6

2-993657
2.994097

2.994537

2.994977
2.9954162

2-995854
2.996293

2.996730 2

2.997x68

2.997605

2-9993051
2-999739/

2.99804 X
2.998477
2.998913
2.999348

2.984797

2-985247
2*985696

2.986x44
2.986593

2.984842 2.984887
3.985292 2.985337

2-985741

ro40 2

.987085
2-98753

2 2.

2.987

2.987487

2-98793412-98797912.988

2.988381

2.988826

2 2.

•989316

2.98976 X

2.990206
2.990650
2.99x04912.99x093

2.98927
2.989717
2.990x61
2.990605

2.99x492

2-991934

2-992377
2.9928x8

2.993260

2-9937OX
2.994x41

2.99458 X
2.99502X

.995460

2.995898

2.996336

.996774

2.51^72x2
2.997648

2.998085
2.998521
2.998956

2-999392

2.99978312.999826

2.986637

2.985786

2.986x892.986234

2.9866I

2.988425

2.988871

2.991536
2.991979

2.992421
2.992863

2.99330412

2.993745

2.994185
2.994625
2.995064

2.995504

2.995942

2.99638
2.996818

2.997255

2.997692

2.998128

2.998564

2.9$^00

2.999435
2 .99987

2.987130

987577
024

2.9849;
2-9853S

2.98583c

2.986279
2.986727

2.9884702.988514

2.988915

2.989361
2.989806

2.990250 2

2.990694

2.991137

2.99x580
2.992023
2.992465
2.992907

-993348

2.993789
2.994229 2

2.994669

2.995x08

2.995547

2.995986

o| 2.996424

2.996862

2.997299
2.997736

2.998608

2.999043

2.999478

2.987174
2.987622
2.988068

2.98896c

2.989405
2.98985c
990294
2.990738
2.99X 182

2.99x625
2.992067
2.9925091

2.99295 X

2.993392

2.993833

994273

2.994713

2.995152

2.99559*

2.996030
2.996468
2.996905

2.997343
2.997779

2.5^X72 2.{>S^2X6

2.998652
2.999087
2.999522

9999^312^99957

45
45
45
43

45
45
4i
45
45

44
44
44
44

44
44
44

44
44
44
44

irithmic Canon, or Tabli of Artificitl Sinsi and TANonrrf ; the Radius to,ooo,ooo* |6c

Siite I Stnc Coinip

o Degree

TtniT.

3«ooooooo; IOjOOOOOOO

5.4637261

6.7647561

6.9408473
7.0657860
7.1626960

7.2418771
7.3088239

7.3668157

7.4I7968I

7-4637^55

7.505I18I

7.5429065
7.5776684

7.6098530
7.6398160

9.9999999I
9.9999999
9.9999998

9-9999597
9.9999995

9.9999593
9.9999991
9.9999988
9.9999983
9.9999982

7.6678445

7-6941733
7.7189966

7-74«4775
7-7647537

7-7859427
7.8061458

7.8254507

7-8439338
7.8616623

9.9999978

9-9999974
9.9999969

9.9999964
9*9999959

9.9999953

9-9999947
9.9999940

9-9999934
9.9999927

5
5

7
8

I
2

7.8786953
7.8960854
7.9108793
7.9261 190
7.9408419

7.9550819
7.9688698
7.9822334
7.9951980
8.0077867

9.9999919!
9.999991 1
9.9999903
9.9999894
9.9999885

9.99994^76
9.9999866
9.9999856
9.9999845
.9.9999835

8.0200207
8.0319195
8.0435009
8.0547814

^•0657763

8.0764997
8,0869646
8.0971832
8. 1 07 1 669
8.1 169262

8.1264710
8.1358104

81449532

8.1539075
8.1626808

8.1 7 1 2804
8.1797129
38.1879848
48.1961020
5 8.2040703

7
8

8.2118949

8.219581X

8."7«335
8.2345568

^418553

9.9999823
9.9999812
9.9999800
9.9999788
9.9999775

9.9999762
9.9999748

9-9999735
9.9999721

9.9999706

9.9999691
9.9999676
9.9999660
9.9999644
9.9999628

9.9999611

9-9999594
9-9999577
9-9999^59
9-9999 541

9.9999522
9.9999503
9.9999484
9.9999464

9-9999444

9.9999424
9.9999403
9.9999382
9.9999360

9-9999338

Sine Com]*. I Sine

0.0000000

6.4637261

6.7647562

6.9408475

7.0657863

7.1626964

13-5362739
13-2352438

13-0591525
12.9342137

12^8373036

7-2418778

7.3088248
7.3668169

74179696

7-463717.^

7.5051203
7.5429091

7-5776715

7.6398566
7.6398201

12.7581222
1 3.69 II 752

1 2.633 1 83 1

12.5820304

12.5362727

S9
58
57
56

7.6678492
7.6941786
7.7190026
7.7424841
7.7647610

7.7859508
7.8061547
7.8254604
7.8439444
7.86167^8

.8787077
7.8950988
7.9108938
7.9261344

7.9408584

12.494879749
1 2.4570909 48
12.422328447
12.390143446
12.36017991 45

12.333150844
If. 3058214 43
12.270997442
12.257515941
1 2.235^390 40

54
Si
52

51
501

12.21
12.1938453

12.1745396
12.1560556

12.1383262

40492^39

7.9550996
7.9688886
7.9832534
7.9952192
8.0078092

12.1212923
1 2. 1 04901 2
12.0891062
12.0738656
12.0591416

1 2.0449004
12.0311114

1 2.0 1 7 74661 2 7

38
37
36

34l

33
32

301

8.0200445
8.0319446

8.0435274
8.0548094

8.06580^7

8.0765306
8.0869970
8.0972172
8.1072025
8.1169634

8«i 265099
8.1358510

8.1449956
8.1539516
8.1627267

8.1713282
8.1797626
8.1880364
8.1961556
8.20412^9

8.2119526
8.2196408

8.2271953
8.2346208

12.0047808
1 1.991 1908

i 1-9799555
11.9680554

11.9564726

11.9451906

11.9341943

11.9234694
11.9130030
11.9027828
11.8927975
11.8830366

11.8734901
11.8641490
11.855004^
11.8460484

11.8372733

11.8286718
11.8202374

11.8119636
11.8038444

11.7958741

11.7880474
11.7803592
11.7728047

11-7653792

B^TDcgnECs

8.24192 151 1 1.758 0785

Com. > l4n\

^3
22

201

^9\
18

17
16

13
12

7
6

8.2418553 1 9-999933^

3
4

i
6

7
8

II
12

£5

21
22

23
24
25

18.24903329.9999316
8.2560943 9.9999294
8.26304249.9999271
8.2698810 9.9999247

8.2766136

Swel!

I Degree

omp.

8.2832434
8-2897734
8.2962067
8.3025460
8.3087941

27
28

8.3149536
8.3210269

8,3270163

8.3329243
8-3387529

8.3445043
8.3501805

^^3SS1^3S
8.3613150

8.3667769

8.3721710
8.3774988
8.3827620
8.3879622
8.3931008

9-99992^^

9.9999200
9.9999175
9.9999150
9.9999125
9.9999100

9.9999074
9.9999047
9.9999021
9.9998994
9.9998966

9.9998939

9*9998911
9.9998882
9.9998853
9.9998824

35
34
ii
36
37
38

12
41
42

43
44

46
47

8.3981793
8.4031990
8.4081614
8.4130676
8.4179190

8.4227168
8.4274621
8.4321561

8-4367999
8-4413944

9.9998794
9.9998764

9-9998734
9.9998703

9.9998672

8.4459409

8.4504402

8.4548934

8.4593013
8.4636649

8.4679850
8.4722626

8.4806932

9.9998641
9.9998609
9.9998577
9.9998544
9 .9998512

9.9998478
9.99984451
9.9998411

9-9998376
9-9998342

9.9998306
9.9998271
9-9998235
9.9998199
9.9998162

9.9998125
9.9998088

8.4764984 9.9998050

9.9998012

8-48484799-9997974

8.4889632 9.9997935

8-4930398 9-9997896

48J8.4970784 9.9997856

5'
52

8*5010798

8.5050447

9.9997817
9.99977 76

8-5089736 99997736

8.5128673

8.51672649.9997653

8.5205514
8.5243430

56J8.528IOI7

57^8.5318281

58,8.5355228

598.5391863

608.5428192

SmcCom^j.

9-999769.

9.9997612
9-9997570

9.9997527
9.9997484

9-9997441
9-9997398
9-9997354

'^ine

Taiir.

8«24i92i5

8.2491015
8.2561649
8.2631153
8.2699563
8.27669 12

8.2833234
8.2898559
8.2962917
8.3026335
8.3088842

an. Compc

11.7580785 oo|

11 .7508985

"•7438351
11.7368847

11.7300437

11.7233088

8.3150462
8.3211221

8.3271143

8.3330249
8.3388563

8.3446105
8.3502895

8.3558953

11.7165766
II.7IOI441
U.7037083
11.6973665
11.6911158

11.6849538
11.678877948
11.6728857
1 1 .666975 1

"-66114374I

"•6553895144
1 1.6497 105

11.6441047

8.3614297(11.6385703

8.3668945

8.3722915
8.3776223
8.3S28886
8.3880918

8-3932336

8.3383152

8.4033^1
8.4083037

8.4132132

8.41806 79

8.4228690
8.4276176
8.4323150
8.4369622
8.4415603

11.6331055

11.6277085
11.6223777
II.6171II4

X 1.61 19082
11.6067664

It. 60 16848
11.5966619
11.5916963

11.5867868
11^.5819321

8.4461103

8.4506131

8.4550699

8.4594814

8.4638486

8.4681725

8.472453^
8.4766933

84808920

8.4850505

8.4891696

8.4932502

8.4972928
8.5012982

8.5052671

8.5092001

8.5130979

8.5169610
8*5207902

8.5245860

8.5283490

8^5320797
8.5357787

8.5394466

8-543P838

11-5771310

11.5723824
1I.5676850I27

11-5630378

1 1-5584 397

11.5538897
11.5493869
11.5449301

11 .5405 1 86
'1-536151

1 1.53 1^275
"•5275462
11.5233067

11.5X91080116
"-5149495

11.5108304
1 1.5067498
11.5027072
11.4987018

"•49473291

11.4907999
11.4869022

1 .4830387
X 1.4792098

11.4754149

1 ang. Com. "i ai^^

88 Degrees

11.4716510
11.4679203
11.4642213

1 1*4605534
11.4569162

13
12

IG
"9.

7
6

i66

LOGARITHMIC Tabu o»

a Dtgrecg

9 8.6066116

" ■609734

.J428 19119.9997.1 ?4

8.5464;
a 8.5499948

8-J570J36

9'99y7309
9.9997265
9.9997*10
3.9997174

8.5605404 9.9997

8%S639994

^■56743
8-i7'^3i7
" 5742 "39
8^577566.

I.580S923
1-58419.13

1.5874694
1.5907109

.6119616
1.61496^,1

8.6i794a4
8.6309.
■^338537

,696543

8.6990734
8.70J5889
8.7040899
8.7065766

8,7093490

3.71 15075

7i3952(

_. 8.7163829

>c 8.7188002

9,9997082
9.9997036

9.999694:
9-999689 4

9.9996846
9.9996798
9-999fi749
9-999'>7oo
9-99966

9.999660:
9-999^55°

9.9996500
9.9996449
9.99963 9 j

9-9996346
9.9996294
9.9996242
9.9996189
9.9996136

9.9996o9'2
■,.9996028

9-9995974

8.63677649.9995919
9-99958 65

9.9995809
9-9995753
9.9995697
9.999564!
9 -9995584

9-9995517
9.9995465
9.999541

S-P9953f3
9-9995^ 97

9-9995136
9.9995176

9.99951

9-9995056

9.99949 96

9-9994935

9-9994874
9.9994812
9-9994750
9.9994688

9.9994625
9.999456:
9.9994498
9-9994435
9-999 437?

9-9994306
9.999424:

9-9994176
9.9994

9.9994044

S-<43°« 38

8.5466909

8.5502683

" 5538166

5573362

8.56082 76

8.5641911
"■5677175
.57.1368
■5745'97
■5778766

5812077
8.5845136
8-5877945
8.5910509

8-59428 32

-5974917 ■
8.6006767 :
8.6038386 :

8.6069777 .
1.6100943 .

3.613
".6162616
.6193127

8.6113417

.6708697

8.673562«

8-6762393
8.6788996
""' i437

.6841719
8JS867844

8.6919629
8.694529;

8.6970806
3.699617:11
8.7021390

8.7046465
8-7071395

8.7096185
8.7120384
8-7145345
8.7169719
87 1939 58

M53309
14497317
14461834
1-4426638
'-43917^4

114357088
1 14321715
114288632
114254803
114221234

11-4187923
114154864
11.4122055
11.408949

11.4057168

1.40150^3

'■3993233
1.3961614
1.3930223

1.38990;?

1-3837384

1.3806873

'-3776573

'-374646:

■3716598
- , „ 3686917
8^34256311.3657437
"'"-^•^-..3628,55

'-3599059

'■329.1303
[.3264371
'■3237607
1 .3211004
'■3 ■84^63

i-3"5«2«
1.3132156
1.3106187

1.308037
1.3054708

1.3029194

[.3003828
1.25178610
'■2953535
[.192860;

1.2903S15
1.2879166
[.2854655
1.283028;
■280604:

J I NE^S AND TANGENTS. 467

ffiS

L O OARITHMIC Tabw of

■^

[Sin e Comp. |

»oi92346i 9>997S'4:^
9.99760x1
9.9975877

9-9975743
9.9975609

19.020434s
29.02163x8
3I9A228254

4'9«024©i57

5;9X5252o27|9^9975475

6,9.0265865
79.0275669
89^.287442

99.02991829.9974933
^0,9.03X0890 9.9974797

11,9.0322567

tt9A^342i2

»3,9-«>345825

1 4 9-03.^7407
1 5:9.03689 c8

X69.0380477

X7'9-039I9*5

189.0403424

19,9-04148^2
20,9*0426249

*i9-04376i7
229.0448954
239.0460261
249.047x538
251 9:04827 86
2619.0494005
27(9-0905x94
289.05x6394
299.0527489
SO 9-0538588

5x19.0549661
32 9UD560706
9.057x723

9.05827 XX

9.059367 X

33
34

39
40

9.9970387
9.9970239

9.9970090

44I9.0691074 9.996994 X

9.9969792

41
42

9.0604604
9.06x5909
9.0626386
9-0637235
9.0648057

9.0658852
9^)6696x9
9.0680360

9.070 1 76 X

9.07x2421
9.0723055
9.0733663
9.0744244
9.0754799

9.0765329
9.0775832
9.0786310
9.0796762
9.0807x89

9.0817590

9.0848643
9-0858945

9-997534o|
9.9975205

9.9975069

9.9974660

99974523
9-9974386

9.9974248
0.9974x10

9-9973971
9-9973833
9-9973*93
9-9973554
9-99734 M

9.9973273

9-9973135^
9.9972991

9-9972850

9.9972708

9.9972566
9.9972423
9.9972280

9.9972137
Q-9971993

9.997x849
9.997x704

9-997'559
9.997x4x4

9.997x268

9.9971x22
9.9970976
9.9970829
9.9970682

9-9970535

9.9969642
9.99*9492

9.99*9342
9.9969X9X
9.9969040

9.9968888
9.9968736
9.9968584
9.9968431
9.9968278

9.9968125

9.0827966 9.996797 X
9.08383x79.9967817

9.9967642
9.9967507

S^ne.Comp.' Sine

9.022833S
9.0240441
9.02525x0
9.0264548
9.0276552

9.0324249 IO.967575X

9.0464343
9.0475821

9.0487270
9.0498689
9.05x0078

Tiny. [ r»!iy "SoiP.
9.02x6202110.97837981s

9.02885 24
9^)300464
9-0312373

9.0336093

9.0347906
9.0359688

9-0371439
9.0383 1 5Q

9.0394848

9.0406506
9.04x8x34

9.0429731

9.044x299

9.0452836

9-052x439
9.0532771

9-0555349
9.0 966595

9.05778x3

9.0589002
9.0600x64
9.06x1297
9.o62t403

9.063348

9.0644533

9'06ssSS^
9.0666553

9.0677522

9.0688465
9.0699581
9.07x0270
9.0721 133
9.0731969

9.0742779

9.(57643 2 X

9-0775093
9.0785^0

9.079644 X
9.0807096
9.08x7726
9.082835 X

9.08589 IX

xo.977i662J5^

'0.9759559

10.9747490

^0.9735452
10.9723448

10.97x1476
X0.9699536
X 0.9687627

X0.9665907

X 0.965 2094
10.96405x2
I0.962856X
10.96x6841
10.9605x52

54
53
52

10.9593494
10.958x866
10.9570269
X0.9558701
10.9547x6440!,

49
48

47
46

43
421

10.9535*57139
10.9524x7938

10.951273037
X 0.950x3 XI 36

10.9489922 31

341

321

10.947856X
X 0.9467 2 29

9.0544074 10.9455926

10.944465X3X

'O.945340530
29
28

27
26

X 0.9422 1 87
X 0^94x0998

X0.9399856

X 0.93 88705

^0.9577597

10.95665x8

X0.9555467

10-9344444
10.9333447

10.9522478

io.93"535
X 0.95006x9

x«.9289730

10.9278867

10.926803 X

10.9257221

9-07535*3 10.9246457

10.9255679
X 0.9224947
X 0.92x4240

10.9205559

10.9x92904
10.9x82274
10.9x7x669
X 0.9x61089

9.0849466110.9x50^541 4
9.0859996
9.0870901
9x>88o98x
9.089x438 X0.9X08962

X 0.9x40004
10.9129499
10.9x190x9

i^3SL

'Tang. CoPi.> Taiig.

eet

15
24

25
22

201

17
16

M
13

12
XX

26 9* 1 1 1 B420
279.1128092
28 9.x 157742
9.1147570
9J156977

49.0899903

7
8

9.0940474 9.9966254
9|9-095055* 9.9966096

11
12

9.0970651
9.0980662
1519.0990651
14 9.10006 16
15 9.10x0558

179.X050375

18 6. 1040246 9.9964655

2x9.1069729
229.1079512
239.1089272

24 9. 1 0990 LO

^9
30

31
32

51
52

53
54
55

i Si;:cC'

9.0910082 9.9966727

9.0920257
9.0950367

9.09606 x5

9.1020477

9.1050096
9.1059924

9.9964x67
9.9964004
9.9965841

9-99*3*77
9.11087269,9963513

9.1166562

9.1176135
559.1185667
349.1195188
359.1204688

569.1214x67
579.1225624
589.1255061
599.1242477
409.1251872

9.1261246

4"
42
43|9-« 279954

44 9- '289247

45 9- '298539

469.1307812
47 9- »3' 7064
489.1526297

499.1535509

50 9.x 544702

9-1353875
9.X365028

9.1572161

9.158x275

569.1599445
579.1408501
589.1417537
59I9.1426555

9-'435553

9.08589459.9967507

9.0869221 9.99673^2
9.08794739.9967196
9.0889700 9.9967040

9.^^66884

9.9966570
9.9966412

9-9965937

9-99*5778
9.9965619
9.9965459
9.9965299
9.9965138

9.9964977
9.9964816

9.9964495
9.99*4330

9-99*3348
9.9963185
9.9965018
9.9962852
9.9962686

9.9962519
9.9962352
9.9962185
9.9962017
9.9961849

9.996 1 68 1
9.99615x2
9.^1345
9.9961174
9.9961004

99:960834

9. 1 270000 9.9960665
9.9960492
9.9660321
9.9960149

9-9959977
9.9959804

99959*31
99959458
9.9959284

9.9959111
9.9958956
99958761
9.9958586

9.15903 70 9.99584 1 X

9.9958235
9.9958059
9.9957882
9.9957705
9-9957528

I biiic Ccni^.* Sine

9-0953667

9-09*3955

9-0974219
9.0984460

9.0994678

9.1004872

9.1015044]

9.1025192

9-»<5353i7

9.1045410

Ta»nt. jTaajT. C»u.l

9.0891438

9.0901809
9.0912277
9.0923660
9-0933020

2£9433i5

9.x 055500
9-1065557
9.X075591
9.1085604
9.X095594

9.1x05562
9.11 15508
9.1 125451

9* "35333
9.X145213

9.1155072
9.1164909
9.1174724
9*1184518
91194291

9.1204045

9-1213773
9.1225482

9.1233171

9.1242839

9.1252486
9.1262112
9.1271718
9.1281903
9.1290068

9.X500413

9-1309937
9.1519442

9.1328926
9-»33859i

10.910856

io.9098i3i}59

10.9087723.jj

ia.907734cr

10.9066980^

10.9056645

10.9046353J5;
io.9036c45;5.

10^9025781^^
» 55431?:

10.90053 2:35:

10.899512
10.898495
10.8974808J4
1 0.89646s i^
io.89545Sd :j

lo.894450d4,
10.893444314^

10.892440942
io.89i4366'4L
10^9044064:

10.889445835
10.88844923!

i9.8874569r
10.88646673^

10.88547873:

10.88449283^
10. 8855091 jj
10.8825276;;

10.8815482131
io.&8o57c^:

10.8795957:9

10.878622^':!

io.87765iSb

10.876682/2^

'0'^757t6H2;

10.874751^.^

10.873783s!:

10.872828:;;

10.8718697111

10.8709x52;^

9-^347855
9.1557260

9.1566665

9.1576051

9.13854 x7

9.1394764
9.1404092
9.1415400
9.1422689

2143£959

9.1441210

10.86995871!
10. 8690063; 1

10.868055817

10^867107416
10.86616(^ 1 (

10.B65 21 65 u
10.86427401;
* 0.863333511
10.862394919
10.861458,^1:

10.8605236 5

10.8595908 i

io.85866od J
10.8577311 6
10.8568041

0.8558790

9.1450442 10.8549588
9.1459655)10.854034^

ipn

9.1468850 10.85311301 I
9.147802^10.8521^7^1

j f i -mWi I I I 1 1 . I I I i ini^

SINES AND TANGENTS.

I
2

3
4

Sino

8 Degrees

9-1435553

9-1444.532 9-9957350

9-1453493

9.14624359.9956993

9.1471358
9.1480262

9.1489148

7 9.1408015
89.1506864

9!9- 15^5^594

09-^524507

Sine Com^

9.9957528

9.9957172

9.9956815
9.9956637

i|9-i53330'

9*9955552
219.154207619.9955370

4
5

9-1550834

9-^559574
9.1568296

9:15770009.9954639

9.1585686

9-1594354
9.1603005

9-9954455

9-9954271
9.9954087

9.16116 39 9-99539 02

9.1620254
9.1628853

9-9953717
9.995353 »

7
8

9
to

23[9.i637434J9.995334i
249.1645998

25 9Jf654544

26JO.1663074
2719-1671586

28;9. 168008 1

29'9.i688559
;n'Q.i697oii

9-995^45^
9.9956276

9.9956095

9-9955915
9-99557.^4

9.9955188
9-9955005
9.99548 22

9.1705465
9.1713893

9.9951844

9-995 ^<554
9.9951464

^l|9.i73o699}9.995i274
.^.>;0-^739O77

339.1722305

3619.1747439

37;9-i755784
^819.1764112

3919.1772425

4-9,178^721

43
44

9-9953159
9.99529 72

9-99527«5

9-9952597
9.9952409

9.9952221

9-995203?

9.9951C84

9.9950893
9.9950702
9.9950510
9,9950318
9.9950126

9.1789001
9.1797265
9.1805512
0.1813744
lie '0.182 1060

''I

r;. 1 8 pi 60 9.9948964

9-^,^38344
9.1S46512

ojo. J 854665

w|0.l8628c2

: 1 19.1 870923
:: 9.1 879029
C3 9.18871 20
54 ig. 189; 105
;5|o.igo32?4

9-9949933
9.9949740

9.9949546

9.9949352
9.99491 ^8

9.9948769

9-9948573

,9-9S"48377
9.9948181

9i94T9T^
9.9947788

9-9947591

9-9947393
9.9947105

.>/

9.1913209

9.1919328

;.S 9.19:7342

9-1935341
O.IQ43324

9.9946997
9.9946798

9.9946599

9-9946399
0.9046199

^j: c c< nij»

«»txie

Tang. I TaDfT. Comp . |

9.1478025

9.1487 182
9.149632 I
9.I5O544I

9-I5M543
0.15236 27

9.1532692

9-1541739
9,1550769

9.1559780

Q.I 9687 7 j

9.-1577748
9.1586706

9.1595646
9.1604569

9-^6i34 7j

9.1622361
9.1631231
9.1640083
9. 1 64891 9
9-'657737

9.1666538
9.1675322
9.1684989
9.1692839
9.1701572

9.1710289
9.1 7 1 8989
9.1727672

9-'736338
9.1744988

9.1753622
9.1762239
9.x 770840

9-'779425
9.1787993

9.1796546
9.1805082
9.1813602
9.1822106
9 1 83059 c

9.18:9068
9.1847525
9.1855966
9.1864392
9.1872802

9.1881196
9,1889575
9.18979C19
9. 1 906*87
9.1914621

9^^939
9.1931241

9.'939P9
9.1917802

9 I9'f6c59

9.1964302
9.197253c
9.1980743
9.1988941
9.1997125

I'aHjy.Cump.

0852197560

0.851281859
0.8503679 58

0.8494559 57
0.8485457 56

0.8476373 ii

c.8467308.54
0.8458261 53
0.8449231 52

0.84402205'
0.843122750

0.8422252
0.8413294
0.8404354

0.8395431
0.8386527

0-8377639
0.8368769

0.8359917
0.8351081

0.8342263

5^8333462
083^4678
0.83 1 59 11
0.8307161
0.8298428

43
42

4'
45

39
38

37
36

0.828971134
0.828101x33
0.827232832
0.826366231
0.82550x2 3g

10.8246378
0.8237761
0.8229260
0.8220575
0.82x2007

0.8203454
0.8 1 949 1 8
0.8186398
0.8177894
0.8169405

0.S160932
0.8152475
0.8144034
0.8135608
0.812719*^

49
48

47
46

27
26

23
22

0.8118804
o.S 110425
o.8io2c6i
0.8093713
0.8085379

0.8077061
0.8068759
0.R06047 '
0.8052198
0^8043941

C.8035698

0.8C27470
0.8010257
0.8011059
0.8002875

'J aui

17
16

13
12

lO!

•Sipcgrtcs

9
8

7
6

3
2

3
4

7
8

9
10

±J2£g

reet

Siiir iSiiteC'inp,

9.X943324

9.I951293
9.1959247
9.I967186
9.I975IIO
9.I983019

9-9945999
9.9945798
9-9945597
9-9945396
9-9945194

9.1999913
9.1998793
9.2006658
9.20x4509
9.2022345

9.2030167
9-2037974

II
12

14(9.2053545

15
16

17
18

9.9946199

9.9944992
9.9944789

9-9944587
9.9944383

9.9944180

9-9943975
9-9943771

23
24
25

27
28

31
32

36
37
38

39
40

9.20457669.9943566

9-20535459-9943361
9.20613 09 9.99431 96

9.2069059
9.2076795
9.2084516
9.2092224
9.209^9 x7

9-9942950
19.9942743

9-9942537

9-99423301

9.9942122

9.2107597
9.2x15263
9.21229x4
9.2x30552
9.2x38 1 7j

9.2145787
9-2^53384
9.2160967
9.2168536
9.2176092

9-2183635
9.2191164
9.2198680
3419.2206182
35 9.22 136 7 X

9.2221x47
9.2228609
9.2236059
9.2243495
9.2250918

43
44
4S

47
48

49
50

54
55

59
6c

9,2258328

9.99419x4
9.9941706
9.9941498
9.994x289

9.9941079

9.9940870
9-9940659
9.9940449
9.9940238
9.9940027

9-9939815
9.9939603

99939391
9.9939178

9.9938965

9-993^752
9-9938538

9-9938324
9.9938109

9-9937894

9.22657259.9937463

9.2273110
9.2280481
9.2287839

9-993724

9-99370301

9.9936813

9.2295x85

9.2309838

^-231 7 '45
9.23244 4c

9-9937679

9-9936596

9.23025189.9936378

9.2331722

9-2338992
9.2346249

9-2353494
9.2360726

9-2367946

9-2375153
9.2382349

9-2389532
9.2396702

sine C<m^i;.

9.9936160

9-9935942
99935723

Tar

9-9935504
^-9935285

9-9935065

9.9934844

9.9934624

9-9934403
9.9934181

9-9933959
9-9933737
9-9933515

S.ne

Panp.C'mp.

9.1997129

9.2005294

9.2013449

9<202i588
9.2029714
5.2337825

9.1045922
9.2054004
9,2062072
9.2070126
9.2078165

9.2086^1
9.2094203
9.2102200
9.2110x84
9. 21x8x 53

9.22049x7
9.22x27^4
9.22205x8
9.2228298
9.2236065

9.2126x09
9.2x34051
9.2141980
9.2x49894

9-2157795

9.2165683

9-2173556
9.218x4x7

9.2189264

9.2197097

9.22438x9
9.225 1561
9.2259289
9.2267004
9.2274706

9.2282395
9.229007 X

9-22977^5
9-2305386
9.2313024

9.2320650
9.2328262

9-2335863
9-2343451

9.235x0 26

9-2358589
9.2366x3^

9-237367^^

9.2381203

9-23887 1

9.2396218

9.2403708

9.241 W85

9.24x865c
9.2426103

9-2433543
9.2440972

9.2448389

9-2455794
9.2463188

0.8002875

0.799470659
0.798655X 58
0.797841257
0.7970286 56
0.796217955

0.7954078

0.7945996
0.7937928
0.7929874
0. 792183^

0.79x380^4?
0.7905797

0.78978

0.788981

0.788x847

54
53
52

oo|47

646

0.7873891 44
0.7B6594943
0.78580204a
0.7850x0641
0.7842205I40

0.78343^739
0.782644438

0.78x858337
0.781073636

0.780290335

0.779508334

0.778727633
0.777948232
0.777170231

Q-776393530

0.7750181 29

0-774843928
0.774071 X 27

0*7732996 2ti

0.7725294 25

0.77x760524
0.770991923
0.77022652a
0.76946x421
0.7686976 2^

0.7679350
0.767x738
0.7664X37
0.7656549
0.7648974

0.764141 1
0.7633861
0.7626322
0.7618797
0.761X283

0.7603782
0.7596292
0.75888x5 7
0.7581350 ^

0.7573897 5

19
1$

101

80 Degrees

un^ji.Conip

0.7566457

o.755902«

0.7551611
0.7544206
0.7536812

i 'I'ang.

169

Vot. X. Part 1..

»7«

LOGARITHMIC Table of

15;

g"^

Sine ISine Cunip. \ j lanf;. I Fang C

;om

9.23967 02 9.99335 1$;

119.2403861^9.9933292
^9.2411 007 9.9933068

3'9.24i8i4i 9.9932845

4j9.2425264'9.993262i

j,9>243 2374 9.993^3 96

6'9.2439472.9.9932X7i

79.2446558,9.9931946

89.2453632J9.9931720

99.2460695-.9.9931494

10, 9.24677 46 9.9931268

Ii]9.2474754j9.993i04i
1 2 9.^48 1811 9-99308 1 4
i39.2488827;9.9930587

M
15
16

17
18

21
22

I26

*7
28

9.2578977
9.2585832
9.2592676
299.2599509

5^0 9.2606330

39
40

43
44

47
48

49
50

51
5^
53
*4

59
60

9-249583<^
9.2502822

9.2509803
9.2516772
9.2523729
9.2530675

9.25376 0^ 9.9928984

9-2544532
9.2551444

9-2558344

9-2565233
9.2572110

9.2613141
9.2619941
9.2626729
9-2633507
9.2640274

82
33
34
35
36 9.2647030

379-2653775
389.2660509

9.2667232

9.267394 c

9.2680647
9.2687338
9.2694019
9.2700689
4^ 19.2707348

9-2713997
9.2720635

9,2727263

9.27338S0

9.2740487

9-9930359
9.99301 ^1

9.9929902
9.9929673
9.9929444
9.9929214

9-9928753
9.99285^52

9.9928291

9.9928059

9-9927827

9-9927595
9.9917362

9.9927x29

9.9926895

9.9926661

9.9926427
9.9926192

9-9925957
9.992572^

9.9925486

9.9925250
9.9925013
9.9924776

9-9924539
9.99243 01

9.9924063
9.992382*^^

9-9923585
9-9923346
9.99231 06

9.9922866
9.9922626
9.9922385
9.9922144
0.992^902

9-2747083
9.2753669

9.2760245

9.2766817

9.2773366

9.2779911
9,2786445
9.2792970
9.2799484.

9.9921660
9.9921418
:;.9ccii75
9,9920032
9.9920689

9.9920455
9.9920201
9.9919956
9.9919711

9.28059889.9919466

Sine Comp. i SIdc

9.24631 88,10.7536812

9.247056910.7539431
9.2477939 10.7522061

9-2485297110-7514703
9.149264310.7507357

9.249997d!i 0.7500022

9.2507301
9.2514612
9.25219I2
9.2529200

9-2536477

9-2543743
9.2550997

9.2558240

9.2565472

9.2572692

9.2579901

9.2587099
9.2594285
9.260146 1
9.2608625

9.2615779
9.2622921
9.3630053

9-2^^37^73
9.2644283

9.265i382
9.2658470
9-2665547
9.2672613
9.2679669

9.2686714
9.2693749

9.2700772
9.2707786
9.2714788

10.7492699
10.7485388
10.7478088
10.7470800
10.7463523

10.7456257
10.7449003
10.7441760

^0.74345 28 46
ia74273o8

X0.7420099
X0.7412901
10.74057x5

'0.7398539
'Q-739'37^
10.7384221

10.7377079

'O.7369947
10.7362827

J^o.7355717

10.73486x8
^0.7341530

'0.7334453

10.7327387

10.7320331

io.73i32«6
10.7306251
10.7299228
10.7292214

10.728 ?2I2

9.2721780
9.272876?

9-2735732
9.2742694

9.274964J

9.2756584
9.2763514
9.2770434

9-2777343
9.2784247

9.2791x31
9.2798009
9.2804878
9.28 1 1 736
9.2818 r8c

9.282542J
9.2832251
9.2839070
9.284587S
9.2852677

10.727822c
10.7271238
10.7264267
10.7257306
10.72503^6

10.7243416
10.7236486
10.7 2 29566
10.7226257
10.72x5758

10.7208869
10.7 20 1 99 1
10.7x95122
10.7188264
10 7181415

53
52

49
48

44
43

4^
41

39
38
37
36

34
33
32
31

29
28

27
26

24
23

22
21

17
16

'3
12

101

10.7174577
10.7167749
10.7^66930
10.7154122
10.7147323

19^

9.2859466
9.2866245
I9.2S73OI4

9-2879773
9.28865 23

»a7X40534 4

«o.7i33755 3
X0.7 126986] 2

X 0.7x20227
10.71x34^7

Tai*

[tecs

9
8

?' Sine I Sire Com. | I « Timy
9.28059 881 9.99x94 661
9.28 X 24S3 9.99 1 9 2 2o|

grecs

9.28 W5 23

9.28x8967

9.2825441

49.283x905

9-2838359

9.99x8974
9.9918727
9.9918480
9.9618233

9.2844803
9.285x237
9.2857661

9.2B6407 6 9.99 X 7 240
9.2870400 9.99 X 699 X

9.2876875

9.2883263 9.99x6492

9.2889636
9.2896001
9.2902357

9.2908704 9.9915488

9.29 x504c
9.292x367
199.2927685

9-2 933993

9.2940291
9-2946580
9-2952859
9.2959x29
9.29653 90

9.2971641
9.2977883
9.2984116

9-2990339
9.2996593

9.3002758
9.3008953

>3oi5H^
9.30213x7

).302748c

9.99x7980

9-9917737
9.9917489

9.99x6741

9.9916241
9.9915990

9.99i5739|

9.99^5236
9.99x4984

9-99^473J
9.99«4478

9.99x4225

9-9913917

9.9913717
9.99x3462

9.99x3207

9.99x2952
9.99x2696
9.99x2440
9.99x2x84
9.991x927

9.3033644

9-3039794

?-3045934
9.3052066

9.3058180

9.3064303
9.3070407

9-3076503
9.3082590

9.3088668

9.3 1 24951

529-3130968

0.3094737
9.3100798

9.3106849

9.991x670
9.9911 41 2
9.99x1154
9.99x0896
9.99x06 37

9.9910378
9.99101x9
9.9909859
9.9909598
9.9909338

9.9909077
9.9908S 15

^•9908553
9.9908291

9.9908029

9.31128929.99Q6974

9.3x18926

539-3'36976 999059H

549.3142975
55 9.3x48965

569-3154947

9.9907766
9.9907502
9.9907239

9.99067 X

9.9906445
9.9906x80

9.9905648
9.9905382

3 I 6092 X

58^.316688;

(.3172842
$0^ 9.317878^ 9.

9.9905 XX5
9.9904848
9.9904580
9.9904312
9904044

j Sine Oomp.' gipc

9.2893263
9.2899993
9.29067x3
9.29x3424
9.2920126

9.2926817
9.2933500
9.2940x72
9.2946836
9.2953489

'0.7o%3J^**5l54
10.706650053

10.705982852

'0 7^55J^4|i«
x 0.7046^ I I '5

9.2960134
9.2966769

9-2973395
9.29S00XI

9.2986618

9.29932x6

9.3006383
9.30x2954
9.30195x4

9.3026066
9.3032609

9-3039*43
9.3045667

9.3052183

9.3058689
9.3065187
9.307x675
9.3078x55
9.3084626

TanfT. Cony.

10.71x347760.

10-7106737.59:

10.7100007515

I0.7093237J57J

10.708657^56

I0.7Q79874l}j

X 0.7039866 4

10-7^3323 'k
10.762660514:

X0.70199S946

X 0.70 1 338245

io.7oo6784'4i

9.2999804 xo.7oooi96t45
X 0.69936x7142

X 0.698 70464
80486I4:

10.6973934^3*
10.696739113^
xo.696o857t37
X 0.6954333(56
10.69478173

9,309x088

9-309754*
9-3*03985

9,3110421

9.31x6848

9.3123266
9.3129675
9.3136076
9.3x42468
9.3 1488? J

9-3*55226
9.3x61592
9.316795c
9.3x74299
9.3 x8064c

9.3x86972

9-3*93295
9.3x99611

9.3205918

9.32x2216

10.69413x1^4
10.69348x335
10.692832532
10.692x845(31
X0.6919374I3

10.69C89X2U9
io.6902459!2S
10.68960x527
10.688957c 16
10.68831 ^2 2 (

XO.6876734
10.6870325
10.6863924
10.685753:
10.685114c

9.3218506
9.3224758
9.323X061

9-32373^7
9.32435 84

9-3249832

9-3256073
9.3262305

9-3274745

Tang. Com.

fO.6844774 19
1O.683840S i«

X 0.6832050 17

1 0.68 25 70 T
10.6819^6-

10.68x3028
10.6806705I13
10.6800389 It
10.6794082
10.6787784

ro«67]$X45>4
I0.67752I2I S
10.6768939
10.6762673 6
10,6759416 5

10.6750x68
10.6734927
10.6737695

9.3268529 10.673 147 X

X0.6725255

Tan».

mm'm'

mtm

3
2

SINES AKD T A N GS E N T S.

«7l

\9-3'84r28 9'990377S
2|9-3'9o^.i99'9903J=6
3'9-3«9'5j8i9-9903237
4 9..^oi495 9.9903967
j|i).3 108400:9-9902697

6|y.32i4iq7 9.9902426
7'9.3 iioi 86 9.9902 1 55
8 9.3226066 9.990188
99-,'33'938 9-99°i'S'
ii 9-.^^37 8p^ 9-99°' 3 3
»' 9-3S436i7 9-993ic6
119,32495059-990079
'.?9-3'5S3-H9-9903SS

, - , 9.g8996y.

9.32786179.9899423
9.3284416 9.9899r "
9.52902.-' - -""■
9-,129

9.330176:

9-3307527
9-33131"
9-33 '9 '3 J

9-33 H7 7 7

2^9898527

9.98983.

9.9858043

9.9897766

9.9897489

9-9897

9-333^5 »•

9-3336237
9-334I9SS

9-3347665
9-33'^3.;6g

9-337=428
■;337''095
g.,i;Ri762

>3i874i«
3 7 19-3 393-6;
^**i9■339'^7o6
^9|9-34^433i^
9.34099 6)

9.34'SI»=
9-3 4 J
9.,;436792
9.5417386
i_43797

>3419i24

^99346024;
;Sy7Q4

'>347«336 9-9889a49
- 93476S70I9.9889560

5393432.1979-958927
'^9-34-'*79'7 9-99^8982
i 2^4234^9
'''l9-349R934i9-98894^3
7i9-3i04432|9-9"38ji,

5^j9-3S°9922p)-9887a2;

^9]9-3J'54D5|9:988753:

R32;3£2o88o) 9-9 8 8 7 2 ,^ 9

1^-9891427
3-9892142
9-9091856

" H57'

^9891285

9.9890998

9.98907

9.989^4:

9-98901 ^7

9-334»59

9-334871 '
9.3354823
9.3360927
9-33670 24
9-3373 J >3
9-3379194
9-3385267
9-339"333
9-3397,1 9

9-3493 29c

9.3499220
9-35=>3t43
9-3511059
9.3516968

9-352 ,

9-3528763
9-3534650

9-354»53-
9-354640=

5-6596559
3.6J905 1 6

-6578454
.o.6;72H4

0.65664;

0.6560417
: 0.6554420
0.654843c
0-6542448
°-6s3647.?
0-6530506
0.6524546
: 0.65 1 8593
■.651^648

.65067;
0.15500780
0.6494857
0.648894 J
0.6483032
0.647713
0.6471 23'
0-646535'
0-645947:
:o.64t3to8

I10.641H513
'10.6412690
;io.64c6874
! 1 0.6401065
,1 0.639 f»64
110.6389469

10.63836R1
,10.6377900
. 10.637*126

10.6366^59

77 DegtcM

ijt LOGARITHMIC TjiBte of

^IN£8 AND TANGENTSi

»?lSe

"sine"

09,4403381

l^me Comp.

9.4407784

3^9^416576

9.4420965

;.4425349

4
5

9.9828054

9.44121829.9827691

9,442972^^19^982613?
9.9825871
9.9825506
9.982514c
9.9824774

7 9^434^^3

8 9.4438472

,09-4442837
109-4447197

9-4451353
9.4455904

9.446025D 9.9823674
9.9823306
9.9822938

I J
12

14I9.4464591
IS 9. 4468937

169.4473259
'79-4477586
189.4481909
[199.4486227

|2o[ 9.44905 4o

9.982440b
9.9824041

?3
24

EI
26

ISO

9.4499153

94503453

94507747
9.4512037

9.4516322
9.4520603
9.4524879
9.4529151

94533415

9.4537681

94541939
9.4546192

9.455044J

9.4554686

31
32

33
34

li
3^>

41 9.4580058

429.4584271

43 94588480

44 94592684

45 94596884

9.4558926
9.4563 161

94567392

409.4575840

47
48
49
50

9.9828416

9.9827328
9.9826964
9.9826600

9.9822569
9.982220J
9.9821831
9.9821462
9.9821092

9.449484919.982073 i
9.9820351
9,9819979
9.9819608
9.9819236

9.9818863

9.9818490

9.9818117

9.9817744.

9.9817,^70

9.9816995
9.9816620
9.9816245
9.9815870
9,9815494

9.9815117
9.9814740
9.9814363

9.45716189.981-3986

4694601079

9.4609456
9.4613638

9.9813608

9.9813229
9.9812850
9.9812471
9.98 1 2091

9.981 17 LI

9.9611331

9.4635270 9.9810950

9.980:0569
9.981OI87

15^

f54

94621 989 9.980942^

57
58

59
6g

9.46178109^^809805

9.4626158
9.4630323
94634483

9.9809040
9.9808&57
9.980*273

9.46386399.9807889

56J9.464279P 9.9807505

94676938.9.9807 1 20
9465IO81 9.9806735
9.46552199.9806349

946593 53 9-9805963
^ine Coiiip I Sine |

TaotT

I Tang. (5

ocnp.

,9.4574964:10.5425036.6 J

y457937o
94584491

9.4589248

9.4594001

94598749

10.542027:: 59

10.5415509158

ro.5410752

10.5405999

fo.5401251

94603492, ^a53965o8

p;46o9232
9.4642967
9.4617697
9.4622423

9.4650690
9.4655386
9.4660078
9.4664765
9.4669448

9.4627145
94631863
9.4636576
9^641385
9.4645990

^0-53587 » 5
10.5354010

9-4674127
9.4678802

9-4683473
9.4688139

94692801

94697459
94702112

9.4706762

94711407

9.4716048

9.4720685
94725318

94729947
94754571
94739^92

9.4743808

947484^1
94753029

94757633
94762333

10.5391768
10.5387033
ro.5382303
io.<;^77(j77

57
5 61

54
53

51
50

10.5372855
10.5368137

X0.536342447

10.53493^0

10.534461443
' 0.5339922 42

'0.533523541
10.5330552 40

10.5325873

ia533ii98
10.5316527
10.5311861
10.^307199

10.5302541
10.5297888
10.5293238
10.5288593
10.52839^1

46
45

39
38

37
36

10.5279315
10.5274682

10.5270053

10.5265429

10.5260808

9.4766829
9.477 1421
9.4776009
9.4780592
94789172

9.4789748

9-47943 '9

94798887

9.4803451

10.5256192
10.5251579
10.5246971
10.5243367
10.5237767

io.523'2i7i
io.522a579
10.5323991
10.5219408
10.52148 28

341
33
32

29
28

27
26

'9
18

17
16

10.5210252
1 0.5305681
10.5201113
10.5196549

9.480801 1 10.5 191989

9.4812566
9.48 17 I 18
94821666
9.4826210
9.4830750

9.4835286
9.4839818
94844346
94848870

94853390

i*an>;.Comp.

13
12

10.5187434 9
10.5182882 8

10.5178334. 7
10.5173790 6

10.5169250 5

10.5164714
10.5160182

10.5155654
10.5151130

10.5146610

73 -J^cgr

I I m» ■■■liiii.'.t^

ees

? 1^ Sine [ Sine Comp

17 Dcgrceft

0946593539-9805963

2
3

9.4663483
9.4667609

49.4675848
9.4679960

9.46S4069
79.4688173
89.4692273
9 94696369

10 9.470046 L

II
12

11
16

»9

21
22

9.9805577

9.9805x90

9.467 1730 9^9804803

9.9804415
9. 9804027

9.4704548

94708631 9.9801299
9.47 12710 9.9800908
9.4716785 9.9800516

94720856

9.47249229.9799732

9.4728985

94733043 9-9798946

9-9737097 ^-979855 2
9.47411469.9798158

9.4745192

94749234 2^.9797369

^947532719-97967913
24947573049-9796578
25 [947 6 1 33 4 |?:9796i82

94765359
27 94769380

9.4781418

29I947 77409

31
32
33

34
35

94785423
94789423
94793420
94797412
9.480140

36. . .. ,
37 9.4809366

3894813342

39948173*5
4094821283

94835248
42 9.4839208
9-4833165
9.4837117
9.4841066

9.9803639
9.9803250
9.9802860

9.9802471
9.9802081

9.9801690

9.9800124

9-9799339

9.9797764

9.9795785
99795388

947733969-9794991

9-9799593
9-9794195

9-9793796

99793398
9.9792998

9979*599
9.9792198

9-48053859-9791798

9-9791397 <
919790996 '
9.9790594

9.9790191

43
44

46194^45010

479.4848951

48 9.485 288S

4994856820

50 9.4860749

9.4864674
529.4868595
539-4872512
54^.4876426
5594880335

9-9789789
9.9789386

9.9788983

9.9788579

9.9788175

9.9787770

9-9787365
9.9786960

9-9786554
9.9 786148

9-9785741

9-9785334
9.9784927

9^9784519
9.67841 I I

5394884240 9-9783702

579.48881429.9783293
58 9.4892040 9.9782883

59 9.4895^34 9.9783474

fo 94899834 9.97820 63
~f5inc C mp. 1 •

5iiie

I T^nfcf . t Tanjt . Com p.

9-4853390

9.4857907
9.4862419
9.4866928

9-4871433
99875933

9.4880430
9.48841924
9.4889413
94893898
9.4898380

9.4902858

9-4907332
9.4911802

94916269

g.49 20731

9.4925190
9.4929646
94934097

94938545
9.494298S

9.4947429
9.4951865
9.4956298
94960727
9-4965152

94969574

9^497399^
9.4978406

9.4987223

$^996026
9.5000422

9.50-13588
9.5017969
9.5023347
9.5026721
9.5031092

10.5146610160

10.514309359
10.513758159
10.5x33072 57
10^512856756
10. f; 134067 $s

10.5119570
10.5115076
10.5110587
10.5106102
10.9101620

10.5097142
10.5092668
10.5088198
10.5083731
10.5079369

10.507481044

10.507035443
10.506590342

10.5061455 41

10.5057013 401

10.5052571
10.5048135
10.5043702
10.5039273
10.5034848

10.50304263
10.5026009 3
10.50215943

54
53
52

49
48

47
46^

31
3'
3
3^

9.4982816 ia50i7i84 31

»o.5Qi2777

9.4991626 10.5008374

10.5003974
104999578

9.5004814104995136
9.5009203 10.4990797

10.4986412
10.4982031
10.4977653

10.4973279
ro.4968908

9-5035459
9.5039822

9.5044182

9-5048538
9.5052891

27I

231
22

10.4964541
104960178
10.4955818
10.4951462
10.4947109

19
18

Jt?
16

£5

9.5057240 10.4942760114

9.5061586
9.5065928
9.5070267
9.5074602

10.4938414
10.4934072
10.4929733
104925398

5^078933110.4921067
9.5083261 104916739

9.5087586
9.5091907
9.9096224

10.4912414
104908093
10.4903776

9-5100539

9.5104849

9.5x09156
9.5113460
•9.511776c

13
12

9
8

7
6

'Tang Curof

10.4899461
10.4895151} 3
10.4890844
ro.4886540
10.4882240

J±lL

72 Degrees

«7fi.'.

174

LOGARITHMIC Ta^eJ 6f

1 8 Degrees

vSine I '"ine Co ip. I [ T..n<. ^jTaiit^.Comp.

948998 249.9782062

i.9-49037io|9-97^J^>53
a. 9.4907 59 2 9.97 Si 241

' 3!9-49ii47ik-978o83o

419.49153459-9780418

C9.491921 6 9.9780006

6.9.492308319.9779593
79.49269469.9779180

8 9.493o8o6'9.9778766

99.4934661

9.4938513

n 9.4942361
129.4^^46205

»3 94950^46

1494953S83
15949577^

J7
18

21
^2

24
^5

9-9778353
9-9777938

9.4980635
9.4984442
9.4988245
94992^45
94995840

9.4961545
9.4965370
9.4909192
9.4973010

9497^824 9.977377a

9-9777523
9.9777108
9.9776693
9.9776277
9- 97758 60

9.9775444
9-9775026

9.97746^59

9.9774191

9.9773354

9-9772934

9-977 25 J 5
9.9772095

9.9771674

2%4999633
9.5003421

9.5007206

29I9.5010987

9.5018538

329,5022308
33|9-5<526o75
9.5029838

9.5033597

9-977 "53
9.9770832

9.9770410

9.9769988

9.9769143
9.9768720
9.9768296
9.9767872
9.9767447

39
4c

9.5041105

389.5044853
9.5048598

9.50V2339

4'
4-
43
44

4i
46

47
48

5^
52

53
54

57
58
59

9.5056077
9.505981 1

9.50635429.9764036
9.5067268 9.9763608

|3%.5C37353 9-9767022!

9.9766597
9.976617 1

9-9765745
9-97653*8

9.9764891
9.9764464

9.50709 92

9.9763179

9.5074712
9.5078428
9.5082141
9.508585c
9.5089556

9.5122749
609.5126419

dine Com p.

9.9762750
9.9762321
9.976 1 89 1
9.976 1 46 1
9.976 1 030

9-5093258

9-5096956
9.5 1 0065 1

9-5104343
9.5108031

9.51 1 17"! 6
9.5 1 1 5397
9.511907419.9757570

9.9760599

9.9^60167

9.9759736

9-9759303
9.97588-0

9-9758437
9.9758004

9.9757135
9.9756701

Sine

9.5122057
9.5126351
9.5130641

9-5^34927
9.5139210

9-5M3490
9.5147766

9-5152039
9-5156309
9.5x6057?

9.5164838
9.5169097

9.5173353
9.5177606

9^181855
9.5186101

9.5 '90344

9-5194583
9.5198819

9.52030^2

9.5207282
9.521 1 508

9-521573^
9.5219950

9.5224166

9-522837«,

9-5232589
9.5236795

9.5240999
9.5245199

9.5249395

9.5253589

9-5257779
9.5261966

9.526615c

9.5117 7 6^l£04832 24c

'«54877943
104873649

10.4869359

10.4865073

10.4860790

10.48565 1 c
10,4852*234
1 04847961
ia.4843691
10.4839425

104835 1 62
10.4820903
104826647
104822394
ro.481814;

1048 1 3899
10.4809656
1 048054 1 7
10.4801181
10.4796948

10.4792718
104788492
10.4784270
10,4780050
10.477^8^4

10.4771621
10.476741 1
10.4763205
10.4759001
10.4754801

9-527033 »

9.5274508

9.5278682
9-5282853
9.5287021

9.5291186

9-5295347

9-5299505
9.5303661

10.4750605
10.4746411
104742221
10.4738034
10.473^8^0

10.4729669

10.4725492
10.4721318
10.47 1 7 147
10.4712979

S3
52

49
48

47
46

43
42

39
38

37
36
35

34
33
32

27
26

10.4708814
10470465]
10.4700495
104696339

9.5307813U04692187

9.531 1961
9.5316107
9.5320250

9-5324389
9.5328526

9.5332659

9.5336789
9.5340916

9-534504^
9- ^349161

9-5353278

9-5357393
9.5361505

9-53^5^^3
9-5369719

10.46 •k''039
104683893
10.4679750
10.4675611
io.'467i474

23
22

21
20

17
16

13
12

104667341
10.4663211
104659084
10.4654960
10.4650830

7
6

1.0.46467221 4
10.4642607

i«.46384v5
104634387
J 0.463028 1

ran^.Comp-

Tzng.

rccs

59|
•58

57
56

jo 9^512641912^^756710
1 9.51300869.9756265

29.51337509.9755830
39.51374109.9755394

49.51410679.9754957
^ 9.5144721 p.97545 21

69.5148371*9754083

79-51520179-9753646
8 9'5^5566o 99753208

99-51593009-9752769
10 9.51629369-9752330

11 9.5166569 9.9751891
1^29.5170198^9751451
^39-5*738249-9751011

'4 9.5»77447 9-9750570

15 9. 5181066 9 9750129

16 9.5184682 9.9749688

17 9.5188295 9.9749246
^8 9.5191904 9.9748804

'99.51955109-9747361
20 9,51991129.9747018

Smc I nine Qnmy

9 Dcgreet.'

219.52027119-9747475
22 9.5 206307 9-974703 1

239-52098999.9746587

24 9.5213488 9.9746142

25 9.5 2 1 70 7^ 9-9 745697
269.5220656 9-9745252
27 9.5224235 9-9744806

2^9.5227811 9-9744359

299.5231383

32 9-52349 53 99743466

3^ 9-523851^ 9.9743018

32 9.5242081 9.9742570

33 9-5245640 9.9742122

349.52491969-9741673
35 9-52 V274C 9^9741224

36 9.525629^ 9.9740774

37 9-5259844 9.9740324

3» 9-5263387 9-9739873
39 9.5266927 9.97394»2

4g 9-52704 63 9-9738971

41 9.5273997 9.9738519
429.52775269-9738067

43 9-528105; 9.9737615

44 9-5284577 9.9737162

45 9.52880 9^ 997367 09
4^ 9.5291614 9.9736255
479.529512^9-9735801
4i> 9.529863^ 9-9735346
49 9.5302146 9-973489'«
55 9-53^5^59 99 734435

'9-53091519.973398

29.531:264c 9-97335*
^9-53161439-973306,
549.53196359.9732610
i ■>':323i2^|99732i52

56 9.532660b 9.9731(594
.^'7 9-533O09C 9.973 1236

^^95333569 9.9730777
^9 9-5337044 9.97303 1'8

£g 9^340517 9.9739858

;>ine Coinp> 8mc.

l*Ji!lIl

■ 9*53697 18 1046302811 6:

'9-5373821 1046261 29 5d
9-5377920 1046210805^
9-538201710461798357'
9.5386110 1046138905D
.5390200 104609800

9-5394287 10^6.05713 54

9^5398371 10.460162953
9.5402453 104.597547 52
9-5406531 1045934695
9.54106 06 104589394 I5G

9.5414678 T0I4585322E

9-5418747 IO.45S1 253 4^
9.542281 J 104577 187I4
9.5426877 10^57312346

9- 5430937 10.4569065 45

9*5434994 10^1565006 4J
9-5439048 10.4560952 4j
9.5443100 10.45569004:
9.5447148 10.4552852 41
9-54511 93 1 0-4548^07 4
9.5455236 10454476459
9-5459276 10.454072438
9-54633^2 1 0^5 36688 3

9-5467346 10.4532654 sd

9.^471377110.4528623 3

ramg. ConM>.

9.5475405 10.45245953^

9.5479430 10.452057c 3j
9.5483452 10.451654ft 3a
9.5487471 10.451252931
9- 5491487 10.4508513 3c

9.5495500 10450450C 29
9-5499511 10450048c :8
9.5503519104496481

9-5507523 10-4492477 26
9.5511525 1044884'7^

9.551552410.448447c
9.5519521 1044804792;
9.552351410447648'
95527504 10.447^496
9:.?53i492 104468508

9.5535477 104464523
9-5539455? 10.4460541
9-5543438 10.4456562
9.554741510.4452585
9.555^38810.4448612

2Cf

9.555535910.4444^1
9-5559327 10.4440675

9-5563292 10.4436708
9.5567255 10.4432745

6.55712141044^8786

9.5575171 104424^29
9.5579125 1044^0875
9-5583077 IO4416923
9.5587025 10.4412975
9.55909 71 104409029

95594914 104405036
$.5598854 1*04401 146
9.5602792 104397^)8
9.5606727 10.4393273

p.56106591104389341
Tatig-Corop. T«pg.

17
16

13
I

7a Degrees

Mhi

SINES AND TANGENTS.

Sine

9-53405^

I
2

3
4

9-5343986
9-5347452
9-5350915
9-5354375

15^

reed*

Sioe Cuiiip.

9.97298 ?8

9.5361286

9-53^4737
9.5368884

9I9.5371628
9-53750^9

7
8

»3

*4
15

9.5378508

9-5381943

9-5385375
9.5388804

9.<?3922^o

23
24
£5
26

ft7
28

29
3c

9-5357832 9-9 727^54

9.9729398
9.9728938
9.9728477
9.9728016

9.9727092
9.9726629
9.9726166

9-9725733
9.9725x39

9-5395<^53

9-5399C73
9.5402489

9.54Q5903
9-54093*4

9.5412721
9.541 6 1 26
9.5419527
9.5422926

9-54^32i

9-5429713
9-5433103
9-5436489
9-5439873
9-5443523

9-9724775
9.9724310

9.9723845

9.9723380

9*9722914

9.9722448
9.9721981
9.9721514I
9.9721047

9.9720579

9.97 201 10
9.9719642
9.97 1 91 72
9.9718703
9.971823.:?

9.5446630

9.54500059-9714931

9-5453376

34 95456745
359.5460110

369.5463472
379-5466832

38 9.5470189

39 9-5473542

40 9-54768 9 j

9.5480240

9-5483585
9.5486927

9.5490266

9.5493602

9-5^^935
9-5500265

9-5503592
9.5506916

9-9717762
9.9717291
9.9716820
9.9716348
9.9715876

9.9715404

9-97M457

9.97x3984
9.9713509

9-9713035
9.9712360

9.9^12084

9.97x1608

9. 9711132

9.9710655
9.5^710178
9.9709701
9.9709223
9.97087 44

4i
42

43
44

47
48

50 9 55'0237 { 9'P736346

5^ 9-55^3556
5219.5516871

9.9708265
9.9707786
9.9707306
9.9706826

57
58

9.9705865

9-97-5383
9.55201849.9704902

9-J5.23494 9-97044x9
1 9-9703 937
9-5530105
9'S533A^

9-9703454
9.9702970

95536704 9-9702486

95539999

Sine

Comp

9.9702002

9i543?92 95701517

•

Tanjf.

9.56106 59

9.5614588
9.5618515
9.5622439
9.5626360
9.5630278

9.5638107

9.5645925
9.5649831

9-5653733

9'S^S1^33
9.5661530

9.5665424
9^669316

Tang . Co m^». \
104389341,60

10.4385412
10.4381485

'0.4377 561

X0.437364056

10.43697221 55

9-5^34x94 10.4365806

10.4361893

9.5642018 10.4357982

10.4354075
XO.4350169

54
53
52

9.5673205
9,5677091
9.5680975
9.5684856
9. 5688735

10.4346267 4!$

'0.4342367 48

^0.4338473 47

XO.4334576 4&
10.4330684 45

9.5692611
9.5696484
9-5700355
9.5704223
9.5708088

10.432679544
10.4322909 43
10.431902542
10.431514441
10.431126540

10 43073^9
» 0.43035* 6
10-4299645 37
10.429577736
10.429191235

9.57x195'
9.5715811

9.5719669

9-5723524
2i57i73I7
9.5731227

9-5735074!

9-573*9x9
9.5742761

9.5746601

9-575^43^
9.5754272
9-5758x04

9576x934
9.5765761

10.4288049 34
10.428418933
10.4280331 32
10.427647631
10.4272623130

10.4268773I29
1 0.4264926 28
10 4261081

X 0-4257 235^
X0.4253399

9-5769595

9-5773407
9.5777226

9.5781043
9-5784858

9.5788669

9-5792479

9.5796286

9.5800090
9. 9803802

10.4249562
10.4245728
10.4241896
10423806621
10.4234239 20

10.4230415
10.4226593
104222774
10.4218957
10.4215142

27
26

15
24

23
22

104211331
10.4207521
10.4203714
10419991C
10.4196108

9.5807691
9.5811488
9.58x5282
9.5819074
9.5822S64

9.5826651

1041923091 9
10.4188512 8
104184718
1041B0926 6
104177136

X9
18

X7
16

11
10

,'9-58342i7
|9-5837997
!£-584X774

TMig Camp.

X04X73349 4

!9-5830435|xo.4x69565
104165783

X0.4 162003
104158226

Tang.

21 Degrees ^

blue.

X 9-554658 X

29-55498^3
.9-5553X52
419-5556433

9-55597

9-5543292

9.5562987

Sine Co .11 p.

9.9701517

9.9701032
9.9700547
9.9700061.
9.9699574
9.9699087

9.9698600

9.55662599.96981 1 2

9-55<595299-9697«24

99-5572796,9-9697x36*
10 9.5576o6o;9.9696547

9-55793*x 9-9696x58
129.55825795^9695668

X3 9-5585835 99695x77
14 9.55890889.9694687

U 9-5592338 9-9694x 96

x6 9-5595585 9-9693704
'7 9-5598829 9.9693212
18J9.5602071 9.9692720
19I9.5605310 9.9692227
201 9.5638546 9.9691734

21
22

26 9.5627904 9.9688766

27
28

3X
32

33
34

9.56117799.9691241!
9-5615010 9.9690746

9.5618237
249.5621462
25 9.5624685

9.5631121

9-5634335
9-5637546

9.5643960

9.5650363

^ . 9^5^535^^
359^656756

37
38

4X
42

43
44
\5
46

9^9690252

9-9^^9157
9.96392 62

9.9686270
9-9687773
9.9687276

9-5640754 9-9686779

9.9686281

9.5647x639.9685783

9.5659948
9-5663137

9.5669508
9.5672699

9-5675865
9.5679044
9.56:^2217
9.5685387

9-5 ^^^555
9.5691721
9.5694883
9.5698043

9.9685284
9.9684785
9.9684286

9.9683786
9.9683285

9.5666324 9.9682784

9.9682285
9.968178

9.9681279
9.9680777
9*9680174
9.9679771
9.9679267

9.9678763
9.9678258

9-9677753

4919-570x2009.9677247
co! 9-57043559-967^7 4x
5i»9^57075o6 9-9676235
52'5>-57X965^9 9675728
53*9-57 X 3^^!9-9675 2 21
549-57x0946,9.9674713

gj' 9-572oo87 : 9'9674g05
56 9-57a3226 9.9673697
579-57^3629.9673x88

ranjiT. / V^nfr, (Join p.

9.5841774

589-57^9495*9^7^679

59 9-573*626 9^72169 ^

60 9-5^357549-967x659 9-6064096

SiDeCinp.| Sme j iTaax.Oomp-

9-5845549
9.5849321

9.5853091

9-5856859

9.58606 24

10.4158226

104154451
10.4150679
10.4146909
IQ.4143141

X04X39376

9.58643^
9.5868147
9.5871904
9.5875660

9-58794X3

9.5883163
9.5886912
9.5890657
9.5894401
9.5898142

10.4135614
10.4131853
10.4J 28096
104124340

53
52
5X

10.4120587*50

9.5901881
9.5905617

9-59^35 X
9.59x3082

10.411683749

10.411308848

104109343I47

1041055^946]

10.4101858*45

10.4098119*44

104094383

10409064942

10.408691841

9. 5916312 10.40831^8

9-5920539 10.4079461 39

9.5924263

9.5927985
9-593x705
9.59354 23

9-5939x38
9.5942851

9.5946561

9.5950269

9-5 953915

9-5957679
9.5961580

9.5965079

9-5968776

9.5972470

10.4075737 38
10407201537
10406829536
10.4064577 35

9-5976162

9.5979852

9.5983540
9.5987225

9v59909ob

9-5994588
9.599^^67

ia4o6o862 34

XQ.4057X4933
X0.405343932

10.404973131
104046 02 s go
10.4042321 29

10.4038620 2^.
10.4034921 27J

10.405122426,
XO.4027520I2

10.4023838
10.4020148
10.4016460
10.4012775
10.4009092

10.4005412

10.4001733

9.6031943 10.3998057

9.6005617
9.6099289

9r6oi295^
9.60166^5
9.6020290
9.6023953
9.6027613

9.6031271
9-6034927
9.6038581
9.6042233
9.6045882

X 0.3994383
10.3990711

io.39»704^

XO.3983375
XO.3970710

X 0.3976047
X0.3972387

23
22

21
20

X7
16

11
10

9
8

9.6049529
9^053174
9.6056817
9.6060457

Ijfgycct.

10.3968729
1^3965073
10.3961419I 7

X0.3957767
xo., 3954X<B 5

10.3950471 4
10.3946826 3
XO.3943X83 2

XO.3939543 I
'0'3935904* o >

iaL_i

17^

X O G A R I T H

M il

rtb^v

22 Dcgfreg8

-«4t-

S 5ine ISiiiC Comp. I I Tfctijrl ITane. Comp

MIC Tatjlb of

9-57357 54 9-967^6 59

9.57388809.9671148
9.5742003 9.9670637
9-57451239.9670125
9.574824c 9.9669614

9^575£356U9669ioi

9-57544^^
9-5757578
9.5760685

9-5763790
9.5766892

9.5769991
129-5773038

9.96685^8
9.9668075
9.96675^2
9.9667048
9.9666533

15
76

/17
18

21
22

9-5779275
9.5782364

9-5785450

0.96660181
99665503

9.57761839.9664986

9.9664471
9.9663954

9-9663437

9-57885359^662920

9.5791616

9.5794695 9.9661884
9-57977 72 9-96613 ^^

9.5803917
9.5806986
9.5810052

9.5 813I 16 9.9658764

9.5816177

23
24

27 - - . _
2819.5822292

3»

9.9662402

9.5800845 9.9660846

9.9660326
9.9659806
9.9659285

9-5825345
9-5828397

9^.9658243

9.58192369.9657721
9.9657199

9.9656677

9.96561 53

33
34
35
36
37
38

39
40

41
42

43
44

9.5861795
9.5864816

95867835
9.58.70851

45 9-.?873865

9-5831445

9-5834491

9-5837535
9.5840576

9.5 843615

9.9655630
9.9655106
9.9654582
9.9654057
9-9653532

9.5846651

9.9653006

9.5849685 9.9652480

9.5852716

9-5855745
9.5858771

9.9651953
9.9651426

9.9650899

46 9.5876876
479.5879885
9.5882892
9.5885896
9.«;888897

9.5891897
5894893
.5897888
.5900880

9-^903869

S6 9.5906856
9.5909841
9.5912823
9.5915803
9.5918780

'57
58

SiiiC

Oomp.

9.965037 J
9.9649843
9.9649314
9.9648785
9.9648256

9.9647726
9.9647195

9.9646665
9.9646133
Q.O649602

9.9645069
9.9644537

9.9644004

9-9^43470
9.9642937

9.9642402
9.9641868
9.9641332
9.9640797

9.96402611

I9.6 0640 96

9^067732
9.6071366
9.6074997
9.6078627

io-3935904l6t5

Sine

O.3932268I59
10.3928634 58
10.3925003 57

»<>.392«37356

9.6082254 10.3917746

9.6085880
9.6089503
9.6093124
9.6096742
9.6100359

9-6103973
9.6107586
9.61 II 196
9.6114804
9.61 18409

10.39 1 4 L20

10.3910497
10.3906876

">-3903258
10.3899641

9.6122013
9.6x25615
9.61 29214
9.6132812
9.6136407

54
53
52

i2
10.3896027 49

10.589241448
10.388880447

10.388519646
10.388159145

9.6140000
9.6143591
9.6 1 47 1 80
9.6150766
9.6x54351

9-6157934

9.6165093
9.6168669
9.6 172243

10.3877987 44
10.3874385 43
10.3870786 42
10.3867188 41
Q-3863593 40

39
38
37
3^
35

341

32'

U3.3860000
10.3856409
10.3852820
10.3849234
10.3845649

10.3842066

9.616x5x4 10.3838486

9.6x75815
9.6179385
9.6182953
9.6x86519
9.6190083

9.6193645
9.6197205
9.6200762
9.6204318
9.6207872

9.621x4:;^
9.62x4974
9.62 x852c
9.6222066
9. 6225609

9.622915c
9.623269c
9.6236227
9.6239763
9.6243296

9.6246827
9.6250356
9.6253884
9.6257409
9.6260932

9.6264454
9.6267973

^0.3834907

'©•383I33*
10.3827757

xo.3824i85
X0.3820615

10.3817047
10.3813481
10.3809917

27
26

10.3806555.
10.3802795
10.3799238
10.3795682
10.379212S

0.5788577
10.3785026
10.3781480

10.3777934
'0-^77439^
10.5770850
ro.3767310

^0.5763773
10.3760237

' 0-3756704

10.3753173
10.5749644

10.3746116

10.5742591

10.3739068

io-373554<>
10.3732027

9.627 1 49 r 10.3728509
9.6275006 ia3724994

9.6278519

linir.Omi,"

67 IXggreet

10.3721481;

i*.*

Tangr.

23
22

17
16

15
14

1:
II
IC

7
6

3
2

3
4
5

bine

I Sine Com p. (
"01 9.^9x8780 9.9 640261

a'Segri

CCS

f^Illifc.

I T«og» Corny.

9.592x755
9.5924728

9.9639724
9.9639187

9
10

»3

9-5 93363

9.5927698 9^9638650
9-59306669.96381x2

9-5936594

9-5939555

9-59425*3
9.5945469

9-59484^2

9-9 637574

9.5951373

9.9637036
9.9636496

99635957

9-9635417
9.9634877

9-9634336

9-59543229-9633795

9.J957268
9.59602x2

9-5963154

9-9633253
9.9652711

9.9632x68

9.5966095
9.5969050

9-5971965
199.5974897

209.5977817

23
24
25

9.5980754

9-5983679
9.5986602

27
28

3^
32

34
31

9.9631625
9.965x082
9.9650538
9.9629994
9.9629449

9.9628904
9.9628558
9.9627812

9.5989525 9.9627266
9.59924411 9-96267x9

9-5995357 9:9626x7 2

9.5998271
9.6001x81
9.6004090
.6006922

5^6009901
9.60x2805
9.60x5703
9.60x8600
9.6021495

I36
37
38
39
40

41
42

43
44
45

47
4^
49
50

51
52

53
54

9^^25624
9.9625076
9.9624527
9.9625978

9.9625429
9.9622878
9.962252b
9.9621777
9.9621226

9.6024388
9.6027278
9.6030166
9.6033052

9-6 03593^
9.6038817
9.6041696

9.6044575
9.6047448
9.605032c

9.605319c
9.6056057
9.6058923

9.6064647

9.6067506
9.6070362

9.607606&
5 : 9j6oy 8pi8

9.6081765
9.608461 1

9.9029674
9.9620112
9.9619569
9.9619016
9.9618463

9.9617909

9-9617355
9.961680^

9.9616245

9.9615689

9-9615133
9.9614576

9.9614020

9.6061786 9.9613463

9.9612904

9.9612346
9.9611787

9.6073216 9.961 1 22b

9.9610668
9.96x0108

59
6d

9.960954^

9.9608987

9.6087454I9.9608426

9.6090294
9.6093x33

5ine Cofn|>.

9,9607864
9.9607502

Slue

9.6278519 10.37^148 1*63!

9.628205 X 10.3717969
9.5285540JXO.37 14460 5^
9.6289048 10.3710952

]

9.6292553
9.6296057

9.6299538
9.6505058

X0.3707447
io..^70^94i

9.6506556 X0.3693444J52

9.6510052

9-6317037
9.632Q527

9.6324015

9.6327501

9-633^985

9.6344903
9-.6.H8378

ia^7oo442j5^
10.3696942k:

xo.368994^'5:
X 0-36 864^5 50

10.36^296^115
10.3679473,4.

Jf 0-36759^514
10.367249^46

10,3669015

9-633446^x0.36655321^
9-6337948 id.36620524;
9.6341426x0.36585744

X 0-3651612140

9.6351850x0.3648150

9-6355321
9.6358790
9.6362257
9.6565722

. -

9.6569x85
9.6372646
9.6376106

9-6379563
9.6383019

9-6j86473
9.6389925

9-6393375
9.6396823

9.6400269

9.640571H
9.6407156
9-6*1059:
9.641 405f
9.6417475

9.642C90&
9.642434:

9.642777^^
9.6451205
9.643465 1

9.6448057
9.6441481
9.6444905
9.6448324

96451743

9.6455160
9.645857
;.6 461988
9.6465 4QO
9.5468810

9.6472217
9.6475624
9.6479028
9.6482431
).648583i

L Aug.Comp*

I"-

1 3.364467915
10.3641 2IC

iOj363774.^d'^

10^365427613

X0.3650815J.
10.36275545;
X 0.3 6 25894::
1 0.36 20437;} t
10.3 6 169 b I tj:

»o-3<>^352:;^
XO.361007;)::

10:3606625)1

XO.3605177I2D

IO-359973 i^i

io.35962b6

10.359284,

10.358940:

10.358596;!

tOj 5825?' l:G

^0-3575658.1,

rc>-3572227|i
10.5568797 ..'

^— .^5653''>9|»^

10.556194; ;.

io-35385i9i».'
xo.3550597Ji_

10.555167611

10.3548257

*o-3544^40|

10-35414-5
^^'353^01 2.

^0.5534^0^

^o-35 277^^
'O-5524576

10.5520972

10.55 175<^^
10.551416^

Ta:

^mmmmf

■««•«•

C6 Dcgfrecs

l«Si

hue

Sine Comp.

6 I N £ 8 AMD

t^ Pegiccs

o
I

3
4

7
8

,9.6093 1 33|9'9^o73Q^

9.61101x89.9603919
9.61129419.96033^4
9.6 1 15762 9^9602788
9.6 1 1 8580 9.9602222
1 0)9.6 1 a 1 397 9.960 1 6 55

9.6095969 9.9606759
9.6098803 9.9606176
9.61Q1635 9.9605612
9.6104465 9.9605048
9.61 07*293 9.9604484

9-6135446

9.6138250
9.6141051
9.6143850(9.9597106

9.61522349.9595393

[ I

^31
14
[S
16

[99.6146647
20I9.6149441

21
22

^1
26

33
34
35

9*6 1 a 421 1 9.960 1 088
9.6x27023 9^00520
9.61298339.9599952
9.6 1 3 2641 9.9599384

9.6x55024
9.6157812
9.6160598
9.6163382

9-95948^1
9.9594248

9-9593675
9-9593 1 D2

9.6 1 66 1 64
9.6168944
9.6171721
9.6174496

9.617727c

9.9592528

9-9591954

9-959'3^^
9^590805

9.9^90229

9,6180041
9.6182800
9.618^576
9.618834]
9.6191 10:

369.6193864
!37 9.6196622
^389.6199378
j39 9.6202132
'40,9.6204884

4119.6207634
42J9.62I0382
43I9.6213127

44*9.6215871
45|q.62 1 86 1 2

46 9.^221351

-^7
4^

9.622408&
9.6226824
(4919.6229557

;o 9.6232287

119.62350169.9578041

2|9-6237743
319.6240467

419.62431909.9576284
55;9.62459n 9.9575697

'5S

9.6248629

9-6;,) 1346

9^2^4060

5919.^256772

9.95988 T 5

9.9598246
9.9597676

9-9596535
9^9595964

9.9589653
9.9589077
9.9588500
9.9587923

9-95«734 '

9.9586*'67
9.9586188
9.9585609

9-958503-
9.9584453

9^9583869
9.9583288
9.9582707
9.9582125
9.958154?

9.95 8096 J
9.9580378

9-957979-1
9.9579 2 1 o|.

9.9578626

9-957745^'
9.9576870

9.95751 JO

9-9^4522

9-9573934
9-9573346

63 9.6259483 * 9.95727 57

Smc Comi . 1 Sine

ang. f Tang. Com!

9.6485831

9.6489230
9J6492628
9.6496023
9.64994x7
9.6502809

9.6506199

9.6509587
9.6512974
9-6516359
9.6519742

10.3514169

ia35X0770 5
10.3507372 5

10-3503977 57
10.3500583 s^

10.3497x91 .fis

9.6540004

9-6543375
9.6546744

9.65501x2

9-6553477

9.6523123
9.6526503
9.6529881

96533^57
9.6536631

^o-3493^o'
10.3490413

10.3487026

X0.3483641

10.3480258

9.6556841
9.6560204
9.6563564
9.6566923
9.6570280

9-6573636
9.6576989
9.6580341
9.6583692

9.6587041

9.6590387

9-6593733
9,6597076

9.6600418

9.6603758

9.6607097
9.6610434
9.66x3769
9.66 1 7 103
9.66204^4

9.6623765

9.662709a
9.6630420
9-66*33745
9.6637069

9.6640391
9.66437 1 1
9.6647030
9.6650346
9.66'53662

9.6656975
9.6660288
9.6663598
9.6666907

ro.3476877

10.3473497
10.3470119

10.3466743

10.3463369

10.5449888

10:3446523

" 0-3459996 44
10.3456625 43
'0.3453^564^
41

39
38

37
3^

34
33
32

10.3443*59
10.3439796
10.3436436

10.3433077
10.3429720

10.3426364
10.342301 f
10.3419659
10.3416308
10.341 2960I30

«9
28

27
26

10.3409613
10.3406267

10.3402924

10.3399582
10.3396242

10.3392903
'O.3389566
10.3386231
r 0.338 2897
10.3379966

« 0-33 7623 5
10.3372907

'0.3369580
10.3366255
10.3362931

10.3359609
io.3356289

10.3352970

10.3349654
10.3346338

» 0.3343025
^0.3339712
10.3336402

10.3333093

9.6'>702i4 10.53.29786 5

ii^SE

9.667351910.3326481
9.6676823I10.3323177
9.6680126; 10.3319874
9.668342610.3316574
9.6686725 I 1Q.3313 275

[faiitf. Cum.' iang.

eet

54
S3
52

471
46

23
22

19
18

'7
16

15
M

13
121

-qr9

T Alt GENT

ine

I Sii e Comp.

9,625948319.9572757

Decr ees

*K0t^m^mm

.19.6262191
3 9.6264897
39.6267601
4:9.6270303

JI 9.6273003

69.6275701
9-6278397
9.6281090
9.6283782
9.6286472

9.6302568
9.6305243
9.6307917
199.6310589
129 9-6313258

21
22

23 ^
249-6323916

7-1
8

9
10

9.9572168

9-9571578
9.9570988

9-9570397
9.9569806

129.6291845

149.62972x1
159.6299890

9.6315926
9.63 X 859 X

9.632x25519.9559089

9-955849'=>
25I9.6326576J9.9557890

2619.6329233

^3
34
35

36
37
38

41
42

43
44

47
48

49
50

51
52
53

56
57
58
59

teo

9.9569215
9.9568623
9.9568030

9-9567437
9.9566844

9.6289160 9.9566250

9'95^5^S^

9.62945299.9565061

9-6337^94
9.6339844

9.6342491

96345137
9-6347780

9.6350422

9-6353062

9.9564466
9.9563870

9.9563274
9.9562678
9.9562081
9-9561483
9.9560886

9.9560287
9.9559689

9-9557289

9.63318899.9556688
9-6334542 9-9556087

9-9555485
9.9554882

9-6355699

9-^35^335
9.6360969

9.6363601

9.6366231

9.6368859
9.6371484
9.6374108

9-6376731
9-6379351

9.6381969

9.6304585
9.6387199

9.9554280

9-9553676

9-9553073
99552469
9.9551864

9-9551259
9-9550653

9.9556047

9-9549441
9.95488 34

9.9548227
9.9547619
9.954701 1
9.9546402

9-9545793

9-9545184
9-9544574
9-9543963

9.63898129.9543352
9.63924229.9542741

9-6395030

9-6397637
9.6400241

54 9.6402844 9.9540291

9.640544 5

9.6408044
9.6410640
9.6413235
9.6415828
9.64184^0

Sine Comp.

9.95421 29

9-9541517
9.9540904

9-9539677

9^539063
9-9538448

9-9!r37833

9-9537M«
9.9536602

:itne

I 14

9.6686725

9.6690023

9-6693319
9.6696613

9.6699906
9-6703197

9.6706486
9.6709774
9.6713060
9.6716345
9.6719628

9.6771944
96775201
9.6778456
9,6781709
9.6784961

9.6722910
9.6726190
9.6729468

9-6732745
9.673602c

I ang. Lump.

10.3313275

10.3309977
10.3306681

10.3303387
J^ 0.3 3 00094

10.329680,:^

9.6739294
9.6742566
9.6745836
9.6749105
9-67523 72

9-6755638,
9.6758903
9.6762:65
9.6765426
9.6768686

9.6788211
9.6791460
9.6794708

9-6797953
9.6801188

9.6804440
9.6807682
9.6810921
9.68 1 4 160
9.6817396

9.6820632
9.6823865
9.6827098
9.6830328

9-6833557

9.6836785
9.684001 1
9-6843236

<>.68 46459
9.6849681

9.6852901
9.6856120

9-6859338
9*68625 53

9.6865768

9.6872x93

9.687861 1
9.6881818

10-3293514
10.3290226

10.3286940

10.3283655

1 &.3280372

10.3277090
10.3273810

10.3270532
10.3267255

10.3263980

10.3260706

10.3257434
10.3254164

10.3250895

10.3247628

10.3244362
10.3 241097

10-3237835
10.3234574
10-3231314

10.3211789
10.3208540
10.3205292
10.3202047
10.3198802

10.3195560
10.3192318
10.3189079
10.3185840
10.3182604

10..,^ 1 79368
10.3176135
10.3172902
10.3169672
10.3166443

XO.3163215
10.3159989
10.3156764

^0.3153541
10.3150319

10.3147099
10.3143880
10.3140662

10.3137447
10-3^34232

9.686898] 10.3x3x0x9

10.3127808

9.6875402 10,31^4598

Tan^r. Con

7.\

10.3X21389
10.31 181 82

I'Uii

6oi

58
57

53
52

£2

49
48
47
46

il
44

41
40

39
38

37
36

X0.3 228056 34

10.322479933
10.322154432

10.321829131
10321503930

29
28

261

24
23

22
21
2C

19
18

13
12

3
2

Vol. X. Part I.

64l>epr^

«fs

«77

w»

LOGARITHMIC Tabm o»

00^6418^

.9^421009

39^426181
49.6428765

<S|9-6433926 9.
7|9-^436so4
89.6439080
99.6441654

: 09.6444226

'■953598J
99535369
9-953475
9-9534>34
9-9;3.H

■9531897
9-953"78
9.953 > 658
9-953'038

9-9T304'8

249.64800.^8
p.64825 82

9-9519797
9.9519175

9-9528553
9-952793'
9-9p7.^o8
9.95 26685
9.952606
9-9525437
9.9524813
9-95^ ""
9.9523562
9.9522936
9.9522310
9.9521683
9-952to ^i

16 Dtp

;j.952042il
9.9519799

9.951917
.951854
274[9- 95'79'3

9.951728
.951665
9.9516010
9-95 '5389
9- 95'47t7

5-95 H' 24
9-951349:

1.95 1 2858
9.9512234
9-95

.9510956

9.9510330
99-950; "
9.9509049
995084

9-9507775
-9507138
.9506500
9.6543086J9.950586 1

9-6565505 9^50^95
9.6567987 9^9945*
" ro46a 9.^498809

9-6923378
9.6926565

9-6929750

9.6932934
9.6936 II 7
9.6939198
9.6942478
9.694^ 556
9.6^48833
9.6952099 i
9-^55 '83
9-6918355
9.6961527

9.6964697
9.G967865

9.6971033
9.6974Z98

9-^97736:

9.6980516
9.6983687
9,6986847
9.6990006
9.69931 64

9.699632c
9.6999474

9.7002628
9.700578!

9-7o< "

9.7012080
9.7015127
9.7018374
9.7021519

9.70246 6.:;

9-7027805
9.7030946 :

9.7034086
9.7037225
9.704036:

9-70+3497
9.704663:
9.7049765
9.7053897
9.7056027

9-70S9»56|i
9.7062284 1
9.7065410
9.7068535

9-737 '65?

O.308300!
: 0.30798 1.
: 0.3076622

0-3073435
: 0.3070 250

: 0.3067066 44
;o.3o638S3
: 0.3 060 7 <
:o.3057S»2
■30m-»4

0.305 J 167
^0-304799'

■0.3044817 _
0.304164536

0,3025802

3022637

.3019474
.3016313
■3013153
.3009994

CL3006836

0.3003680
.3000526
0.299737;
0.2994230

.0.2991070

0.2987920

0.2984773
1.2981626

..297848.
'Q-2975337

2972195

2969054
^0-2965914

0.2962775
■.2959638

0.2956503
0-295336.8
[0.2950235
[ai947i03
■o-»943973

0.3940844
0.2937716
0.3934590
0.293 14«5
0.292834

INES ANB TANGENTS.

•M

19 (^6898734 9.940480:
30 9.6900983

ol9^8j57'

9.6860267
3 y.686254j
49.6864816
5 9.68670 88

9.6869359
9.6871628
9.6873895
9.6876161
9.6878425

9.6882949
9.6885109

9.6887467 9.9408342

9.6891978
9-689423;

9.690323
9.6905476
9.6907721

9.6909964 9.9401 248

9.6912204

29 DegTtti

9-!)4'8i 9^

9.9417492
9.9416791
9.9416090
9.9415388
9.94146 85

9.941398
9.9413279
9941 "57 J
9.941187:

9-941 '

9.941046

9-94397 5. (
9.9409048

9.9406927
9.9406219

9-9403.1«
9.9402670
9.9401959

16 9.6914445
9.6916683
9.6918919

. 9-^9" '55
301 9.69233 88

33
34

9.6925620 9.939625;

9.691785:

9.69300^(1

9.6932308

9-69345 .14

9.6947859 9.y3«< .
9.6950074 9-9388356

Bint Ciimp.

9.94005 35

9.69699479.938185
9.fi97ii489-9,l8ii;(
9-69743479-938040-
9.69765459.9379674
9.697 874 1 [9-93 7^947

9.69809369.9378220
9.69831299.9377492
9.698532119.9376764
9.69875119.9376035
9.698970o! 9.93 75306

9,7440499

9.7443476
9-7446453
9.7449428
9.74524 03

9-7455376
9.7458349
9.7461320
9.7464290
9-74673 59

9.7470227
9-7473 '94
9.747616D
9-7479115

9.74820 89

9-74*505-

9.;48a(

9.7490974

9-7493934

9.74968 9:

9.7499850

9.7502806
9-7505762
9.7508716
9-7^' '6 6f>

~Tmng Cotnp.

■74375^

9.751462:

9-75'7573
9.7520523
9-75'347:
9.7526 421
9.75293(18
9-753^314
9-75.55I59
9.753820,
3-751 V.46
').7J4^^*»^
9.7547029 :
9-7549969
9-755 290K
9-7 55 5 ^^4^^
V-7SS87«.
9-7i'>>-it
•■7.16-1653
9-75675^7
9-7 57 05;
9-75734"^
9-7576383
9-7J793'3
9.7582242
9-7.s8ji 7'

9.758!
9.759;
9-7593947
9.759687:
599794

9.7605637
9-7608557
9.7611476.
9-76143 94
I'mu. Couip I

1.2562480(60

.0.255950155
.o.3556524'58

'0-2S53547
,25505,72;
J547t97

. 25446 24I54

■254>65i J3

:0.353868a 52

■25357"

2520875

■a5'79'

2514948
251 1987
2509036
.2506066 41
2503108
2500150 35
,2497194 38
■249423837
249138,
248833

2529773
2526806
252384047

3455912
2453971

245003
.2447092
, ^444 '54
2441217

2438282
2135347
24324'3
2429480
2426548
3423617
2420687
*4"77.?8
2414830

'ta)(.Coiiip
DoDcgrcei

2411934

2408978
2406053
2403 1 29
24=0206
2.197^
■2364363
239 '443
■2388524
1385606

>8ck

L O G A R I T H M I C Tabl^ or

) |o !6egrcta. ' | ■ ^| _ 31 F

^ M9S97^9-?j753 ^fe

I9.699i8rt7 9-9374S77
9-6994073 9-937384"

9.69984+19.9372385
'OOQfi JZ 9-937 '65.^

6 9.7ooaaoi|9,937D92

7 9.70049819.937018:
9.70071589.9369456
9.70093.^99368722
9-70 "t J« 9.93 6 798 J

I 9.70i3(.8i
29.701585;

9.9367254
9.9366519

9-9363.^74
9.9362836

9.9362 i9r
9.936136;

9.7018022919365783
9.70101909.9365047

9.7 oai.i 5 7 ^.9,^643

69-70245*3

9.7026687
9.7028849
,99.703101
9-7 °33' . 7 '

9-7^353^9
9.7037486
9.7039641

249.704179s
9-704.19 47
9.7046099
9.7048248
9-705=397
9-7052543
9.705+6 8:
9.7056833
9-7358975
9.7061 1 16
g.7063256
9-7065394

9-706753
g. 7069667
9.707180

J9 9-7073933 9-9S+6486

409.7076064

9.737(1194
9.7080323
9.7082450
9.708457
970866.)!
9.7=8382.
9.7090943
9.709306,
9.709518.
9,70972 99

9-70994M
9.7 10 1 529
9.7103642
9-7105753
9.710786

9T770997

9.71J208C 9-933^93

9-9348730
9-93479S3
9-9347235

9- 93457 38
9.93449S3
9-93442. "
9.93434^3
9-934'73',
').934i 9S6

>934'2.J.

9.9,340+8.

9-9339729

9.9338975

9-933 8 ■

9'93374<'7

9-93367 > 3

9-9335957

5-93352:

?!?3i4:W

9-9333638

9.7 1 14186
9.7116290

g.7640427

';-7649334
9-7652239
9-7655141
9.7658047

9.76609+9
g.766385]
9-7666751
i).766965i
9.7672550

9-7704373
9.770726:
9.77101+7
9-7713033
9-77159 17

235J573
3350666
234776.
2344857
23M953

233^05.1

2335149143

233324942

2330349I4

23174s

232+55' -.
232165638

2318760J3J

23'5a6

231297

Q78I34
-^..i«633
230+29532
233i4"43

2298515 30

229562729

2291739^28
228985_
a* 28696 7J 26
228+ "

1281:

59 Degrcf s.

9-711839^ 9-93306 c6

9.7120495 9.9329897
29.71225969.9329137
39.71246959.9328376
49.7126792 J.9327616

9-7 '28^89^.9326854

69.71309833.9326392
9-71330773-9325330
9-7135169 9-9324567
9.71372605.9323804

9-7'3-J3 49
9-7141437
9-7143524

39.71+5609
9-7147693
9-7179776

9-7'5i»57
9-7153937
9.7156015
9.7158092
9.--i63i6i

9.7162243
9.7164316
9.7166387
9.716845a !

9.7 1705 16

9.71767259.9309205

9.71 78 7 89

9.9308432

9.71808 51(9.9307658

9.71829.
9.718+97
9,7187030
9,7189086
9-7 '9:

9.9306883
9.9306103
9-93 053 J 3
9-930+557
9-93^37^

9-7193196^.9303004
9.7195249^.9302226

9.71973009.9301448
!*7i9935o9-93oo67o
^.72013 99 9.92998 91

9-72oj447p-9299i>2

o5493[9-9298332

o753**]9-92975i

4419.7209581^.9296770

9- 72i'6 '-j K>-9 295 9 ^*9

9.721366+^.9295207
^/ 9-721570+9-9294424
489-72i774'K)-929.i6+i
49V72i977ffl9-9292857
;o' 9.722i8 i4 9.9Z92073

!9-7223848^9-929i2»9
529.722^819.9290504!
539.722-79139.9289718
549.72299439.9188932,
Ji ?- . ? , ' 3J_ 97 i! 9-92»gi4^
56 9.7 23400019.9,2 -1 73 5«
579.72360269.9286571
s89.7238-3Sii9-92BS783
59,9-7240075,9.9284994
60 9.72420 97 ^.928+205

9.781916

9-7821 Ji„
9.78 2+864
9.7827713
9.733056:

9-7833 4i(
9.7836258
9.883910+
9.73+1949
9.7844794

9-1847638
9^850+8
9-7853323
9.7856164

9.7 859004
9.7861844
9.7S6458.
9.7867520
^■7870357
9-7873 ' 9,^

9.7876028
9.7878863
9.7881696
9.7884529
9.788736.

9.7890192
97893023

9.7895852
9.789868
9.79015 08

9-790433;
9.7907161
9.7909987
9.791281,

' >79i5^ 3

9,7918+58

y.792>28(

9.792410:

9792692:

9-79^97 4:

9.7932560

9-7 93 53 7S

97938 > 95

9.79410H

9794.38 27

'9.79+6641

J9-79494iN"

9.79522(18:

9.795508

9-79S789'

i% UegTtti..

o. 230940 i|jV

o.3ac3654i|,:[

o.i»a36a2);-j
10.22008x3! ,f;

1.2197966;,-:;

.2ai2zfi;|

i.2i95io«j.,j
I.2I92S53S3J
^ii8939i.d
o.»i86544 51
9.2183691 iO
:c>.2i8oi*33 4J.

0.217798
0.2175130--

0.2172287,>

o.2 _ i69 43S;j
1.31 665 90+J
J.2i63742{.4
5.2161=896;:
).2i5So5
^^■552:'

2"i2362,.>
a'495'9''
a 146677 _r

0.2143830,.-.^

i.2i4^>99h j;i
>.2i38i505,

o-ai353ii,:'

0.2132460,.

0.21296+3:.

0.21208;- .:

2 12197 J
0.21 21 137,

Q.211B3C4!.
0.21I547I'..
a.2ii j639',:jI

21 0980!!.^ 4!

2ro697;(:,j'
.o.2io+i4>,'jj;
0.210131^2,;

2098492 -c

.0.20956-),,iy;

o.209i83c^it
o. 20900 ijjl",
0.208718916,
0.20^436: id

.'Orflj+ilJ

207^72015!
207589913
207307^11
207025 9 id

0.206744c i
10.206462; I
.0.2061 8 Oj-
0.205^989 (
0.2056173

o 2053757"
: 0.2050545 :
0.2047732
o.»0449i9l '
0.2042 leg

S I N E15 AND T A N' G E N T S.

Ill

£i: ,

0;9.7242097J9.Q2842.a?

Sine

" h"i^

^2 Dtgrtt

Qomp

9.724411b
9.724613^

9^^928341 y
9;9 21^262^5

9.724815^ 9.9281834
419.7250174(9.9281043

9.7254Z04 9.9279459
9.7256217(9.9278666
89-7258*29

9.7 252r89 9;9t ?8o25i

9.7264257
9.7266264
9.7268269
9-7270273
9.7272276

9.9277873
9.7260240 9.9277079
109.72622499.9276285

M
15

16(9.7274278
179.7276278
189-7278277
199.7280275

21
22

27
28

3^
32

33
34

i^
3^>

39
40

42
43

li
46

47
48

49
i?
51

.5^
53
54

Si
56

57
58
59

9.7282271

9.7284267
9.7286260
9.7288253
9.7290244
^7292234

9.9275490
9.9274695
9.9273899

9-9273103
9.9272306

9.9271509
9.927071 1
9.9269913
9.92691 1 4
99268514

9.7294223
9.7296211
9.7298197
9.7300182
9.7302165

9.7304148
9.7306129
9.7308109
9^73 1 0087
9.73 1 2064

9.9267514
9.9266714
99265913
9.92651 12
9.9264310

9.9263507
9.9262704
9.926 1 90 1
9.9261096
9.9260292

9.9259487
9.9258681

9.9257875
9.9257069

9.9256261

9.73140409.9255454
9.73 1601 5 9.9254646

9-7317989
9.7319961

9-73»'9 32

9.9253837
9.9253028
9.9252218

9.7323902

9-732587C

9.7327837
9.7329803

9-733 '7<>^

9-733373 J
9.7335693

9.7^*5485
9.7347440

9.7353296
9.735^5246

9.7357195
, 9-7359M2
60 9.7361088

9.9251408
9.9250597
9.9249786
9.9248974

r).9248i6i

9-9^7349
9-9246535

9.7337654|9.924572i

9-7339^^4

9.734x57^

9.9244907
9.92440 921,

9-73435299.9243277

9.9242461
9.9241644

9-7349393b-924o827
9-7351345

9.9240010

9.^239191

9-9238373
9-9237554
9.9236734
9-92359M

Sue

) Tang* | T>ng.Comp. I

9.7957892

9.7960703
9.7963-513
9.79663^2
9.7969130

9-797' 938

9-7974745

9-7^7551
9.7^^356

9.798316-

9.7985964

9-7988767
9.7991569

9-7994370
9.7997170

9-7999970

9.8001769
9.8065567
9.8008365
9.801 1 161

9.8013957

9.8016752
9.8019546
9.8022340
9.8025133
9.8027925

9.8030716
9.8033506
9.8036296
9.8039085
9.8041873

9.8044661
9.8047447
9.8050233
9.8053019
9.80558 03

9.8058587
9.8061370
9.8064152
9.8066933
f>.8o697i4

9.8072494
9.8075273
9.807S052
9.8080829
^.808^606

9.8o«6383
9.8089158
9.8091935
9.8094707
9.8097480

9.8100253
9.8103025
9.8105796
9.8108566
9,8111336

9.8114109
9.8116873
9.8119641
9.8122408
9.8125174

rBn>r.C')ti>p.

2025255
0.2022449
0.2019644
0.2016840

2014036

2042108

2039297
2036487
2033678
2030870
2028062

2011233

2008431
2005630
2002830
2000030

1997231

» 994433
1991635

1988839
1986043

1983248
1980454
1977660
1974867

1972075

\6d[

59
58

57
56
5S

S4\

53
52

51
501

49
48

44
43
42

401

1969284
1966494
1963704
1 9609 1 5
1958127I30

37
36

3i
34
33
32

1955339

1952553

1949767
1946981

1944197

1941413
1938630
1935848
1933067
1930286

291

2:3

27
26

23
22

192750619
1924727I18
1921948117
1919171 16

191639415

1913617I14
1910842 13
1908067*12

190529311
1902520 10

1899747

1896975
1894204

1891434I 6

1 888664 I 5

1885895 4
1883127 3
1880359 2
1877592 1
1874826 c

i2 I>egr€€S

JSi

Sine

Sine C>mp.

o 9r736io88'9.92359i4

•ecrrecs

I
2

3
4
5
6

9-7372737

9.7374675
9-73766 II

9I9-7378546
9.7380479

7
8

11 9.7382412

12 9-73^4343
i3|9-7386273

9.7388201

9.7390129

9-7363032|9-9235093
9.73649769.9234272

9.7366918
9.7368859

9-7370799

9-7392055
9-7393980

9-7395904
9.7397827

9-73997 4^

14
IS
16

17
18

21 9.7401668

22 9-7403587

23 9-7405505
249-7407421

25?74£9337
269.7411251

279.7413164
289.7415075

299.7416986

30 9-74i889j

31 9.7420803
329.7422710
339-7424616
349.7426520
35 9.7428423

369-7430325
3797432226

389.7434126

399-7436324

409-743792?

9-9233450
9.9232628

9.9231805

9.9230982
9.9230158

9-9229334
9.9228509

9.9227684

919226858
9.9226D32
9.9225205
9.9224377

9-9223549

9.9222721
9.9221891
9.9221C62
9.9220232
9.9 2 1 940 1

9.9218570
9.9217738
9.9216906
9.92r6o73
9.9215240

9.9214406
9.9213572
9.9212737
9.9211902
9.92 1 1 066

9.9210229
9-9209393
9.9208555
9.9207717
99206878

9.9206039
9.9205200
9.920436D
9.9203519
9. 9202678

41 9-7439»i7 9-9201836
429.74417129.9200994
439-74436069-9200151
449-74454989-9199308

45 9.7 447390 19-9198464

46 9T449280 9.9197619
9.7451 1699 9196775

9.745305699195929
9-745494399195083

rgr

9.745682b

99194237

47
48

539.7462477

549-7461358
559.7463237

569.746S113 9.9189146

57 9.7469992 9.9188296

58 9.747 1868I9.91 87445
599-7473743!9-9i86594

fco 9.747561 7 9.9185742

9-74587129.9193390

9-746o595'9-9i92542
9.9191694
9.9190845
9.9189996

dine Com p.

bme

I Tany. I Tani;. CC-np. 1*^

9.8
9.8
9.8

9-8
9.8

9^8

9,8

9-8

9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8

9.8
9.8

9-8
9.8
9.8

9.8
9.8

25174

27939
30704'
33468
36231

38993'

41755
44516

47277
50036

52795

5S554
58311
61068
63824
66580

6933

72089

74842

77595
80347

83098

85849
88599
91348
94096

96844
99592

9.8202338
9.8205084

9.8207829

9.8210574
9.8213317
9.8216060
9.8218803
9.8221545

9.8224280
9.8227026
9.8229766
9.8232505

9.8235244

9.8237981
9.8240719

9-824345^
9.8246191

9.8248926

9.825166c
9.8 254 3 9^
9.S257127
9.8259860
9.8262592

9.8265323
9.8268053
9.82707*3
9.8273513
9.82762 41

9.8278969
9.828i69{)
9.8284423
9.8287149
9.8289874

— «^IB^

iVng Coni^'

874826J60
59

5«

872061
869296
866532
863769
861007

858245
855484
852723
849964
847205

844446
8416S9

838932
836176

833420

830665
827911
825158
822405
8196 <;3

43
42

816902.39

56[

55
54

SS
52

47
46

814151
81 1401
808652

805904

803156
800408
97662
94916
92171

89420
86')83

83940
81197
78455

75714
72974
70234

67495
64756

62019
59281

56545
53«o9

51074

48340
4560S

4^873
4014c

37408

34677
31947

«B

29217

26487

13759
21031
18304

15577
12851

10126

»•«/•

S6 Peg

rees

37
36

35
34
i3
32
31

29
1^

27
26I

23
22

19
18

i6
15

141

13
12

"9
8

7
6

3
2

iSt'

LOGARITHMIC Table of

34 D« g«'

\^'

^9. 747i6i7 | 9.9iBs7 42

; 19-747 743 iJ9-9 1 84^90
29-747936q9-9i84037
39.7481230^9.9183183
49.748309^9.9182319

[1.7484967 9.91814 7^

^ ,7486833 9.9180620
9.74886989.9179764
9.74905629.9178908
9.7492415 9-9' 7805^
9-7494^S7 9-9'77' 94

9.74961489.9176336

9.7498007
9.7499866

9-7.i0'723

9.9175478
9.9 1 746 1 9
1.917376:

9-75£3579 9-9 '7^9 0°

9-75054.14
9.7507287
9.7509140
9.7510991
9-7 5 "84

9.751+69:
1 9.7516538
»3 9-75'8385
9.7510Z3
9.7 ^11075

9.9172040
9.917
9.9170317
9.916945 s
9.9168593

269.7523919

9-752576
9.751760:
9.75294+:

9.9163406
9-9i*5>539
9.9161673
9.9160805
9.7431280 9.9 159937

9-7S33
9-7i3+9S4
., 9-753^790

349.7538624
}5 9-75404 57

9.75-^228h
9-7544 "9
9-7545949
39 9-7547777
9.75496 04

. 9-7 55 > 43
42 S>-7S53"S6
.. 9-75S50'io
449.755690;

9.75587 24

9.9167730
9.9166866
.9166002
9-9i65>37

9.91642 71

9.9159069
9.9158200
9-9157330
9.9156460

9-91547
9.91538+6
9.9152974
9.91521

- 9UI.

469.7560544

9,7562364
. 9-756418 .
+99.7565999

9-75678 15

7074011591
10.170467758]

0-I7OI953 57]
0.169933 1
0.1696^08

■9' 50354
9-9i4974*fl
9.9148604
9.9147.729
9.9146 81:3

9,91+5976
9.9145099)
9.9144121
9-9>43.^4:
9.9 I4Z464

.75696309.91+15841

9-757H44y-9'4O70+|

9-7573i.i6l9-9'39S2+;

9.757506819.9138943

55 9-7576 87Sj().Q i;^8o6r

9.7578687,9.9137179

9.75804959.9136296

- 9-75823029'9i354»3

59 9-7J8+' 08 9.9134530

60 9.758591319.9133645

g.8322529i
9-8325246

9.8327963:
9.8330679

9'8333394
9.8336*09
9.8338823
9.8341536
9.83+4249

9.83+696 J

834967:

9.836322
9.836592 (,
9.8368636

9-837'343

9.83740+9
'>-837675i
9.8379460
9.8382164

.1680189

.1677+7
-1674754
.1672037
■ i66q^:

3.1660631
3.166389]

D.I 65 8464

P-»65575

0.1653039

650327

9.8352384 10..1647616
9-8355094^ '0-> 6+4906
9.8357804 10.16+1196
9.8360513

J-838757
J-8390273
9-8391975
9.8395676 1
2^39^377

6^595

623245

10.1620540

.1617836

9.8401077
9.8+03776
9.8+06475
9.8409174
(>.84i -

9.8+14569
g.8417265
9.841996
- ". ^657
9-843535
. .8+280+6
9-^430739
9-843343
9.8436125

9.84388 1 T

9.8 + 41501;
9.844 + 199
9.84+6689
9.8+49579
9. 8452268

639487
0.1636779
0.1634071
0.163136+

: 0.1618657

612429
0.1609717
0.1607015

0.1604324
0.1601 6 ;3

0.1598923
0.1596224

0-' 593525

0.1590826
o.i58Si?9

o- '58543
o-«58273i

0.1580039

=-'577.H3
0-157 +649

0.1571954

0.15692(1;

0.1566568

5''58-i

561,^13

>.i 55^491
).i5558o
'-i5S3'i

10.155042.

:p -'54773 :

f ? ^'ir"

SINES Jim) TA.N6ENTS.

183

««♦

LOOARITHMiC Tabm Op

>yw». _

519335i3|9:?2i£i^

■J-793^7J7y-'93»456
)-7y333'>7'9-89374.i2
5 79399'=7'>°y3'»448
].7Q4'4gj; 9-^935444

;.7y43G'*3 9-8934459
).794467aly-8933433
>.7g462;6'9-^932ta')
;.7g4784iV^93M'9
9-7949 j iji9^. J.<04 .',2
,.79!i-io8y.!*yiyj=4

j,7j,4i7ij9-M73«J
;-79';5-J'b-'*92'>37S
>79i;73 12 9:^9153^
;-79i8'P9!9-S9^4354
).796o4S6!9-S9i334=i
j.7962:02 9^*912319
.).796^638'y-89i"3'6
;.796 5 2jj|9._a92o.i-^3
j.7i/>'>7ii''.jy.89i9:a9
J-79S''*1599-89"*274
L;.796993oy-89i7*58

4!;9797>5^'|9-^3"^*-*^

r).707107i 9-89iji J6

.797464cl9-'*9i42ad
52[9.7976io8J9-89'3'9'
-3 9-7977775y-8y"i72
4 U-79T934ii9-»9'"J3
.^7q^2^ 9-^9r<"3j

3.7982470

9-7984334
r- 9-798559'>
59 3-7987ii8
501 9.7988718

9.89 a ^098 1

1J.89J070J
9-8933306
9893 5909

9-09385
9-894 ' J

9.8995677
9-89< "
9.90:

3459

9.90360 J2

6.9008645
9.9011x37
9.931383c
6422
9.9319013

9.9021604
.;.9024i95
9.9026786
9.9029376
9.9031

9-903455 >
9';o37i44
9-9039733
9.9042321
9.90449' o

9.904749-
9.9050085
9.9051672
99055259
9-9057845

:0.106929 s 59
0.1066694
o. 1 064091
0.1061489 56

y.9o6o43i
9.9063017
9.9065603

9.9o6Ui8ai
99370773

9-9073357
9-9075941;
9.9078525,
9.9081 1C9
9-9°83692;

).i056z85
>.io53683
).i05io8:
(.104848:

).i 04588:

0.104328!

0.104068:
0.10380S:
o-*o,35483
0.1012884
0.1040286
o.ioi7688
0.1015090

0. 1019B96
0.10173c

0.1004323
0.1001729
o-<^99 '35
o'.099654i
0.0993948

0,0983578
0,0980987

0.09 7^396
0.097 5«05[«3
0.097321
1,0970624
0.096801 J
0.0965445
0.C962856
0.0960267
OJ3957679
0.01J55090

0.095250,
OJ0949915
0.09473 if
: 0.0944741

'-0939569
r.0936983
1-0934397
1:0931*
1.09 292 2 7

0.0926643

0.0924059

0.0911475

0.091""

o-°9'

I Degteei"

9.799806,
9.7999616
.8001 1 6(

.800.72^
o 9.900427

9.8005823
9.800737
9.80089Z
9.8310468
9.831 jo r;
9.801356
9.801 5 106
9.8016649
9.8018192
9-80197 3?
9.8321276
9.8022816
9-8^M3S5
9,8025894
9_^

UiDC JiDcCcun^

9.89050*6

9^898877
9.8897850
1.8896822
9.8895794
9.889476 5

9.8893736
1.8892706
9.889167s

9[.889o644

9.88896]

9.8S8858(
9-8887^47
9.8886513

9.8028968
9.8030504
. "" '32038
9-8=1335 7'
9-803 ? 'O f

9.888340b
9.888237

9.887926c

9.805 1 90J1
9.8053430
9.805495'
9.8056472
jo 57y 9|

39 DegTowT*

.8878221
.8877182
.8876142
.887510
■8 S 7406

9.88730 h;
.8871977
.8870934
.886ci890
.886884^
.886780.

9.8866756
..88657,
..8864663

.886047.
.8859420
-8858370

.88573.9
.8856267
.8855215
.8854162

-885310.^

9.8853055

9.885 IQOO
.8849945
,8848889
.8847S 32
■8846775
.8845717
■8844659
■8843599
.8R42540

9.9091440
9.909403 a,

9.9096603

9.9099185
766

9-9'' 04347
9.9106927
9.9 1 09; 07

2087
9.91 14666
9.9117245

9.911 "
9-9' -'2403.

9.912498;
7559
9-9»3="37
99'3»7'4
99' 3529

9.9137868
9.9140444
9.914302c
9.9145596

9-9' 48 1 7

■uig. J f«ii>;- Cmn ■

9.9150747

9-9' 533"
9.9155896
9-9 15847

9.91610 45

9.9163618
9.916619:
9.916B765

;-9'7 '338
9-9' 739

9.9176483
9.9179055
9.9181627
9.9184 1 9&
9.9186769

9918934'
9.9191911
9.9194481
9.9197051
■9 '996 21

9.920219:
9.9204760
9.9207329
9 9209898
9.9 2 r 24 66

9-9215034
9.9217601
9-92 ■
9.9222737
99225304

9.922787
9-9230437
9.9233004

9-923557'

:o.09i03o»^:

0.091372.
0.091114:- ,
O.0908560IH
ox>905Sl/Sui>
o-°9 33397.

0.0898134 ijj
IJ38956J! j:
i.o893073J,'i
.08904931 ja

0,088791 jU;
0.0885334

0.088275]^.:
ojo88oi76ui
0.0S77597 U I

O.OS730
0.087244114^ I
o.oS6yh65L:
0.08672861^1
:&.o86470t, j:

.086213:
..o8j9556;;()

: 0.085698):: j'
..0854.40401 ,

o.o85iH29[j;

0.08492
0-084667 ^|^:
0,0844104^;
0^384152931

.8389^3:

0.083638;!^

0.083380:?!:;

0.083 »

0.08 2866^1::

o.q8a6o8, j|:j

0.082351

0^820(^45 :;

0.0818373:;

0.0815802

o£8.3z.

.08 1 066c II
0^3808089 li

0.0805519 i;
.0802949 i(
■0800379 II

1.0797^09 I.

..0795240 r
0.0792671
0.07901c

P-0 7'*7J34|'

07^4966 •
0782398 I
0779830
0777263 ■
0774696 .

0.0772129
0.0769563
p.0766996 ;
0.0764430
0.07611 ' "

50 Ugrrce*

LOGARITHMIC SINES and T A N G E N T S.

B-

o 9.Hi6i)4 29 9:8 777 Tw
[9.817088219.877670:
' " 9.877563:

9-877450:
9.877340
11.87723 30
9«

.8178133
_. 817958
9.81 8 1018
9.8182474
9-8i839'9

9.8185364
9.8186807
9.8188250
9.8189692
9-819:

- ■8»9»J73
9.8 19401 2

9.81954509-8757927
9.8756816

9-8i983'i

- 997f5i
9.8101196
9.8202630

9.8204063
9.8205496

9^1206927

~ 10835*1
9.8 2097 8 !>
9.8111217
9.8212646

9-877 .
1.8770096

9.8766785

9.8764574
9.8763468
9.8762361
9.876125^

9-876^ ._
9.8759036

9.8755706

9.8214073

9.821550c

9.8316926

'2-835

9-8z'977.

9.022119I
9.822262

9.8224042
9.B21546:
9.82168 83
9.8228302
9.822972
9.8231 138
9-8232555

9.8235386
9.82^368.
9.82381. _^
9.8139626
9.82410 37
9.8243448
9.8143S58
9.8245267
'246676

2:' " "

9.8249490
9.8250896
9.8^5230:
. "253705
9.8255109

41 Degrees

9-8754594
9.8753481
9.875236-;
9.8751256
9.875 014;
9.8749327
9.874791:
9.874679_<
9-«»74567i.
9-87 4 45 61

9-«743443
9.8742325

9-8741 20_
9.8 74008 J
9.873896,

y.873784^
9.873672-
9-8735599

9-873447(-
9- 873335:

9.8732227
9.873110;
9.8729976
9.8728849
9-87 27 7 2

9.8726594
9.8725466
9-8724337
9-8723 .
9.8722076
9.8720945
9.8719813
9.87 1 868 1
9.8717548
9,8716414

9-87'5i79
9.87 1 4144
9.871300b
9.87 '
9^8710735

9.943242B
9-9434976
9-9437524
9.9440072
9.9442619

9.9445166
9.y4477"
9.945016;
9.945280;
9-94 '535-

9.9496075
9.9498619
9.9501162
9-95°3735
9.9506 248
9.9508791
9-95 "33 4
9-95 '3876
9.9516419
9-951 896.

9-9521 50.
9.9524045
9.9526587
9.95291 It
9SK5£67i

9-95342
9-953675=
9-9.539293
9.9541834
9 -9 '44.^ 74

[ 0.05090 1 3
536469

[O.O503925I9
=-050.38' ■"■

_j.043883a
10.0496295

[0.0493752
10.0491209 14

10.0483666""
10.048C124
[ 0.04835 8 1
10.0481039 £c

10.0478497 s
10.0475955
i°-34 73413
c.^.^7087

.0465789
10.^463 348
.0.0460707
: 0.0458 166

5.0455626

48 Uegre

i8j

Vol. X. Part I.

i36

LOGARITHMIC SIMES and TANGENTS.

9.8155109 9.87K)73jt 9-9S44371 ! TO.o4.;5ft^6

_li

42 Dcgrgea

■■':"" I

9.8256512

9.8257913

9.8259314

9.8260715

9.8 2621:

9.82635:

1^8264910

9.8266307

.8267703

) 9.8 269398

119.8270493

29.8271887

39.8273279

4.9.8274671

I5I9.8 276063

9.8709597
9.8708458
9.8707319
9.8706179
9.8705039

9.8698
9.8697037

9.8694744
9.8693597

.1.830234:

9-8.10,^7 '7

9.S30509.
9.8306464
9-8327837
9.8 109209
"" 1580

9.8311950

4688
9.8316056
9^831742-,

9.83i87dc..
9.83 20 » 5, (
9.8321519
9.8322883
9.83242 46
.5609
9.8326970
0.8328331

549.8329691
Q. 833105C

9.833240S
9-8333766
9.8335122
9.8336478

9-«7<_ .

9.8702756

9.8701613

9.870047^

9.8699326

9.8663189
9.8667026
^.8665863
9.8664699

9.866353 ^
9^866336(1
9.8661203
9.8^60131
.86588 63

9.H657'

').8fi5'553i

9-86553'j:

9.O654192

().8fiy3oi

9.8 65 1849

9.8650677

9.8649504

9.8-64833

9.8647U6

9.8645981
9.8644 8o<
9.S643629
9.8642452
1.8641275

9-9597693
9.9600230
9.960276'
9.9605305
9.960784;

9.9610378
9.9612915
9-9615452
9.9617988

9.962306
9.9625597
9.9628133
9.9630669
9.9633204

9-9635740 i
9.9638175
9.9640811
9-9643346
9.964 58 S

9-9648416
9-965095
9-9653486
9.9656020
9.96^8555

9.9661089
9.9663623
9.9666157
9.9668692
9-967 '^ -5
9-9t>73759
9-9676293
9.9678827
9.9681360
9-9683893

9.9686427
9.968896;
9.969149:
9.9694026
9,9696559

0.0453085

■0.0450545

.0.0448005

0.0445465

0.0442925

0.0440385

: 0.043 7 846

"=-='4353"6

10.0432767

10.0 43 0228

10,0427689

10.0425150

10.04226.

10.0420073

10.0417535

>.04i4996

1.0412458

1.0409920

10J3407382

10.0404845

0.0402307
0.0399770

0.0397 2_

0.0394695

°-°39"58

0.0389612

0.0387085
..0384548
..0382012
■°379475

10.0376939
10.0374403
10.C371867
10.0369331
10.0366796

0,0364261
■0.0361725
0.0359189
0.0356654

-0351584
0.0349049
0.034651,

: 0.0343981
0.034144'

0.033891 1
0.0336377
0/3333843
0,0331308
'-03^8 77

0.0326241
o-03?3707
0,0331173
0.0318640
^ 3 '61 07

io-03>3J73
.0.0311040
0,0308507
0,0305974
0-030344

47 Degreea

•"•" ir.v:':,-

y-8337833 ''-'*64

9-8339188 9.8640096

9.8340541

9.8341894

).86389;
.)-863773V
,9.8636557
15 979-8635 376
,489.8634
y.^j„J97 9.8633;
9.83486469.863 ■
-..8349994 9.H631
9-862:
,j 9.86281
,39.86270!

9.8343246
9- 834451
9.83459,
9.8347a

9- „^^.

9-835*3

9-83526..

9-835403.

9-83553:'

9.83567:

9.8359408
9.83607509-
9.8362091
9-836343:
9.83647 7 1

| ai»cC..r.M,, j I T^n;; . I r.-r.g.C.mi~

'-»354033 9-»027oas
■835537819-8625902

.83 c^Tl-) Q.862JTI J

1.83580 66

9.86247
9."'

9.83661099-

9.8367447

9.8368784

9.8370I2I

9.837 1 4^6

9.S372791
9-837 4 » 25
9-8375458
9-837679:
9^37812.

9-8379453
. -8380783
9.83821

9.8384769

30644
32946 1

.8622338

'■-:ii4i

9958

:8767

.S6175 76

,.8616383
"'15190

'3997
12S03
1 1608

9.861041
1.8609215
.8608018
■,^60682
1.8605621

1.S604433

1.8603223

'.86020:

1.86008;

'•8599619

1.8598416

9.8596009
1.8594804
1-85935 90

'-ai92393
1.8591 186
,.8589978
,.858877;
,.8"; 8 7 (6.

,.B5)io35:
1.8585 1 4
,.8583939
1.8582718
,.8581505

96965 59

. ■969909*
9.9701624
9.9704157
9.9706689
9.970922

9-97'»754
9.97J42S6
9,9716818
9-9719350
9.97218 8.

9.9724413
9.972694,
■97-29477
.9732008
■97.^45 .^9
9-973707
9.973960^ *'
9-9742'33 '
9.9744664
9-9 747 '9i

9.9749726
9-9752157
9-97J4787
9-9757318
9-9759849

9-9762379
9.9764909
. -9767440
9.9769970
9-9 7725'^'

9-9775030

9.9777560

9.9 7 8c 090

9.97826:

9-9785' 49

9-9787679

9.9790209

9.9792738

9.9795268

9-97977 9'

9.9800326
9.9802856
9-9805385
9.9807914
9. 9810443

9.9812971
9-9815501

9.9820559
1. 9823087

,0303441 '.-I
30090,^
2983:^. ■,

■0293311;:

.02907;

■C2b57'..:.j

,02831s.:!

2So!..jC j

.027SIU

3275i»:-

C27j;5,-.
,0267 9^,..

26.-4^J.

,02570'!:
o 25 5 33'

.025027;.
■0247745,

024j"'.-i,-

02426&;.-

.Q237c;;i,-
.0235091 .

,02249;c.i

,0222st=-'',

99i:;-; I

,o20979i|;-i
.020720; :i
.02047?::!: I
.02or2r;,:H

97MJl-f
.oi946i;ir

18449*,'!;
.8,97^1:
'79441"
'769' -1

LOGARITHMIC S I N E 3 and T A N G E KT;

»87

-f^

9.85149J9
9-8513713
9.9522466

" itziS
9.8519970

?£S314i

9.853 1 1 79
9.8529936

9.8528693
9.8527449
9.8526204

9.851872:

9.851747

9.851621:

9.8514969

9-8 ji37'7

9.8512465

9-85

9.8509957

9.8508702

9.85074 46

9.8506190
9-8504933
9-8503'575
9.8502417
9 .SS011 5I
9.8499897
9.8498637
9-8497375
9.84961 13

9.9924197 [0.0075803 138

9.9926724
9.992925
9-993 '778
9-9934^05
9-993683:

9-9939359

9.994:

9-99444 "3
9.9946940
9.^949466

9'99ji993
9-99545

9-9957047
9-9959573
9. 99621'

9.9964637
9.9967154
9.9969680
9.9972207
9-997 4734

9.9977260

9.9979787
99982314
9.9984840

999873^7

9.9989893

9.99924:

9-9994947

9-9997473

0.0073276
0.0070749
0.006822a
10.0065695
.0.0063168
0.0065641
0.0058114 23
0-0355587
53060
W34

0.0048007
0.00454S0
0.0042953
0.0040427
0.0037900

0.3035373
.0.0032846
: 0.0030320
: 0.0025793
0.0012266

).0O2O2I3

1.0017686

1.0015160

1.Q 012633

0.001c

0.0007580
0,0005053
0.0002527
0.0000000

lit

LOG

LOGARITHMIC cokve. If on the line AN
btilh ways indefinitely extended, be taken AC, C E,
E G, G I, 1 1., on the right hand j and alfo Ag.g P.
&c, on the kft, all equal to one another ; and if at the
points Pi-, A, C, E, G, I, L, be ereaed to the right
line A N, the perpendiculars PS, gj, A B, C D, E F,
G H, 1 K, L M, which let be continually propor-
tional, and reprefent nombers, vii, AB, i j CD, lo)
EF, 100, !fc. then (hall We have two progreflion* of
lincK, arithmetical and geometrical : for the line*
AC, AE, AG, S(C. are in arithmetical progreflion,
or ai I, I, 3, 4, ;, &c. and fo reprefent. the logarithms
ro which the geometrical lines A B, C D, E F, *:e.
do correfpoiid. For fiuoe AG is triple of the tirlltina
AC, the number GH fliaH be in the third place fro«
unity, if CD be in the fir) I ; fjlikewife fhallLM be
in the fifth place, finceAL=5AC. If the eitrwni-
titfa of the proportionals S, if, IJ, D, F, Sec. be joined
by fight lines, the figures S B M L will become a po-
lygon, conlifting of more or le& fidei, according a*
there are more or lefs termB in the progrefSon.

IfthepartsAC, CE, EG, &c. he bifcfted in the
pnintn i; e, g, i, I, and there b« again laifed the per-
pend iculara.-r iV, ef,gb, a, !m, which are mean pro-
pcirtlonale between A B, C D, C D, E F, A*, then
tliere mill arife a new feriM ,of p«oportMMl% wl)ofe
lenn*, beginning from that which immediately followi

unity, arc dtntble of thofc in the firft ferics, and the I.'igi'i'h-
difference of the terms ia become left, and approacl) '""'""' '
nearer to a ratio of equality than before. Likcwife, '
in this new feries, the right lines AL, Ac, cxprefs the
dilbiDcet of the terms LM crit from unity, viz. fincc
A L is ten times greater than A-, LM (hall be the tenth
term of the ftrics from unity : and becaufe A c is three
tiirtea greater than A c, ef will be the third term of
thefenes ifr.rfbetlie firit, and there (hall be two mean
proportionals betii-een AB and e ft and between' AB
and LM there will be nine mean proportionals. And
if the extremities of the lines B d, D/, F h, &c. be
joined by ri^ht. lines, there wiH be a new polygon
made, confiding of more but (hotter Kdes than the lalt.'

If, in this iDaaner, mean proportionals be continual-
ly I placed between every two terms, the nunber of
terms at laft will be made fo great, as alio the number
of the lides of the polygon, as to be greater than any
gi*en number, or to he infinite ; and every fide of the
polygon fo leflened, as to become lets tjun any given
right line ; and confequently the polygon n-til be chan-
ged into a curve-Kned figure ; for aay curvclinL-d fi-
gure may be conceived as a p<Jygon, whofe fides Mk
tn6nitely fniall and infinite in number. A curve defer*-
bed after thta manlier is called lo/fnritiimKal,

It i< nianifelt from this dcfcription of.tlte logaritia.

mic curve, that all numbers at equal diilance* are con-

A a 2 tinually

LOG [

fyigMTith- tinlirJly proportional. It is alfo plain, that if there be
micUatt. f^^^ numbers, AB, CD, IK, LM, fuch'that the dl-
ilance between the firfl and fecond be equal to the di-
fiance between the third and the fourth, let the di-
ilance from the fecond to the third be what it wifl,
thefe numbers will be proportionaL For becaufe the

i88 1 LOG

cated by thefe right lines will have the fame c 01x10105
ratio ; and, jdly. That the feries thus indicated br tv?
pandlel right lines^ fuppofed to move laterally, with ja
changing either their mutHal dtftance or poralidiii
to themfelves, will have each the lame ratio» and In iZ
feries indfcated by fuch two lines, the ratfo bctvireen l:

diftanccs AC, IL, ane equal, AB ftall be to the incne- * antecedent and tonfcquent ; the former taken upon cc:

ment D /, as IK is to the increment MT. Wherefore, line, and the latter upen another, will be alfo the faine.
by compofition, AB . DC : : IK : ML. And, contr»- The ifi of thefe propofitions ia proved in the £i-

riwife, if four numbers be proportional, the difbmce lowing manner. Let the lines AB, CD, £F, rcprr.:

between the iiril and fecond (Rail be equal to the di- fent parts of the logarithmic line arranged accotrdi^'

ilance between the third and fourth. to tkie proportion already mentioned ; and let GH r<

The diilance between any twa numbers is call* a right line paifing through the points r, c^ a^ denotcr

ed the logarithm of the ratio of thofe numbers ; and, in* numbers in geometrical promffioo) then vrOl 2.-T

deed, doth not meafure the* ratio itfelf, but the num« other line IK, drawn acrofs the arrangement, likr-^-!

ber of terms in a given feries of geometrical propoN pafsthrough three points/, 1/9^, in eeometrical progrt!-

tionals, proceeding from one number to another, and iion. From one of the points of tnterfe^ionyin tk

defines the number of equal ratios by the compofition
whereof the ratios of number is known.

LoGAStifHMic Lines. For many mechanical purpofes
it is convenient to have the log^arithms of numbers laid
down on fcales, as wett as the logarithmic fines and
tangents ; by which means, computations may be car-
ried on by mere menfuration with compaiTes. Lines
of this kind are always put on the common Gunter*s
fcale ; but as thefe infb-aments mufl be extended to a
very great length, in order to contain any confiderable
quantity of numbers, it becomes an objed of impor-
tance to (horten them. Such an improvement has been
made by Mr William Nicholfon, and publifhed in the
77th volume of the Philofophical Tranfadlions* The
principles on which the conltru&ion of his infbiiments
depends are as follow :

I. If two geometrical feries of numbers, having the
fame common, ratio, be placed in order with the ^erms
oppofite to each other, the ratio between any tenn in
one &ries and its oppofite in the other will be coo-
ftant t Thus,

2 6 ift 54 162, &c.

3 9 27 8x 243, &c. Then,

t } 6 9 18 27 54 Bi 162 ^43, &c.
where it is evident, that each'of the terms in the up«
per feries is exactly two-thirds of the conefponding
•ne in the lower.

2^ The ratio of any two terms in one feries will be*
t)ie fame with that between thofe which have an equal
diilance in the other.

3. In all fuch geometrical feries as have the fame
ratio^ the property above-mentioned takes place, tho'
we compare the terms ef any feries with thofe of ano»
Act: Thill,

4 8 16 32 64, &c.

6 12 24 48 96»&c*

8 16 32 64 128, &c.
IQ 20 40 80 160, &c.( whme it If
flakvthat 2, 4, 3, 6; alfo 2, 4^ 4, 8, and 2, 4, 5, 10, &c.
have the fame ratio with that of each feries.

4. If the diffeipences of the logarithms of the num-
bers be hud in order upon equidtftant parallel right
fines, in fuch a manner that a right line drawn acrofs
the whole (hall interfe£l it at dirifions denoting num*

{

2
S

ben in geometrical progreffion ; then, from the coadi- the divifion on which it would have fallen had tlie
tioD of the arrangement, and the property of this lo- rule been prolonged ; and this contrivance may eaiily be
gamhmic fine, it follows, ifl. That every right line fo adapted to any arrangement of parallel lines whatever,
drawn will, by its interfedions, indicate a geometrical The arrangemeat of right L'nes, however, ought a2-
i^Rki of nombers ; ad^i That fuch feries as arc indi- ways to be difpofed in fuch a raaoner as to occupy a

ngbt

lail mentioned line IK, draw the line fg paraDd
GH, and interfe<5ting the arrangement in the pars
i, h ; and the ratios of the numbers e^fc^ /, wiQ be
equal, as well ^i of j, h ; becaufe the intervals oc tk
logarithmic line, or differences of the lo^nrithai cc ,
thofe numbers, are equaL Again, the pointy^ the lb:
iV, and the line M, are in arithmietical progrc£Boa k-
noting the differences between the logarithms of :k
numbers themfelves ; whence the quotients of the etc-
hers are in geometrical progprflion.

The id proportion is proved in a funilar manso.
For as it was fhown that the line fg^ parallel to GE
paffes through points of divifion denoting numbcn u
the fame costinued ratio as thofe indicated by thelae
GH ; it may alfo be (hown, that the line L.M pszl-
lei to any oUier line IK, will pafs through a iierics d
points denoting numbers which have the fame cqc>
nued ratio with thofe indicated by the line IK, ta
which it is parallel.

The 3 J propofition arifes from the parallclifoi ci
the lines to their former fituation ; by which merL\
they indicate numbers in a geometrical ieries, ha^iq
the fame common ratio as before : their diftance oa tLc
lorarithmic line alfo remains unchanged ; whence tt:
differences between the logarithms of the oppot^e
numbers, and of confequence their ratios, will alvap
be conftant.

5* Suppofing now an antecedent and confequent lo
be given in any geometrical feries, it will alwaya bt
poffible to find them, provided the line be of unlimited
length. Drawing two parallel lines, then, through eacL
of the numbers, and fuppofing the lines to move vritb-
out changing their dire^on or paraDd. fituatioa, tkey
will continually defcribe new antecedents and coafet
quents in the fame geometrical feries as before.

6. Though the logarithmic line contain no greater
range of numbers than from i to 10, it will not be
found neceffary for the purpofes of computation to rt*
peat it. The only thing requifite is to have a ilidcr
or beam with two fixed points at the diftance of the
interval betwixt i and 10, and a moveable point he
made to range betvrixt them alvrays to indicate the z^
tccedent; then, if the confequent fixed point £dl witii-
out the rule, die other fixed point will i4ways denote

DCS.

LOG r 1

*^* i^g'^* angled parandogramy or the croft line already
mentioned ought always to be at right angles to the
length of the ruler.

Fig. 7* is a rder ccnfifting of ten parallel lines-
Pi^. 8. a beam-compafs for meafuring the intervals.
B, A, C, are the parts which apply to the furface of
the ruler ; the middle one. A, being moveable fidewife
in a groove in the piece DE, fo as always to prcfervc
its parallelifm to the external pieces t)C» which are
fixed at a diftance equal to the length of the ruler, and
have their edges placed in fuch a manner as to forrA
ifTith the parallel lines vi^ich they interfi'6^ a ratio,
^-hich by compofition is ^nr 5 which in the prcfent cafe
requires them to be at right angles to the length. The
piece DE is appfied to th« edge FG of the nder. The
edges or borders H, I, K, L, are more conveniently
made of tranfparent horn, or tortoifc-(hell> than of any
opaque matter.

In ufing this ruler, apply the edge of either B or
C to the eonfequent, and Aide the piece A to the an«>
tecedent ; ob(erving the difference between the num-
bers on the pieces denoting the lines they are found
•n ; then, applying the fame tdge of A to any other
antecedent, the other piece B or C wiU interfe^ a eon-
fequent in the fame ratio upon that line, having the
fame (ituation with regard to the antecedent that the
line of the former eonfequent had to its antecedent.
But if B. be the eonfequent piece, and fall without the
rakr, the piece C will fliow the eonfequent one line
lower ; op l£ C, in like^ manaer, fall without the ru-
ler, then B will fliow the eonfequent one line higher.
^ It might be convenient (fays Mr Nicholfon) for the
purpofe of computation, to make inftruments of this
kind with one hundred or more lines : but in the pre-
Sent inftrument, the numbers on the pieces wiH anfwer.
the fame purpofe; for if a eonfequent fall upon a line
at any given numbtr of intervals without the ruler, it
will be tound on that line of the arrang^ement- which oc-
cupies the fame numbev of internils reckoned in^
wards from the oppofite edge of the ruler."

Fig. 9. is an inftrument on the plan of a Gunter*i
fcale of' 284- inches long, invented by the late Mr Ro-
bertfon. There is a moveable piece AB in the flider
GH, acrofs which is drawn a fine line : the Aider ha-
ving aJfo lines CD, EF, drawn acrofs it at diilances'
from each other equal to the length of the ruler AB»
In ufing the inftrument^- the. line GB or EF is to bo
placed at tbe eonfequent, and the line in A]l^ at the-
antecedent; then, if. the piece AB be placed at any
other antecedent, the fame Ime CD. or EF will indicate
its eonfequent in the fame ratio taken the fame way :
Aatisvif the antecedent and coafeqiient lie. on the

89 1 LOG

fame fide of the flider, all other antecedents andconfe*^9g«»;ith'-
quents in that ratio wiU be in the fame manner ; and the °**^ Line«..
contrary if they do not. But if the eonfequent line fall
without^he nde, the other fixed line on the flider will
fhow the eonfequent, but on the contrary fide of the
flider to that where it would elfe have been feen by
means of the firil eonfequent line.

Fig. lo. is a circular inftrument equivalent to the
former ; confifting of three concentric circles engraved
and graduated upon a plate of an inch and an half dta*
meter. Two legs A and B proceed from the centre^
having right-lined edges in the dire^ion of radii ; and'
are moveable either fingly or together. In ufing the
inftrument, place one of the edges at the antecedent
and the other at the eonfequent, and fix them at the
angle. Move the t^o legs then together; and having
placed the antecedent leg at any other number, the^
other vnll give the eonfequent one in the like po«
fition on the lines. If the lin^ CD happen to lie*
between the legs, and B be the eonfequent leg, the '
number fought will be found one line farther from the-
centre than it would otherwife luive been ; and on the-
contrary, it will be found one line nearer in the like
cafe, if A be the eonfequent leg. ** This inftrument..
(fays Mr Nicholfon ) diftering from that roprefented
ng. 7. only in its circular form, and the advantaget/
rcfulting from that form, the lines muft be taken to
iuGceed each other in the fame manner laterally | fo that*
numbers which fall either within or without the ar«-
rangement of circles, vioil be fotind on fuch 'lines of the
arrangement as would have occupied 'the vacant placet-
if the fuccefSon of lines had been indefinitely repeated'
fidewife.

** 1 approve of this conftruftion as fuperior to every
other which has yet occurred to me, not only in pouit'
of convenienoe, but Kkewife in the probability of be<^
ing better executed; becaufe fi2iall arcs may be gradu-
ated with very great accuracy, by divifions transferred.
from a larger original. *The infbiunent, fig. 7. may
be contained conveniently in a circle of. about four
inches and an half diameter.

** The oircular infbrument is a combination of the
Gunter*a line and the fedor, with the improvements
here pointed out. The property of the fe6tor may
be uieful in magnifying the differences of the loga-
rithms in the upper parts« of the line of fines, the
middle of the tangents, and the beginning of the ver—
fed fines* It is even poflible, as mathematicians will:
eafily conoeive, to draw fpirals, on which graduations •
of parts, every where equal to each other» will fhow'^
the ratios of thofs lines by moveable radii, ^ fimilar tai
thofe. ia this inftrument."

LOG! C:

LOGIC is the art of thinKinjP and reafbntng jufUy ;
or, it may be defined the fcience or hiftory of the
human mind, inafmuch as it traces the progrei's of our
knowledge from our firft and nooft fimple conceptions
through all their different combinations^ and all thofe
numerous dedud^lons that refult fion» varioufly com-
paring them one witib another.
The ptecifcbufinefs of logic therefbit is« To esplaia

the nature of the human mind,', and the ph)per fiiannert
of conducing its feveral powers, in order to the attain-«-
ment of truth and knowledge. It lays open thofe errorr^
and miflakes we are apt, through inattention, to ruoi
into ; and teaches* us how to difnnguifh between truth,*
and what only cstrrtes the appearance of it. B/ thefe
means wc grow, acquainted with the nature and fbpc9
of the .underfianding ; fee what things lie within ita^

re^ekt

1^0 • L O

reach } Where we imiy attain certainty and demonflra^
tron $ and when we muil be contented with probabi-
lity.

This fcience is generally divided into foiv parts.

I c.

viz. PcrMfioHf ymfpmmtf JUa/cnwgf nd MtU
This divifion comprehends the whole hiftory d[ ^k
fenfations and operations of the human mind.

PartI. Of perception.

WE find ourfclves furroundcd with a variety of ob-
je6^S| which asking differently upon oar fenfes,
convey diilindl impreffions into the mizidy and thereby
roufe the attention and notice of the underftanding.
By refle6king too on what paffes within us, wc become
feniible of the operations of our own minds, and at-
tend to them as a new fet of imprefRons. But in ail
this tlierc is only bare covjcioufnejs. The mind, with-
out proceeding any farther, takes notice of the im-.
preflions that are made upon it, and views things in
order, as tl>ey prefent themfelves one after another.
This attention of the underiUnding to the obje^ ail-
ing upon it, whereby it becomes feniible of the im-
preffions they make, is called by logicians percepiions
and the notices themfelves, as they exift in the mind,
ahd are there treafured up to be the materials of think-*
lag and knowledge, are diftinguiihed by the name of
tJeai, In the article Metaphysics it ihall be ihown
at large, how the mind, being furnifhed with ideas,
contrives to diverfify and enlarge its ilock : we have
l>ere chiefly to confider the means of making known our
thoughts .to others ; that we may not only underfland
Itow knowledge is acquired, but alfo in what manner
it may be communicated with the grcateft certainty
and advantage.

Chap. I. Of Words ^ confider ed as the Signt of

cur Ideas.

I J. Our ideas, though manifcild and various, arene-

^ft'^^h ^"^' verthelcfs all within our own breafts, invifible to o-
n'cans of ^hers, nor can of themfelves be made appear. But
recording God, deiigning us for fociety, and to have fellowfliip
cur own with thofe of our kind, has provided us with organs
thoughts ; fitted to frame aitictdate founds, and given us alio a
capacity of uflng thofe founds as figns of internal con-
ceptions. Hence fpring words and language : for,
having once pitched upon any found to fland as the
mark of an idea in the mind, cuilom by degrees efta-
blifhes fuch a connexion between them, that the ap-
pearance of the idea in the underflanding always brings
to our remembrance the found or name by which it
is expreffed ; as in like manner th« bearing of the
found never fails to excite the idea for which it is made
to fland. And thus it is eafy to conceive how a man
may record his own thoughts, and bring them again
into view in any fucceeding period of life. For this
connexion being once fettled, as the fame founds wiH
always fcrve to excite the fame ideas; if he can but
contrive to regifter hia V4^rds in the order and difpo-.
fltion in which .the prefent train of his thoughts pre-
fent thelnfelves to his imagination, it is evident he will
be able to recal thefe thoughts at pleafure, and that too
in the very manner of their firil appearance. Ac
cordingly we find, that the inventions of writing and
printing, by enabling us to fix and perpetuate fuch

. 6

perilhable things as founds, have alfo fumiihed us irii
the means of giving a kind of permanency to ik
tranfadtions of the mind, infomuch that they may be
in the fame manner fubjedted to our review as iiy
other objeds of nature.

II. But, befides the ability of recording our m
thoughts, tliere is this farther advantage in the \kr!,^
external figns, that they enable us to commuoiouj
our thoughts to others y and alfo to receive infonutix
of what paffes mthmr breads. For any nuraberof mc
having agreed to eilablifh the fame founds asiigiai^
the fame ideas, it is apparent that the rcpetitioii sj
thefe founds muii excite the like perceptions is e^ii
and create a perfect correfpondence of thougji^
When, for inflance, any train of ideas fucaedos
another in my mind, if the names by which \a
wont to exprefs them have been annexed by tki
with whom I converfe to the very fame fet of idti^,
nothing is more evident, than that, by repealing tl>.^
names according to the tenor of my prefent cono;-
tionsy I Ihall raife in their minds the fame coun'c i
thought as has. taken poffeflion of my own. Ft- It
barely attending to v/hat paffes within theisicl^
upon hearing tlie founds which I repeat, iheyi'"'
alfo become acquainted with the ideas in my urdf
llanding, and have them in a manner laid before \sk
view. So that we here clearly perceive how a it>'
may communicate his fentiments, knowledge, aud c>
coveries to others, if the language in which he t^
verfes be extenfive enough to mark all the idea* ^al
tranfat^ions of hjs {nind. But as this is not alv^'*
the cafe, and men are often obhged to invent tcri'
of their own to exprefs new views and conctj-
tions of things ; it may be afked, how in thefe t '•
circumflancea we can become acquainted with ^'
thoughts of another, when he nmkes ufe of woris ^\
which we have never annexed any ideas, and lisi c:
courfe can raife no perceptions in our minds \ y f
der to unveil this my fiery, and give fomc Jittk in".^ ''
into the foundation, growth, and improvement of is*
guage, the following obfervations will be found of co>
fiderable moment.

III. Firfl, tha^ no word can be 'to any nw^^ '^;j
fign of an idea, till that i<fea comes to have a real o^^
iilence in his mind. For names, being only fo ff '""'
telligible as they denote, known internal conceptict^:^
where they have none fuch to anfwer them? ^^^^^
they are plainly founds without fignification, a"^'':
courfe convey no inflru£iion or knowledge. ^"^ " -
fooner arc the ideas to which they belong raifed lo '
underflanding, than, finding it cafy to connect ii'^
with the eilablilhed names, we can join in any ^* '
ment of this kind made by others, and thereby enj?)
benefit of their difcoveries. The firil thing t^^^^''''"
be confidered is^ how thefe ideas may be conveye

to the mind ; that being there, wc may lew*" ^^ ^^\

.-*i

BCCl

LOO

licfh them whh their appi^riated founds, and fo j>e-
come capa1>lc of underftanding others when they make
ufe of theie founds in laying open and communicating
tbclr thoughts. Now, to comprehend this diiliudly,
it w^ill l^c neceflary to attend to the divifion of our
ideas intp finiple and complex, (fee Metaphysics.)
yVnd iirfl^ as for our flmple ideas ; they can find no
adiQiflion into the mind, but by the two original
fp^intaiiis of knoiarledge, fenfation and refle6lion. tf
therefore any of thefe have as yet no being in the un-
derftanding, it ifk impoil^le by words or a defcription
to excite tliem there. A man who had never felt the
Ceniation of Aai/, could not be brought to comprehend
that fenfation- by any thing we might fay to explain
it. If we would really produce tlie idea in him, it
muil be by applying the proper objedl to his fenfes,
and bringing him within the influence of a hot body.
When this is done, and experience has taught him
the p.erpeption to which- men have annexed the name
keaty it then becomesf to him the fign of that idea,
and he thenceforth underftands the meaning of the
term, which, before, all the words in this world would
not have been fuflicient to convey into his mind. The
cafe is the fame in refpe^ of light and colours. A
man born blind, and thereby deprived of the only con-
veyance for tlie ideas of this clafs, can never be brought
to underftand tlie names by which they are exprefled.
The reafon is plain : tbey Hand for ideas that have no
ckillence in his mind ; and as the organ appropriated
to their reception is wanting,, all other contrivances
are vain, nor can they by |uiy force or defcription be
i-aifed in his imagination* But it is quite otherwife
in our complex notions. For thefe being no more
than certain combinations of fimple ideas, put toge-
ther in various forms ; if the original ideas out of
vrhich the coUeftions are naade have already got ad-
raifTion into the underiSlanding, and the names ferving
to exprefs thera are known ; it will be eafy, by enu-
merating the feveral ideas concerned in the compofi-
tion, and marking the order and manner in which
they are united, to raife any complex conception in
the mind. Thus the idea anfwering to the word rflm'
bow may be readily excited in the imagination of ano^-
ther who has never feen the appearance itfelf, by bare-
ly defcribing the figure, largenefs, polition, and or-
^T of colours ) if we fuppofe thefe feveral Ample ideas*
with their names, fufficiently known to }um«

IV. And thi# leads to a fecond obfcrvation upon this

■e9 fubjtcl, namely, That words ftanding for complex

icz ideas are all dehnable, but tho(e by which we denote

"* fimple ideas are not ; for fimple ideas being fecondary

. • perceptions, which have no other entrance into the

mind than by fenfation or refled^ion, can only be got

by experience, from the feveral obje£is of nature, pro*

per to produce thofe perceptions in us. Words indeed

may very well ferve to remind us of them, if the y have

already foujid admiflion into the underftanding, and

their connexion with the eftabhflied names is known ;.

but they can never give them their origlaal being and

exiltence there. And hence it is,, that when any one

'91

tion it to him by fome other name witli which w^
prefume be knows its connedUoo^ or appeal to the
obje£t where the idea itfelf is found. Thus, were any
one to a(k the meaning of the word whtte, we Giould
tell him it flood for the fame idea as clbus in Latin^
or blanc in French ; or, if we thought him a ftrajigcr
to thefe languages, we might appeal to an objed pro-
ducing the idea, by faying it denoted tliecok>ur we oh*
ferve ux/now or milk. But tins is by no me.an3 a de-
finition of the word, exciting a new idea in his un^
derftanding ; but merely a contnvance to remind him
of a known idea» and teach him its connediion with
the eiiablifhed name. For if the ideajB after which he
inquires have never yet been raifed in his mind ; as-
fuppofe one who bad feen no other colours tlian black
and whlte^ fliould aik the meaning of the word /car Isi ;
it is eafy to perceive, that' it would be no more pof-
fible to make him comprehend it by words, cr a defi-
nition, than to introduce the fame perception into the
imagination of a man born blind. The only method
in this cafe is, to prcfent fome obje6l, by looking at
which the perception itfelf may be excited ; and ihm
he will learn both the name and the idea together.

V. But how comes it to pafs that men agree in the p ^.
names of their fimple ideas, feeing they cannot view and obier-
the perceptions in one another's minds, nor make vation
known thefe perceptions by words to others? The l^'ing »««
effe6l is produced by experience and obfervation* ^° *" *^^^*
Thus finding, for inftance, that the name of /jcaf is naniei of
annexed to that fenfation which men feel when they fimple i-
approach the fire« I make it alfo the fign of the feiifap <le«s*
tion excited in me by fuch an approacli, nor have any
doubt but it denotes the fame perception in my mind
as in theirs. For we are naturally led tu imagine, that
the fame objects operate aHke upon the organs of the
human body, and produce an uniformity of fenfations.
^o man fancies, that the idea raifed in him by the
tafte of fugai'y and which he calls fvjutnefs^ di&rs
from tliat excited in another by the like means ; or -
that wirmwooj^ to whofe relish he has given the epi-
thet biUfT^ piroduces in another the fenfation which
be denotes by the word/wrrf. Prefuming therefore
upon tins conformity of perceptions, when they ariie
from the fame objedls, we eafily agree as to the
names of our fimple ideas : and if at any time, by a
more . narrow fcrutiny into things, new ideas of this,
clafs come in our way, which we choole to exprefs by
terms of our own invention ; thefe names are ex-
plained, not by a definition, but by rcfcrriiig to the
objeds whence the ideas themfelves may be obtained.

VI. Being in this manner furnifhed with fimple i- ^
deas, and the names by which they are exj rcflcd ; the ^j! 3,^^^^
meaning of terms that ftand for complex ideas is ca- complex i-
fily got, bccaufe the ideas themfelves anfwering to dca» by dc-
thefe terms may be conveyed into the mind by defi- fin>tion«, a
nitions. For our complex notions are only certain ]*'^„^*?"^'^*'
combinations of fimple ideas. When therefore thefe ^.^ ^
arx! enumerated, and the manner in wliich they arc
united into one conception explained, nothing more
is wanting to raife that conception in the underiland-

afks the meaning of a word denoting a fimple idea,, ing > and thus the term denoting, it comes of courfe ta
we pretend not to explain it to him by a definition,, be underftood. And here it is worth wliile to refleA
well knowing that to be impoifible ; but, fuppofing a litde upon the wife contrivance of nature, in .thus
him already acquainted wjth the idea, and only igno- fumifhing us with the very apteft means of commu-
nut of the name by .which it is calledji we either mea- nicating our thoughts.. For were it not fd ordered^,

that

'*9^

t O G I G.

that we coul3 thus convey our complex ideas from thelefs it is univerlally allowed that the figntficatioa rf

one to another by definitions^ it would in many cafes words is perfectly voluntary, and not the efie6i of any

be impoflible to make them known at all. This is natural and neceflfary connection between them zni

apparent in thofe ideas which arc the proper work of the ideas for which they (land ; fome itaj perh3|A

the mind. For as they exiil only in the underiland* wonder why definitions are not fo too. In order

ing, and have no real obje^s in nature in conformity
-to which they are framed ; if we could not make them
known by defcription, they muft He for ever hid with-
in our own breads, and be confined to the narrow
acquaintance of a iingle mind. All the fine fcenes
that arife from time to time in the poet*s fancy, and
by his lively painting give fuch entertainment to his
readers ; were he deftitute of this faculty of laying
them open to the view of others by words and de-

therefore to unravel this difficulty, and fliow diftincdv
what is and what is not arbitrary in fpeech, we mtd
carefully diftingnifh between the conne6lion of oar
words and ideas, and the unfolding of the ideas thesi-
fclves.

11. Firil, as to the conne6tion of our words aod ideas; ,
this, it is plain, is a purely arbitrary inflitution. 'Whra, '
for inflance, we have in bur minds the idea of uvj^
particular fpecies of metals, the calling it by the naeiev

fcription, could not extend their influence beyond his gold is an effe^ of the voluntary choice of men fpcak-'-

own imagination, or give joy to any but the original
inventor.
7 VII. There Is this farther advantage in the ability

t va'l '^^ ^^PJ °f communicating our complex notions by
,^^,^^,th^ definitions ; that as thefe make by far the largeil clafs
improve- of our id^as, and mod frequently occur in the progrefs
Bicot of ^nd improvement of knowledge, fo they are by thefe
:uowleoge 11,^3^ imparted with the greateft readinefs, than
ivhich nothing would tend more to the increafe and
*fpreading jof fcience : for a definition is foon perufed ;
'«ind if the terms of it are well imderftood, the idea
itfelf finds an eafy admiflion into the mind. Whereas
in fimple perceptions, where we are referred to the
objeds producing them, if thefe cannot be come at, as
is fometimes the cafe, the names by which they are
expreiTed muil remain empty founds. But new ideas
of this clafs occurring very rarely in the fciences, they
feldom create any great obdnidion. It is otherwife
with our complex notions; for every flep we take
leading us into new combinations and views of things,
it becomes necefTary to explain thefe to others, before
they can be made acquainted with our difcoveries :
and as the manner of definitions is eafy, requiring no
apparatus but that of words, which are always ready,
and at hand ; henct we can with the lefs difficulty re-
move fuch obftacles as might arife from terms of our
own invention, when they are made to fland for new
complex ideas fuggefled to the mind by fome prefent
train of thinking. And thus at lafl we are let into

ing the fame language, and not of any peculiar aptaefs
in that fouod to exprefs that idea. Other nations wt^
find make ufe of different founds, and wi^ the fasez:
effe£^. Thus aurum denotes that idea tn Latin, aad
or in French ; and even the word gM itfelf woati
hav^ as well ferved to exprefs the idea of that me:d
which we c^JUver^ had cuilom in the hegianin^ eti«
blifhed it.

III. But although we are thus etftirely at Ebcity ie^
conne<^ing any idea with any found, yet it is quite--
otherwife in unfolding the ideas themfclvcs. For e-^.
very idea having a precife appearance of ita own, by •
which it is didtnguifhcd from every other idea ; it i»&
manifeil, that in laying vt opea to others, wc muft^
fludy fuch a defcription as fhaU- exhibit that peculiyll.
appearance. When we have formed to ourfelves tbepc-
idea of a figure bounded by four equal fides » joined*^
together at right angles, we are at liberty to exprcfe*''
that idea by any found, and call it either tijqmare ot%'^
triangh. But whichever of thefe names we ufe, focs.
long as the idea is the fame, the defcription hy which
we would fignify it to another mnd be fo too. Jl^ct it
be called y^i/ar^ or triangle^ it is fiill a figure having
four equal fides, and all its angles right ones. Hence
we clearly fee what is and what is not arbitrary in the
ufe of words. The eftablilhing any found as the vaask
of fome determinate idea in the mind, is the effeS of

tkfinitioD
defined.

free choice, and a voluntary combination among men:
and as different nations make ufe of different founda

the myflery hinted at in the beginning of this chapter, to denote the fame ideas, hence proceeds all that va-

v/z. how we may become acquainted with the thoughts riety of languages which we meet with in the world,

of anotlier, when he makes ufe of words to which we But when a connexion between our ideas and words

have as yet joined no ideas. The anfwer is obvious is once fettled, the unfolding of the idea anfwering to

from what has been already faid. If the terms denote any word, which properly conflitutes a defiaition, is

fimple perceptions, he muft refer us to thefe obje^fts of by no means an arbitrary thing : for here we are

nature whence the perceptions themfelves are to be bound to exhibit that precife conception which either

obtained $ but, if they iland for complex ideas, their the ufe of language, or our own particular choice*

meaning may be explained by a defimtunu > hath annexed to the term ^ye ufe.

n TT nr i\ r 'A' IV. And thus it appears, that definitions, coniidered^ *

CHAP. 11. q/. Definttnns. ^^ defcriptions of ideas in the mind, are fleady and in-^'j

I. A Definition is the unfolding tf fome conception of the variable, being bounded to the reprefentation of thefe ct^

mindy anf^ufcring to the *word or term made ufe of as the precife ideas. But then, in the application of delini-tsifl

'jign of it. Now as, in exhibitkig sny idea to another, tions to particular names, wc are altogether left to wa^\

it is necefTary that ithc defcription be fuch as may ex- own free choice. Becaufe as the conneAihg of any^^^^j

cite that precife idea in hie mind ; hence it is plain that idea with any found is a perfe«SUy arbitrary inflitu-tc

definitions, properly fpeaking, are not arbitrary, but tion, the applying the defcription of that idea to that

confined to the reprefcnting of certain detenhinatc found muft be fo too. When therefore logicians tell

fettjed notions, fuch namely as are annexed by the us that the definition of the name is arbitrary, they

>fpeaker or writer to the words he ufes. As never- mean no more than this ; that as different ideas may

N^iSj. 4 be

AurtT*

L C f CI

ke cemfftaA ^1^ way f«ni% accortfog to tbe good
Ijkafure of him that ines it ; m Itke nttnncr msy dif-
ferent ddcffiptimis b« applied to tftie term futtabk, to
the ideaa fo conae6ted. But this eonnedHon being
fetdcd, aad the term confidered as the fign. of fome
fixed idea is the iinderftaildi9g» we are no ioager left
to aH>itraT7 c^plicationvy but muft ftudf fnch a de-
Icription as oorrefjponds with that precife idea. - Now
thia alone^ according to what has been before laid
down, -ought to be accounted a definition. What
teems to have occasioned no fmall confufion in this
matter, is» that many eagplanations of words, where no
idea is unfolded, but merely the connexion between
(ome word' aad idea aflSettedi have yet been dignified
with the name of definitiont* Thus, when we fay
that ^ clock is an infirument by which tve mca/ure

tandmg fer fucA eotnp%K idett. Sftt ottr «6mple<
ideas, beine, as we have fdid, nothing jnore than dif-
ferent combinations of (imple ideas i we then know
and comprehend th^m perfe<5Uy, when we know the
feveral {ittplc ideas of which they confift, and can fo
put them together in our minds as may be aeccSary to**
wards the framing of that peculiar conne£lioa which
gives every idea its dlftin£fc and proper appearance* rj ^

VII. Two things are therefore required in every ^^*! ^'^•^
de^nition i firfl, "niat all the original ideas, out of ^^J^g^i^^
which the complex one Is formed, be difUndUy ettQ-toeuftme« '
merated; and, lecondly, llat the order and manner of ['Me the
combining them into one conception be cleariy ex**^*^".*"*
fWned. Where a definition hus thefe rtqulfites, no-JSj^/^*
thing is wanting to its perfe^ion ; becaufe every one their com*
who reads it and undcrftan4s the terms, feeing at once^instiona.

that is by feme called a definition t and yet it ^ what ideas he is to join together, and alfo in what

manner, can at pleafure form in his own mind the
complex conception anfwering to the term defined^
Let us, for inflance, fuppofe the word fquare to fiand
for that idea by which we repfcfcnt to ourfelvcs a
£giire whofe fides fubtend quadrants of a circumfcribed
circle. The parts of this idea are the fides bounding
the figure. Thefe muft be four iq number, and aS
equal among themfelves, becaufe they are each to fub-
tend a fourth part of the fame circle. But, befidel
thefe component p^s, we muft alfo take notice of*
the manner of putting them together, if we would ex->

ia plain that we are belbrehamd fuppofed to have an

idea of this inftrument, and only taught that the word

eiact £erves in conunon language to denote that idea.

hj this rule all <xplications of words in our di6Ho-

aaries will be definitions, nay, the natteS of even fim-

ple ideas may be thus defined. H^hitti we may fay,

u the colour we obferve in fnow or milk.; heat the

fenfation produced by approaching the fire ; and fo in

innumerable other inftances. But .thefe, and all others

of the like kind, are by no means definitions, exciting
. ttew ideas in the underfUnding, but merely contn-

mnces to remind us of known ideas, and teach their hibit the precife idea for whicK the v9or^fquare here
1^ connexion with,the eftabliflied Aames* Aands* For four equal right lines, any-how joined*

t^ompiex V. But now in definitions properly fo Called, we will not fubtend ^uadfants of a circumfcribed circle,
ideas alone firft confider t6e term we ufe, as th^ fign of fome in- A figure with this property muft have its fides ftand-
J?P**^* °^ -ward conception, either annexed to it by cuftom, or ing alfo at right angles. Taking in therefore this laft
dcfci tion ^^ ^^^ ^^^ choice | and then the bttfinefs of the de- confideration refpeaing tiie manner of combining thc
which goes finitiott is to unfold and explicate that idea. As there- parts, the idea is fully defcribed, and the definition
bythe Dame lore, the whole art lies in giving juft and true cot^ies thereby rendered cotnplete. For a figure bounded by
^m dcfini- ^f Q„y idea/; a definition is theii raid to be made per- torn equal fides, joined together at right angles, has

k^ when it ferves diftin^y to excite the idea de- the prpperty required ; and is moreover the only right-

fcribed in the mind df another, even fuppofing him lined figure to which that property belongs.

before wholly unacquainted with it. This point fet- ^^^^ »^ •« , ., .

tied, let us next inquire what thofe ideas are which

£re capable of being thus unfolded ? And in the firft

place it is evident, that all our fimple ideas are necef-

farily excluded* We have feen already that expe-

Vyii. It will now be obvious to every one, in what^*^^
manner we ought to proceed, in order to arrive atceed ^^/^
juft and adequate definitions. Firft, we are to take rive at jolt
an exa6t view of the idea to he defcribed, trace it to^"<i s^-
its original principles, and mark the feveral funplc ^*"* *^*^*
rience alone is to be confulted here, infomuch that if perceptions that entef into the compofition of it. Se-'^^^^'*
either the objeds whence 'they are derived come not condly, we are to confider the particular manner in
In our way, or the avenues appointed by nature for which thefe elementary ideas are combined, in ordef
their reception, are Wanting, no defcription is fufiicioat to the forming of that precife conception for which the
to convey t)iem into the mind. But where the un- term wt make ufe of ftands. When this is done, and
derftanding is already fopplied with thefe original aild the idea wholly unravelled, we have nothing more to
primitive conceptions, as they may be united together do than fairly tranfcribe the appearance it makes tQ
in an infinity of difierent forms ; fo may all their fe- our own minds. Such a deferijition, by diftin£Uy e^-
Veral combinations be diftin^y laid open, by enume- hibiting the order and nutnber of our primitive con-
rating the fimple ideas concerned in the various col- ceptions, cannot fail to excite at the £sune time in th£
lections, and tracing the order and nuinner in which mind of every one that reads it, the cotnplex idea re-
thejr axe linked one to another. Now thefe combi- fulting from them ; and therefore attains the true an4
nations of fimple notices eonftitute what we call dur proper end of a definiuon.
complex notions \ whence it is evident, that complex

ideas, and thofe alone, admit of that kind of defcrip- CHAPt III* Ofthi Cimpojitkn and Re/olutiMS ^
tioo which goes by the name of a definition. mr Jdeas^ and ibe Rules of D^nitm tbinca

^ VI. Definitiont, then, arc pidures or reprefenta* arifing*
tions of our ideas | and as thefe reprefent^tions are

then only pofiible when the ideas thcmfelves arc * I. The rule bid ^oWh in the foregoing chapter is

complex, it is obvious to remark, that definidona general, extending to all poffiUe oJes ; and is indeed

mnnot have place but where we make ufe of terms that^o which alone we can have recourfe, where any

Vol. X« Pan L B b doubt

L O

doubt or difScuIiy arifes. It k nott howerer^ neceflaxy
that we (hould pra£iife it in every particidar inflaace.
Many of our ideas are extremely complicated^ info*
we proceed much that to enumerate all the iimple perceptions out
by * fucce( of which they are formed, would be a very trouble-
live grada f^nie and tediious work. For this reafon loincians
have eftabliihed certain compendious i^ules of dehning,
of which it may not be amifs here to give fome ac-

In com-
poundiag
our ideas.

G I C;

then la the fecondy or any other fucce^n^
they are. foxzned out of thofe gradual combinatioea,
and conftitute the inferior clafFesy it is i^ot nece^Jkrr,
in defcribing them, to mention one by one all tlie am^
pie ideas of which they coniift. They may be marz
didinfUy and briefly unfolded, by enumerating tke
compound ideas of a lower order, from wfaofe unlam

they refult, and which are all fuppofed to be already
count. But in order to the better underflanding of known in confequence of previous deSnitions. Her?
what follows, it will be necefTary to obferve, that then it is that the logical method of defining takes
there is a certain gradation in the competition of our place ; which, that it may be the better iinder^oody

ideas. The mind of man is very limited in its views,
and cannot take in a great number of obje6^s at once.
We are therefore fain to proceed by fteps, and make
our firfl advances fubfervieat to thofe which follow.
Thus, in forming our complex notions, we begin at
Aril with but a few fimple ideas, fuch as we can ma-

we fhall explain fomewhat more particularly the fe-
veralileps and gradations of the mind in compound-
ing its ideas, and thence deduce that peculiar fbrzn c£
a definition which logicians have thought fit. to tit^
bHAi.

IV. All the ideas we receive from the fcvcial bb-TI

nage with eafe, and unite them together into one con- jeds of nature that furround us, reprefent diflio^ h-

ception. When we are provided with a fufficient
.ftock of thefe, and have by habit and ufe rendered
them familiar to our. minds, th^y become the compo-
nent parts of other ideas dill more complicated, and
form what vie may call a fecond order of compound
notions. This procefs, as is evident, may be conti-
nued to any degree of compotition we pleafe, mount-
ing from one flage to another, and enlarging the num-
jg ber of combinations.
Mtnce ideas II. But now in a feries of this kind, whoever would
o( this dafs acquaint himfelf perfcftly with the lafl and higheft
**^^1? ri ®^^^*' ^^ ideas, finds it much the mod expedient me-
when'we ' *^^ ^^' pj^oceed gradually through all the interme-
advaoce diate fteps.. For, were he to take any very compound

diviuuals. Thefe individuals, when compared tog?- ^
ther, are found in certain particulars to refemble each -,
other. Hence, by colle6ling the refembllng partic jki ^
into one conception, we form the notion of a Ju.-^-'
And here let it be obferved, that this lad idea is k:^
complicated tlian that by which we rcprefcnt aLj » :'
the particular obje^ls contained under it. For the idn
of the fpecies excludes the peculiarities of the fcrc-al
individuals, and retains only fuch properties as a:;
common to them all. Again, by compariog^ (cvctj
fpecies together, and obferving their refemblance, v;
form the idea of a genus ; where, in the fame maar:c
as before, the compofition is lefTened, becaufc ve
leave out what is peculiar to the feveral fpecies ccs-

gradually idea to pieces, and, without regard to . the feveral pared« and retain only the particulars wherein tbf?

^'■^k'* 1 cl*^^* ^^ fimple perceptions that have already been for-
jyAy , med into diftinft combinations, break it at once into its
original principles, the number would be fo great as per-
fe6tly tp confound the imagination, and overcome the
utmoft reach and capacity of the mind. "When we fee
a prodigious multitude of men jumbled together in
crowds, without order or any regular pofition, we find
it impoffible to arrive at an exadl knowledge oT^heir
number. But if they are formed into feparate batta-
lidns, and fo flationed as to fall ' within the leifure
flirvey of the eye ; by viewing them fucceflively
and in order, we ' come to an eafy and certain deter-
mination. It is the fame in our complex ideaa. When
^e original perceptions, out of which they are firamed,
are very numerous, it is not enough that we take a
view of them in. loofe ajid fcattered bodies i we mud
form them into diilinf): clafles, and unite thefe clalTes
in a juft and orderly manner, before we cau arrive at
a true knowledge of the compound notices refulting

agree. It is eafy to conceive the mind proceed:-^
thus from one ftep to another, and advancing thread^
its feveral claiTes of general notions, until at hil k ■
comes to the liigfaeil genus of all, denoted by the wed
he'ingt where the bare idea of exiitence is only coe-
cemed.

V. In this procedure we fee the mind unravcflicg
a complex idea, and tracing it in the afcending fcak- *'
from greater or Icfs degrees of compofition, until k ^j
terminates in one fimple perception. If now we take i
the feries the contrary way, and, beginning with \^ - ■
laft or higheft genus, carry our view downward*.*'^
through all the inferior genera and fpecies, quite t-> ^ .
the individuals, we ftiall thereby arrive at. a diftic^r;!
apprehenfion of the condu6^ of the undcrftanding Is^
compounding its ideas. For,, ia the feveral daffes d
our perceptions, the higheft in the fcale is for the
moft part made up of but a few fimple ideas, fuch as
the mind can take in and furvey with eaie. This fird
general notion, when branched out into the diftcitEt
fubdivifions contained under it, hais.iii every one (^

ffom them,
^-j^fini- I^'^' T\& gradual progrefs of the mind to its com-.

tioBiftovld pound notions, through a variety of intermediate fteps,, them fomething peculiar,, by. which they are*diili>
keep pace plainly points out the manner of conducing the defl- guifiied among tfaemfelves ; infonuich that, io de-
With our nitions by which thefe notions are conveyed into the fcending from the genus to the fpecies, we alwan
obfcrv^a »wids of others. For as the ieriies begins with fimple fuperadd fome new idea, and thereby increafe tk
like grada- aud eafy combiuations,. and advances through a fuo-
"*^~ cefiibn of different orders, rifing one above another in

die degrco of compofition, it is evident, that, in atrain

of definitions exprefGng thefe ideas, a like gradation

is. to be.obfepred. Thus, the complex, ideas of the

degree of compofition. Thus the idea denoted by ike
word Jigi^re is of a, very general nature, and compel
fed of but few. fimple perceptions, as implying ao
more than, fpace. every where bounded. But if we
defceod farther, and confide^ the Imundaries of atxA

Ibweft order can no otherwife be defcribed. than by. (jpace, as that they may be either lides or furface, we
ejiumerating the fimple ideas out of which they are. rail into the feveral fpecies of figure* For where the
fliade, and' explaining^ the manner of their union*. But fgace is bounded by one or more furfafiesy wc give it the

iflq y

• LOGIC. 195

name fXfLjoMJtguMi but wkcre the boundaries kre to divide the fpcciet from the renu8» bat becaufe>

linesy it is ctSkanfimiiJfgurf (a). being different in all the fereral fubdivifionS) we therew

i of VI. In this Tiew of things it is evident* that the by alfo diftinguifti the fpecies one from another. And

^* ipectes is formed by fuperadding a new idea to the as it is Ukewife that conception, which, by being

gettys. Here, for inffawce, the genus is circumfcri- joined to the general idea, completes the notion of

bed fpace* If now to this we fuperadd the idea of a the fpecies ) hence it is plain, that the genus and fpe*

lif- circumifcriptioo by lines, we frame the notion of that cific difference are to be confidered. as the proper and

^^ fperies of iigiues which are cdXkd plam i but if we conftituent parts of the fpecies. If we trace the pro*

**' conceive the drcumfcription to be by furfaces, we grefs of the mind ftiU farther, and obferve it advancing

have the fpecies of foUd figures* This fuperadded through the inferior fpecies, we (hall find its manner

idea is called thtj^ecific difference;^ not only as it ferves of proceeding to be always the fame. For every lower

B b 2 fpecies

(a) This account of thecompofition and refolution of our ideas is agreeable to the common do^rine of logicians
on the fubje^ Into the truth of the dodrine itfelf we (hall inquire afterwards under the article Metaphysics :
but to prevent miilakes, it may be proper to obferve here* that though every writer of logic has treated
largely o£ general znAfpectfic ideas ^ there is in reality uoihiiyg general in the matter but the terms of language.
When we utter, for infUnce, the word triangle^ thdit general term does not, as has been often faid, fuggeft ^

to the mind the generaf idea of a triangle, wUch is neither ohRque nor reBangle^ neither equilateral nor fcalenon^
4fcc. iorfucb a triangle, as it cannot «x;^ in nafuref cannot be conceived In idea. In like manner, the general
term Virtue does not excite a general idea of virtue^ which is neither /rv^^rfif^i nor temperancey nor fortitude^ nor
jtiftice, nor charity^ &c. for that which is tBftinS from all thefe is not virtue. What then is the import of fuch
general terms ? The anfwer is obvious : They denote clones ofol^effs; and are never ufed without fome word of
limitation, but when fomething that has no dependence upon the partievlar qualities, which diftinguifli the indi-
viduals from each other, is affirmed or denied of the whole clafs. Thus we may affirm, that the tl>ree anglei
of a J>lain Jriangle are equal to two right angles: and this propoiition is demonftrably true, not of a triangle,
whi<^ is neither obRque nor reSangle, neither equilateral notfcalenon^ for fuch a t^angle never was conceived {
but of all thefe triangles equally, as the truth of the proportion and the progrefs of the demonftration has no
dependence upon the pecuBarities which difiingwfb thefe triangles from one another. Again, when we fay
that a man of virtue will be rewarded by God, we do not mean by the word virtue a general idea making part
of each of the complex and more particular ideas oiprudence, fortitude^ juftice, &c. and at the fame time (&f
ferent from them all ; but we affirm, that the man who 'pra&fes any or all of thefe virtues, according as he
has opportunity, will be rewarded by God.

The hiftory of* our ideas is (hortly this: — That a^ of the mind, if it may be called an 08, which makes-
known an external objeQ, is termed perception. That a6t of the mind which makes known an internal ob*
je9f is termed consciousness. Objeds once perceived may be recalled to the mind by the power of
memory ; and when they are fo recalled, we have a perception of them in all refpedls fimilar to the original
perception, only lefs difkin6l ; we &ncy ourfelves in the fame place, and the fAjeQ perceived attended by the
fame circumftances. This mdiSdn&,fecondary perception of an obje£k is termed an idea ; and therefore the jprecife
and accurate definition of an idea, in contradiftmdlion to %Xk origined perception, is " that perception 01 a real
objed which is raifed in the mind by the power of memory." Now all our original perceptiora being of par-
t'ladar ol^e&s, it is obvious that our ideas, which are only thoie perceptions recalled, mufl be of particular ob-
je3s fikewife, and that bo man can have an idea of a thing of which the real exigence is contradictory and im-
poffible. But the general and fpecific ideas of logicians, are ideas of nothing which exifls, or which can poffihly
ex^. They are acquired, we are told, by ab/lraSum, in the following manner. Among a nimiber of indivi-
duals we perceive certain qualities the fame in all, whilil in each individual there are other qualities which
have nothing iimilar to them in any other individual : now the mind^ it is faid, has a power of abftradling
the particular qualities of each indtvidual from ihofe which are common to the whole, and of thefe laft forming a
general idea of the whole clafs. Thus all men have nearly the fame form; and they have t9X^ fome flature and
fame colour,, though there are not perhaps two individuals who have precifely the fame flattsre and the^m^ co^
lour. Now, (ay the advocates for general ideas, if we abflraS what is peculiar to each individual, and retain
what is common to the whole race, we have the general idea fignified by the word man. That is, if we con-
ceive a being in human (hape, which is of Jlature and colour, but neither W/nor^rf, ' neither white nor blaci,
noT red nor browny nor any other colour which we ever f aw, we have the general idea of humanity, and under-
(land the meaning of the word man I Surely no perfon who is not the (lave of prejudice will pretend that he
can frame fuch an idea as this— the idea of an object which cannot poffibly exift in nature.

By this we do not mean to affirm, that we cannot frame ideas of fuch objef^s as have no real exiflence ; for
it is as eafy to imagine a man with ten head* as with one, becaufe there is nothing contradictory between ten
heads and one boefy» "Butf gure, which is faid to be fpace bounded neither by Unes nor fuperficies ; colour, which <
is neither r^i/ nor white, nor blue nor black, &c. ; and <iiimm/, which is neither man, beqft, bird, nor infe& ;'
are impoffible in nature, and inconceivable in idea. There is, however, no harm in ftill retaining the phrafe'
general idea, provided he who ufes it takes care to let it be known, that by thefe words he means not any
abfiraS and contradiSory idea, but ^merely a clafs of real obfeSe. The phrafe may at times prevent much circum-
locution ; for which reafon we have retained the ufe of it.in the text.

is€

Ir O

ijpccies'is formed if fupeiadding tone new idea to tiic
ipecict oext above it ; iaibattcb tliat ia thja defbeadiog
fcale of our pcrceptioas^ the underftaadiag* pafica
throngli differtat orders of complex BOtions» which
become more and more compUcaled at every fbep k
tables. Let us refume ber«» for ioftaocei the fpecics
of plaia figures. They imply no more tbaa i^ace
hoiwded by liaes. But if w« take ia aa additional
condderatioa of tbe aatuK of tbefe littct> as whether
they are right or cwrvcs^ we fall ioio the fobdtviiioiw
of phia figure, diftiaguiibed by tbe names of rediOmar^
curvilinear^ ^ndi mixtilitugr*'
AndiDsIl VII. And here we are to obferve, that though
tke icfcri.T plain figures, when confidered as one of thofe branches
l^^'j, ^ that come under the notion of figure ia fiReaerali^ take
ding the the name of a ^cies ; yet compared with the claflfes
ipecific dif- Af curvilineary re^ilincar, and nuxtiliaear^ into which
Imnce to ^^y themfclves may be divided^ they really become
TOulk^^ a genus^ of which the before mentioned fubdivifions
*^ conftitute the ievenil fpedes. Thefie fpecies, in the

fame manner as in the caiie of plain and folid figures^
confifl of the geaus and fpeciiic difference as tbeir
con^uent parts. For in the curvilinear kiad, the
curvity of the lines boundiag the figure makes what is
called Xhcjpecific Sfftrmct ; to which if we join the
ffenus, which here is a plain figure' or fpace circum-
icribed by Unes, we have all that i& neceflary towards
completing the notion of thiR ^ecies. We are only
to take notice, that this laa fubdivifion» having two
genera above it, vis. plain figure, and figure in gene-
ral ; the genus joined with the fpecific difference^ in
order to conftitute the fpecxes of curviliaears, is that
which lies nearefi to the (aid fpecies. It is the no-
tion of plain figure, and not of figiure in general, that,
joiaed with the idea of corvity, makes op the complex

G_ 1 C. \

i«facr of ^K £uac kimd. AdJ iseaoe ktt,tK2tiit^ •
laft cafe, logicians cboofe to call the Aipemdiedlia!)^
the name of the numerical iifirtnn ; taibmeck tbr,
as the idea of a fpecics is made ^ of die ncatet gt-
aus and fpecific dliffevcncey ib the idea of an iai^ .
dual confifts of the loweft ^ectea aad numeric &.
ence. Thus the carck is a %ecies of carve-liixii <
gures, and what we <:ail the hvo^ fp^h s ck-
prebeodiag under it only iadhddaids. Ciirles ia p
tictikr are dsftingxiiffacd from cue aaocher by tbelaj^
and pofitioB of tdKir diameters* The kngtbtham
and pofition of the diameter of a circle form vhai%-
cians call the numerical difference ; bccaufe, thcfe tr
ing given, the circle itfelf may be defcnbed, ddu
individual thereby conftil*uted» *

IX. Thus the mind, in compounding its ideu, W^
gins, we fee, with tlie motft generaJL notiona, vfakL'
confiiUDg of but a few funple notaces, are caiilf a»,
bioed and brought together imo one coaccptiai
Thence it proceeds to the fpecies comprebeoded w^
der this general idea* and the£e are formed by joiBii;.^
together the genus and fjpecxfic difference. Andut:
often happens, that thele fpecics may btMMc^
fubdividedt and nm on in a long fcaies of oittamiiA
gradations^ productQg various orders of conpoBK
perceptions ; fo all thcfe feveral onders are r^^M
and fuccefiively formed by annexing in every 6ep^
fpecific diSerence to the neareft genus. AVhni^
this method of procedure we are oome to tke lottt
order of afl, by joining the fpeciea and nnmeiK &
ference, we frame the ideas of individuals. AjkI boc
the lieries necefiarily terminates* becaufe it k iof^
fible aay farther to bound or linsit our coaccptMtt
This view of the compofition of our idcas» reprdofr *
ing their conftituent parU in every ftep of tke p '

conception of curve-lined figures. F<Nr in this de- RrefiQon, naturally points out the titie and gcsoiBt

lorm of a definition. For as de&iutionB sataonm
than deicriptiona of the ideas for which the tenii^
fined fiand ; and as idcaa ane then dcfcribed, vte
we enumerate diftin6Uy aad in order the paiti o^
which tfaeyconM; it is pbui^ that by makingour^*

fcending fcale of oar iieas* figuse in general^ plain
figures^ curve4ined figures, the two firft are confider-
cd as genera in refpe^ of the thini | and the fecond
in order, or that which ftands next to the third, ia

called the neareft gemu% But now as it is this iecond — -^ , ir— -» ,

idea, which, joined with the notion of curvity, forms finitions follow one another acoording to the nitoa
the ^ecies of curve-lined figures ^ it is plam, that the train of our conceptions, they will be fubjed to tiie
third or laft idea in the feries is made up of the near- fame rukaj and keep pace vith the ideas tkj ^
eft genus Sid fpecific difference. This role hokis in- fcribe.. ..*

variably, however far th& Denes is continued ; becauHeb X* As therefiare the firft onler of our ccmpov"^^'^
in a train of ideas thus fucceedis^ one another, all notions, or the ideas, that coallttute the higheft g^f .^
that precede the laft are confiderod as fo many genera ra in the different feales of perception, aie fons^^'*
in relpe^ of that laft ; and the laft itielf is always uniting together a certain nuasber of fimpk oodVfl'
formed by {uperadding the fpecific difference to the
genus next it. .

The idea of VIII. Here then we have an univerfal defcriptioo,

aay indivi- applicable to aU our ideas of whatever kjnd, fro^ the

4ual com- h^beft genus to the loveft species* For, taking them

2^ ^j. in order downwards from the &id general idea, they

fpccictsod <^>7 vhere conii^ of the ^mu ^wimum^ and d^

aMtoeric fereniia fpecifica^ as logiciana love to expiels theair with the term of the genus. For the SJ^?^^]"j.

diierence. fdves. But when we come to the lowtft fpeciea of been before defined, the term by which it is exp'
all, comprehending under it only individuals, the fa- ied ftands for a known idea^' and ntty ^^^''^^^
peradded idea, 'hj which thefe individuals are difttn*
gviiihed one from another^ no longer takes the name
of the i^cific difference. For hare k lervcs not to
denote dmin& fpecies, but oxoely a variety of indivi-

fo the terms expieffing thefe genera ake defied ^
emmuratittg the Jimfit natieet > cmmtimed. And as tk
fpecies com(prehended under any genas, or tbe coa*
]]lex ideas of the fecond order, arifc from fupeisdaBg
the fpecific di&reoce to the laid geaena ides; (!>^
definition of the names of the fpeeies is abfolvedf ^
detail of the ideas of the Tpedfrc difEetence, cot^

introduced into all fublicquent definitions, ia the aae
manner as the names of fimple peroeptrosa ^^^
now be fufficiently obvious, that the dcfioiuoi^ ^^
the fucceeding orders of compound notions will ^

duals, eadh of which, having a particular exiftence of where .confift of the term of the neareft gcBUS j

iu own; u therefore numerically different froiiL every wUb m cuiamtioo 9f t^ idc«9 tb»t ^^^'^L^

r^ LOGIC. ^97

fpecific Alkmiae ; ^nd «biB ihe deBoiliaa of i«4iti* ^ a fkfiakioa» ki aH t&e vmioun ordm of conception.

duak wtte9 the Mines of tkc low«ft ^let with tke This is that method of defining which is comstonly

tem3 hf which we txpfdk the ideas of the numeric c^d lo^kalf and whkh we iee is pcrfea in iu kin4

diffct«Rc«. snafmuch as it prefents a full and adequate defcription

XIi Here then wc hate the true and proper fon of the idea for which the term defined ftands.

PaetH. Of. judgment.

CRAt». I. Ofth Grounds tf Human Juigmnt. * And what is highly worthy of notice ; as the truth*

of this clafs cxprefs the relation between ottr ideas,

THE tnind beiag fumiAied wMl ideas, its next ftep and the fame relations muft ever and invariably fub*

tn the way to knowledge is, the comparing thefe M between the feme ideas, our deductions in the

ideas together, in order to judge* of their agitement way of fat nee conftitute what we call Htrnai^ ^cfffatry^

or difagreenent. In this joint view of our ideas, if and immutable triuts. If it be true that the whole 19

^7 the relation is fuch as to be immediately difcoverable equal to all its parts, it muft be io unchangeably $ be-

** l^y the hare in<^>e^ion of the mind, the judgments eitufe the relation of equality being attached to the

thence obtained are called intukive^ from a word that ideas themfelves, muft ever intervene where the fame

^denotes to hoi at; for in this cafe, a mere attention ideas are compared* Of this nature are all the truths

to the ideas compared fuffices to let us fee how far of natural religion, morality, and mathematics, and in

they are connefied ox disjoined. Tluis, that the Whoh general whatever may be gathered from the bare view

is greater than any of ks Barts^ is an intuitive judges and confideration of our ideas» 2 9

tnent ; nothing more being required to convince us IV. The fecond ground of human judgment is ex*- 2. Eiperr*

of its truth, than an attention to the ideas of vtAok ferience ; from which we infer the exiltence of thpfe ^^'^^9 ^^

mnd fart. . And thirtoo is thereafon why we call the fubjed^s that furround us, and fall imder the immediate JJ^°"j^^^J|^^

[ a£l of the mind forming thefe judgments mtuition ; notice of our fcnfes. Wien wc fee the fun, or eaft j^g^ ^f *

Sis it is indeed no more than an immediate percep* our eyes tovards a building, we not only have per* the powera

tion of the agreement or difagreement of any two ideas, ceptions of thefe obje^fts within ourfelves, but afcribe *?d ^^j^

ncc II, But here it is to be obferved, that our know- to them a real exiftence out of the mind. It is alf<5 jj*'

^~ kdge of this kind refpeCks only our ideas, and the re- by the information of the fenfes that we judge of the

Qf lations between them ; and therefore can ferve only qualities of bodies; as when we fay thaty«o«v umfhlte^

«• as a foundation to fuch reafonings as are employed in Jire hot, or JiteJ hard. For as we are wholly unac^

j« tnveftigating thofe ielations. Now it fo happens, quainted with the internal ftrudlure and coniiitution of

that many of our judgments are converfant about fads, the bodies that produce thefe fenfations in us, nay, and

' and the leal exiftence of things, which cannot be tra* are unable to trace any conne£Uon between that ftruc-

ced by the bare contemplation of our ideas. It does ture and the fenfations themfelves, it is evident, that

not follow, becaufe I have the idea of a circle in my we build our -judgments altogether upon obfervation,

mind» that therefore a figure anfwering to that idea afcribing to bodies fuch qualities as are anfwerable to

has a leal exiftence in nature. I can form to myfelf the perceptions they excite in us. Not that we ever

' the notion of a centaur or golden mountain, but never fuppofe the qualities of bodies to be things of the fame

imagine on that account that either of them rxifts. nature with our perceptions ; for there is nothing* in

' What then are the grounds of our judgment in rela*> fire fimilar to our fen»tion of heat, or in a fword fimi-

I tion to la^s ? experience and te/Hmonjf By experience fau' to pain : but that viiien different bodies excite in

we are informed of the exiftence of the feversl ob- our minds fimilar perceptions, we necefiarily afcribe

je6b which rfurround us, and operate upon our fenfes* to thefe bodies not only an exiftence independent of

TeiUmony is of a wider extent, and reaches not us, but likewife funilar qualities, of which it is the

01^ to obje6b beyond the prefent fphere of our ob^ nature to produce fimilar perceptions in the human

fervation, but alfo to fads and tranfa^ions, which be* mind. But this is not the only advantage derived

' hig now paft, and having no longer any exiftence, From experience ; for to that too are we indebted for

tould not without this conveyance have fallen under all our knowledge regarding the coexiftence of fen^

^ our cognizance. fible qualities in obje^, and the operations of bodies,

fotto* III. Here we have three foundations of human one upon another. Ivory, for inftance, is hard and

* ^^ judgment, ftom which the whole fyftem of our know- elaftic ; this we know ))y cxpcriencc» and indeed by

lent, r^^ "^y ^^^ ^^^ ^^ advantage be derived. Firft, that alone. For, being altogether fbrangcrs to the true

, In*, intuition, which refpefb our ideas themfelves, and nature both of elafticity and hardnefs, we cannot by
n, the their relations ; and is the foundation of that fpecies • the bate contemplation of our ideas determine how

jj ^^ of reafoning which we call demon/iration. For what* far the one neceffarily implies the other, or whether

^ ever is dedueed from our intuitive perceptions, by a there may not be a repugnance between them; But

' ckar and contte£^ed feries of proofs, is faid to be when we obferve them to exift both in the fame ob*^

demoaftrated, and produces ablohite certainty in the jed, we are then affured from experience that they

mind. Hence the knowledge obtained in this man* are not incompatible ; and when we aUb find, that t

ncr is what we propcriy ttm fiience; becaufe in evejry ftone is hard and not eiaftic, and that air though ela^

ftep of the procedure it carries its own evidence along ftic is not hard, we alfo conclude upon the fame foun*-

with itj and leaves no room for doubt or hefitation. dation) that the ide?;s are not necefiarily conjoined^

6 hut

198 LOGIC. 1

but may f xift fepantely in different oI^cAb. In like of an appeal to the fenfeai and tn this cafe teftiottr

manner with regard to the operations of bodies one is the true and only foundation of our judgcMnL

upon another, it is evident, that our knowledge this All human af^ions Qt whatever kindt when coofidacj

way is all derived from oblervation. Jqvaregia dif- as already paft, arc of the nature here drfcrilw

folves gold, as has been found by frequent trial, nor becaufe having now no longer any eaifteace, k:i

is there any other way of arriving at the difcovery. the fadls themfelv^s, and the circumilances attodnr

Naturalifts may tell us, if they pleafe, that tlie parts them, can.be known only from the relatioxtfofio

of aquaregla are of a texture apt to infinuate between as had fufficient opportunities of arriving at the tr^

the corpufcles of gold, and thereby loofen and (hake Tefiimony therefore is juiUy accounted a third gnM

them afunder. If this is a true account of the matter, of human judgment ;• and as from the other tvo 7*

it win notwithflanding be allowed, that our conje6iure have deduced Jcunitfical and natural knowledge, io n

in regard to the conformation of thefe bodies is de- may from this derive hiflorical i by nvhich we ocaa,

duced from the experiment, and not the experiment not merely a knowledge of the civil traniadioci cr'

from the conje6^ure. It was not from any previous ftates and kingdoms, but of all fa6l8 whatfoevcr, vkt

knowledge of the intimate ftrudlure of aquaregta and teilimony is the ultimate foundation of our bdicL
goliif and the aptncfs of their parts to a6l or to be a£t-

cd upon, that we came by the condufion above men- Chaf.II. Of Jffirmativi and Negative Prop4tvssi,
tioned. The internal conflitution of bodies is in a

manner whoHy unknown to us ; and could we even !• While the comparing of our ideas is confiikR!:!

furmount this difficulty, yet as the feparation of the merely as an a6l of the mind, aiTembling them t^'

parts of gold implies fomething like an a6iive force in ther, and joining or disjoining them according to ik j

the menjlruum^ and we are unable to conceive how it refult of its perceptions, we call ix, judgmzni i^mx^,^

comes to be poiTeiTed of this adivity, the effeiSk mufl our Judgments are put into words, they then bearu:

be owned to be altogether beyond our comprehenfion. name en propofiiiotu* A propofttion therefore is a b

But when repeated trials had once confirmed it, in- tence expreffing fome judgment of the mind, wbcTtk

fomuch that it was admitted as an eftablifhed truth two or more ideas are affirmed to agree or difagis.

in natural knowledge, it was then eafy for men to Now, as our judgments include at leall two ideas, c:<

.fpin out theories of their own invention, and con- of which is affirmed or denied of the other, iomii

.triv^ fuch a ftrufture of parts, both for goldzn^ aqutf propofition have terms anfwering to thefe ideas. T^

regia, as would heft ferve to explain the plienomenon idea of which we affirm or deny, and of coudet^i

upon the principles of that fyftem of philofophy they term expreffing that idea, is called the fu^ oftk

.had adopted. .. propofition. The idea affirmed or denied, as alfo ti-

V. From what has been faid it is evident, that as term anfwering it, is called the predicaU. Thui a
{ntuition is the foundation of what we call fclentificai the propofition, God u omnipotent : God is the fubjeSi
knowledge, fo is experience of natural. For this laft ft being of him that we affirm omnipotence ; anJ »
being wholly taken up with objetSts of fenfe, or thofe nipotent is the predicate, becaufe we affirm the tiA
bodies that conftitute the natural world ; and their exprefled by that word to belong to God.
.properties, as far as we can difcover them, being to II. But as, in propofitions, ideas are either join:: *.
be traced only by a long and painful feries of obferva- or disjoined ; it is not enough to have terms exprd-**
tions ; it is apparent, that, in order to improve this fing thofe ideas, uulefs we have alfo fome worIs u
branch of knowledge, we muft betake burfelves to denote their agreement or difagreement. That rja
the method of trial and experiment. in a propofition, which conneds.two ideas tog¥t&^>

VI. But though experience is what we may term is called the copula t and if a negative particle be j?
the immediate foundation of natural knowledge, yet nexed, we thereby underftand that the ideas are (i^*
with refpe£l to particular perfons its influence is very joined. The fuhjhntixe verb is commonly made uit
narrow and confined. The bodies that furround us of for the copula : as in tlie above-mentioned propyl-
are numerous, many of them lie at a great diilance, tion, G^d is omnipotent ; where is reprefeots tiie co-
and fome quite beyond our reach. Life is fo (hort, pula, and fignifies the agreement of the ideas of C»
and fo crowded with cares, that but little time is left for and omnipotence. But if we mean to feparate tyJ
any fingle man to employ himfclf in unfolding the my- ideas ; then, betides the fubftantive verb, we muftaiw
fteries of nature. Hence it is ncceflary to admit many ufe fome particle of negation, to exprefs this rcpuf
things upon the teftimony of others, which by this nance. The propofition, man is not perfeQ^ may Jf^c
means becomes the foundation of a great part of our as an example of this kind $ where the notion of /sir*
knowledge of body. No man doubts of the powtr fedion being removed from the idea oi man, thcK-
of aquaregia to diflblve gold, though perhaps he ne- gative particle not is inferted after the copula, to fig'
ver himfelf made the experiment. In thefe therefore nify the. difagreement between the fubjeft and prffi^
and fuch like cafes we judge of the fadls and opera- cate. ^
tions of nature upon the mere ground of teilimony. I J I. Every propofition neceifarily coniiUs of tnc»f \
However, as we can always have recourfc to expe- three parts : but then it is not alike ncc^^ ^^^ ^^-^^
rience where any doubt or fcruple arifes, this is juiUy be all feverally expreffed in words j becaufe thecop'iwpr
confidercd as the true foundation of natural philofo- is often included in the term of the predicate, as ^ra'"^
phy ; being indeed the ultimate fupport upon which we fay, he Jits ; which imports the fame as he hp^
our afTent refls, and whereto we appeal when the In the Latin language, a iinglc word has often tftc
highefl dugree of evidence is required. force of a whole fentence. Thus amhulat is thewf^

VII. But there are many facts that wiU not' allow as ille efi amlmknsi amo, as eg0 /um amaiu ; andio

4- iflDUIDf/ai'^ I

L O

innuxncrabk other ' inftancet : by 'which it appears^
that ive are not fo much to regard the number of words
in a fentenccy as the ideas they reprefent, and the hum*
ner in which they are put together. For wherever
two ideas are joined or disjoined in an expreflioiiy tho'
of but a (ingle word $ it is evident that we have a fub-
je£l, predicate, and copula^ and of confequence a com-
plete proportion. /
^ IV. When the mind joins two ideaS} we call it an
qffirmaihve judgment ; when it feparates them, a ne^
gatroe : and .as any two ideas compared together mufl
neceflarily either agrde or not agree, it is'evident that
all our judgments fall under thefe two divifions. Hence
likewife the propofitions expreillng tliefe judgments
are all either affirmative or negative. An affirmative
propofition conne6ls the predicate with the fubje^, as
Ajione is heavy ; a negative proportion feparates them,
as God is not the author ofroU. ^Affirmation therefore is
the fame as joining two ideas together, and this is done
by means of the copula. Negation on tlie^ contrary
marks a repugnance between the ideas compared ; in
which cafe a neg^ative particle muft be called in, to
fliow that the counefkion included in the co|>ula does
not take place,
c . V. Hence we fee the reafon of the rule commonly
laid down by logicians, That in all negative propofi-
tions the negation ought to a£Fe£l the copula. For as
the copii]a> when placed by itfclf, betweea the fuhjc£b
and the predicate, manifeflly binds them together ; it
is evident, that in order to render a propofition ne-
gative, the particles of negation mufl enter it in fuch
a manner as to deftroy this union. In a word, then
only are (wo ideas disjoined in a propofition, when tlie
negative particle may be fo referred to the copula, as
to break the affirmation included in it, and undo that
connexion it would otlien*'i£e eilablifh. When wc
iay, for inflauce, No man is perfeS ; take away the
negation, and the copulia of itfelf plainly unites the
ideas in the proportion. But as this is the very reverfe
of what is intended, a negative mark is added » to fhow
that this union does not here take place. The neg^*»
tion, therefore,, by deflroying the effecl of the copula,.
cluinges the very nature of the propofition, infomuch
thdt, inflead of binding two ideas togetiier, it denotes

199

ioXx^ tmiverfal ^m^. particular^ Our ideas, according to ^ }i
what has been ahtady obferved in the Firfl Part, arc °^^^* ^
all fmgular as they enter the mind, and reprcfent in- [-qq, j^'^^
dividual obje^s. But as by abflra6Uon we can i^ender univofal
them univerfal, fo as to comprehend a whole clafs of and partn
things, and fometimes feveral claffes at once ; hence ^***'*
the terms cxpreffing thefe ideas mufl be in like man-
ner univerfal. If therefore we fuppofe any general
term to become the fubje£l of a propofition, it is evi-
dent, that whatever is affirmed of the abflrad idea
belonging to tliat term^ may be affirmed of all the in-
dividuals to which that idea extends. Thus, when we
fay. Mm are mortal } we confider mortality, not as-
confined to one or any number of particular men, hot
as what may be affirmed without reflridlion of the
whole fpecies. By this means the propofition becomes
as general as the idea which makes the fubje6l of it;,
and indeed derives its univerfaUty entirely from that
idea, being more or lefs fo according as this may be
extended to more or fewer individuals. But it is fur-
ther to be obferved of thefe general terms, that they
fometimes enter a propofition in their full latitude, as in.
the example given above ; and fometimes appear with,
a mark of limitation. In this lafl cafe we are given to
underlland, that the predicate agrees not to the whole
univerfal idea, but only to a part of it ; as in the pro-
pofition, Some men are wife : For here wifdom is not
affirmed of every particuw man, but refb-ained to a
few of the humap fpeciea ( b ). z^

II. Now from this different appearance of the gc-^^Tofi-
neral idea that conftitutes the fubjed of any judge- "crfalwhcre-
ment, arifes the divifion of propofitions into univerfal xht i\xV\&€t
and particular* An univerfal propofition is that where-, is fo, with,
in the fubje£l is fome general term taken in its full la- **"' * "?*^*^
titude ; infomuch that the predicate agrees to aU the ^f^J^*^
individuals comprehended under it,, if it denotes a
proper fpecies ; and to all the feveral fpecies, and
their individuals, if it marks an idea of a. higher order.
The words all^ everyy no, none, &c. are the proper
figns of this univerfality ; and as. they feldom fail ta
accompany general truths, fo they are the rcofl obvi-
ous-criterion whereby to diflinguifh them. Ail ani"
mals have a poiver of beginning motion. This is aa

univerfal propofition ; as we know from the word all
tlicir feparation. On tlie conU-ary, in this fentence,^ prefixed" to the fu5Je6l animals^ which denotes that it
lu man who departs not from an upright behaviour is A<- mufl be taken in its full extent. Hence, the power oC
loTcd of Gody the predicate ^<'A>a;f^ o/" GW is evidently beginning motion may be affirmed of all the feveral.
affirmed of the fubjedl an upright man ; fo that, not- fpecies of animals.

withflanding the. negative particle, the propofition ia IH. A particular propofition. has in like manner Pi^pou-
flill affinhative. The reafon is plain : the negation fome general term for its fubjed; but with a mark of tiotis parti*,
here affedls not the copula ; but, making properly a limitation added,- to. denote,, that the predicate agreea^^^^''^^^^
part of the fubjeA, fervts, with other terms in the fenr only to fome of the. individuals comprehended under a\^cHuXb-

fpecies, or \o one or more of ihe, fpecies belonging ta jed appear»^ ^
any genuSy and not to the whole univerfal idea. Thus,^ witha marltc ^
Someflones are heavier than iron ; Some men have an un' °/ 'V^tuta^
common Jbare of prudence^ In the lad of thefe propo-s '*°^*
fitions, the iy^\%Qifomc men implies only a certain num«

ber

teuce, to form one complex idea, of which the predi-
cate Ar/9tv^ of God 18 diredUy affirmed* .

Chap.III. Of Univerfaland Particular Propofitions.
L The. next confiderablc divifion of propofitions ia

(b) See the preceding note, where it is denr^nflrated that the /mwi alone, and not th« ideasi are in realit^ft
ggnercd. The. term man is equally applicable to every individual of the human raee 5 and therefore, what is afr
firmed or denied of m^ in generali is affirmed or denied of all the individuals, without regard to their difcrimi;
aatlng qualities. Some is a definitive word (fee Grammar), which, prefixed to the word m^, limits tht--
fignification. pf that general term ; and therefore what, is affinne4 of fime. nm, . is . affirmed only of^art q£ thr*
tuxt, but that part itfelf ia not afcertained..

200 L O

hit of ixK)ivi<)ua)t, comprek^ded omkr a fingk

In the fonneri where the fubjeA is a gentu that ei

tends to a great variety of diftin^ clafTes, fame fimet

may not only imply any number of parficiSar ftooesy

bttt aKb fevcral whole fpeciea of f^ones, inafmuch at

there may be not a few with the property there de-

fcnbed. Hence we fee, that a prop<^tion does n«C

ceafe to be particular by the predicate's agreeing to a

whole fpeciesy unlefs that fpecies» fingly and diftind-

ly confideredy makes alfo the fubje6b of ^ich we af-

38 firm or deny«

Singular IV. There is ftill One fpecies of propofkioiw that

F'^^.fi"^,-"» remains to be defcrlbed, and which the m«re deferves

under the ^^^ notice, as tt IS not yet«g^ed among logicians to

head of which of the two daffes mentioned above they ought

particulars, to be referred ; uzm^YfyJingular propofitions, 01 thofe

where the fubje^ is an individual. Of this nature are

ore

TteMiblidfliy, »yell<iwotfa^, aadjmt iic^. «,
coafidered as cffential quaKtict of gold ; but iMq
it (hall oak aa as uaiferm coojotacd iiai£8» is notaiit
necefiary* We fee Chat by a proper taeaftnmt
may be redvced to a ^t ^owder^ and that aa iitod
heat wiH bring it tato a ftate of fiifion.

IL From thia diverfity ia the feverat qaadidcs ef-^
things arifes a confiderable difference as to die nu.'
ner of oor judging about thenu For aU fuck pfoper'^
ties as are in^parable from objoAa when confidcsia
as belooging to any gtona or fpecies, are affiiiiK(iib>.ii
folutely and without referve of that gcoenl ids.
Thus we iay^ Goid it very weighty | jljone is Uri;
Ammah have a power of Jeif-trnticm, But in thecafc
of mutual or accideatal quautiet, at they depend op>
on fome other confideratioa diftin^ from the gcoenl
idea ; that alfo muft be taken into the accoant, io or-

the following : Sir Ifaac Newton was the inventor of der to form an accurate judgment. Should we afEn,

for inftance, of fome ftones, that they are very iGi.
ceptible of a roUing motion ; the proportion, Mt t
remains in this general form, cannot with any adnt
tage be introduced into our reafonings. An iptsef;
to receive that mode of motion flows from the figm
of the ftone ; which* as it may vary inlinitdyi ot

Jhtxione ; This hook eontaHhs many vfefui truths. What
<>ccafions fome difficulty as to the^proper rank of thefe
pTopoAtions is, that, the fubje6^ being taken according
to the whole of its extenfton, they fometimes have
the fame cfk6t in reafening as univerfals* But if it
be confidered that they are ill truth the moft limited

kind of particular propoiitions* atid that no proportion judgment then only becomes applicable and ^eta&

can with any propriety be called univerfal but where nate, when the particular figure, of which volubility 11

the fubje£l is fome univerfsd ideal we (haU nat be aconfcquence, is alfo taken into the account. La a

long in determining to which clafs they ought to be then bring in this otlftr confiderationy and the pnpo-

referred. When we fay. Some hoots contain ufeftd iition will ran as follows : Stones of affheficdj^rf^m

truths^ the propofition is particular, becaufe the ge- eafily fut into a rolRng motion. Here we fee the cooditioi

Dcral term appears with a mark of reftridiioa. If upon which the predicate is affirmed^ and theieJiBrt

therefore we fay, This hook contains nftful truths ; it know iti what particular cafes the propofition mj U

is evident that the propofition muft be ftill more par* applied. >

ticular, as the limitation implied in the word this is of III. Thisconfiderationof propofitionsrefpedio^tix^H

a more confined nature than in the formet cafe. . manner in which the predicate is affirmed of the fi^f^

V. We fee, therefore, that all propofitions are either j«A gives, rife to the divifiou of them into aifk'^

fold divi- qfftrmative Or negative ; nor is it lefs evident, that in and conditiona!, Ahfolute propofitions are thofc sim- cj

pofidoiffc*^ both cafes they may be unxverfalw partienlar. Hence in we affirm fome property infeparable from the idef^

arifes that celebrated fourfold divifion of them into .of the fubjedt, and which therefore ^loags to A ia.j

univerfal affirmative and univerfal negattvCf particular aU poffible cafes 1 v^ God is infinitely wife ; Fuiut^

affirmative and particular negative^ which comprehends to the uksmate hefpmefsofman. But where theprvdicaic

indeed all their varieties. The ufe of this mtethod of ii not neceflarily conne^ed with the idea of the fub-

diflinguifhing them will appear more fully af^rwards, jc^, unlefs ut>on fome confideration diflind from tbt

'' *• • ^trtt -r idea, there the propofition is called fon^^tf"^* ^

59
The f<»ur-

when we come to treat of reafoning atid fyOogifm^
Chap. IV. OfJtfoluteandConditionalPrdpofitions.

reafon of the name is taken from the fuppofitici
annexed, which is of the nature of a condition, and mxf
be expreifed as fuch, thus i If afione is expejcdu^
rays of thefmn^ it will contraB fome degree of heot\ If*
river runs in a very declining channel, its rapidity wS(»

Diftio&ion I. The obje6^s about which we ai«e chiefly confer*

r* ^"effcnT ^'^'^ ^ '^** ^^''^^» are all of a nature liable to change.

tJal and ac- ^^^^ ^^J ^^ affirmed of them at one time, cannot /hntly incf^eq/i.

cTdentai. often at another ; and if makes no fmall part of our IV. There is not any thing of greater Im^or^^

knowledge to diftinguifh rightly thefe variations, and in philofophy than a due attention to this diviriOD«<|^

trace the reafons upon which they depend. " For it h propofitions. If we are careful never to affinn thiap.^'

obfervable, that amidft all the vidffitude of nature, abfolutely but where the ideas are infepasably ^'nsit

fome things remain conftant and mvariable ; nor even joined ; and if in our other judgments we S^^^n

are the changes, to which we fee others liable, effed* mark the conditions which determine the f^jj^^ |^^

ed but in confequence of uniform and flcady laws,
which, when known, are fufficient to direct us in out
judgments about them. Hence philofophers, in di<-
ilinguiihing the objedb of our perception into various
daifes, have been very tarefid to note, that feme
properties belong eflentiafly to the general idea, fo as
not to be feparable from it but by deflroying its very
nature ; while others are only accideatal, and may be
affirmed or denied of it in dSficrent circwnftaaccs.

belong to the fubjea ; we AiaU be the lefs liable to
miftake in applying general truths to the particular coo-
cems of human life. It is owing to the cxa^ ^^^'
vance of this rule that mathematicians have been fo hap'
py in their difcoveries, and that what they dcmonwa^J
of magnitude in general may be applied with cafe ^ *''
obvious occurrences.

V. The truth of it is, particular propofitlooi vtt
than knows tabe true, when wc can trace ^^^^

: IK L G G I C.

nedion With univcrfela; and It is accordingly the great fim degree, of heta. Here wc have but one fiibje^
cdu- |^uf^Q(.fs of fcience to find out general trutha that may and one predicate ; for the complex expre/fion^ A
'"^ be applied with fafety in all obvious inftances* Now Jlone expofed to the rays of the fun^ conftitutes the pro-
the great advantage arifing from- determining with per fubje^ of this propofidon, and is no more than
care the conditions upon which one idea may be af-
firmed or denied of another is this : that thereby par-
ticular propofitions really become univerfal, may be
introduced with certainty into our reafoningSy and
fervc as ftandards to condu6k and regulate ourjudgc-

201

jar-
's to

one determined idea* The fame thing happens in
caufals* Reboboam was unhappy hecaufe he followed evil
counjei. There is here an appearance of two propo-
fitions arfing from the complexity of the expreifion jf
but when we come to confider the matter more near«

ments. To illuftrate this by a fiimiliar inftance: if ly» it is evident that we Rkve but a fingle fubjed and

predicate* T'he purftsit of evil comifel brought mtftry upon
Reboboam. It is not enough, therefore, to render a pro-
pofition compound, that the fubje£k and predicate are
complex notion8> requiring fometimes a whole fentence
to exprefs them : for in this cafe the comparifon is iltU
confined to two ideas, and conftitutes what we call a
fimj)Ie judgment. But where there are feveral fubjeds
or pf^dicates, or both, as the affirmation or negation
may be a!tke extended to them all, the propofition ex-
prt-ffing fudi a'judgment is truly a colle£Uon of as ma-
ny fimple ones as there are different ideas compared.
Confining onrfelves therefore to this more ftri^ and
juft notion of compound propofitions, they are all re-
ducible to two* kinds, viz. copulatives and di^unc*

' III. A copulative propofition is, where the fubjeds Compound
and predicates are fo linked together^ that they may propofiti-
be aU fcverally affirmed or denied one of another. Of '»"»» either
this nature are the examples of compound propofitions ^''P'*^'**

ive fay. Some water ads very forcibly s the propofi-
tion is particular: and as the conditions on which
this forcible adion depends are not mentioned, it is
as yet uncertain in what cafes it may be applied. Let
us then fupply tliefe conditions, and the propofition
will nm thus: IVater conveyed in fujfiaent quantity
along a fleep defceni aSs very forcibly. Were we have
an univerfal judgment, inafmuch as the predicate for^
cible' affion may be afcribed to all water under the
circumftances mentioned. Nor is it lefs evident that
the propofition in this new form is of eafy applica-
tion ; and in faft we find that men do apply it m in-
flances where th«f forcible adion of water is required ;
as in corn-mills and many other works of art.

C H A p . V. Of Simple and Compound Propofif ions,

Son of I. Hitherto we have treated of propofitions,
'^Jifi- where only two ideas are compared together. Thefe
V"**d ^^^ ^'" ^^^ general cdiWed Jimple ; becaufe, having but

pound. ^"^ fubje£k and one predicate, they are the effed of given above. Riches and honours are apt to elate the
* a fimple judgment that admits of no fubdivifion. But m/W, and increafe the number of our defires. Neither kittgs

if it fo happens that feveral ideas offer themfelves to

our thoughts at once, whereby we are led to affirm
t the fame thing of different obje^s, oi different things

of the fame objeft ; the propofitions expreffing thefe

judgments are called compound : becaufe they may be re-

folved into as many others as there are fubje6ts or pre-
dicates in the whole complex determination on the mind.

Thus, God is injlnitcly wife and infinitely powerful.

Here there are tM'o pfedicates, infinite wtfdom and

ittfiiiite power^ both affirmed of the fame fubje^ ; and

accordingly the propofition may be refolved into two

others, affirming thefe «predi cat es feverally. In like

mar-rfier in the propofition. Neither kings nor people are
' exempt fr cm death; the predicate is denied of Doth fub-

je6ls, and may therefore be feparated from them in di-

ilindt propofitions. Nor is it lefs evident, that if a-com-

plex judgment confifls of feveral fubjeds and predicates,

it may be refolved into as many fimple propofitions as

are the number of different ideas compared together.

Riches and honours are apt to elate the mind^ and in*

creafe the number of our deftres. In this judgment there

are two fubje6ls and two predicates, and it is at the

fame time apparent that it may be refolved into four

diilin6l propofitiofis. Riches are apt to elate the mind.

Riches are apt to increcfe the- number of our defires. And farily takes pface. Thus, in the example given a-

fo of honours. bove % if we allow 'the world to be the work of fome

he proper ^^' ^^^<^i^^* have divided thefe compound propo- ^nfe and powerful eanfe, we of courfe deny it to be
>cion of a fitions into a great many different claffes ; but, in our felf-exiftent ; or if we iieny it to be felf-exiftent, we
mpound opiniosi, not with a diie regard to their proper defi- mufl neceffarHy admit that it wad produced by fome
;opofiti<m nition. Thtu condiiionals^ caufals^ relatives^ &c. are wife and powerful caufe. Now this particular man-
ccruined. „ientioned as fo many diflia6t fpecies of this kindj ner of linking the predicates together, fo that the

though in fa6^ they ane no more than fimple propo- eflablifhing one difplaces all the reft ; or the ex-

fitions. To give an inlbnce of a conditional \ If a eluding all but one neceffarilf cfiablifhes that one ;

Jlone is extofed to thg rays of the fun, it wiU ^otttraS cannot oihcrwife be ef&ded than by means of 4/-
Vol. X. Part I. , C c jun^vf

nor peopk are exempt from death. In the firfl of thefe
the two predicates may be affirmed feverally of each
fubje6l, whence we have four diflinfi propofitions.
The other furniflies an example of the negative kind«
where the fame predicate, being disjoined from both
fubjed^s, may be alfo denied of them in feparatc pro-
portions.

IV. The other fpecies of compound propofitions arc ^^ j^'u-k.
thofe called disjunctives; in which, comparing feveral (ly^/^'
predicates with the fame fubjedl ; we affirm that one
of them neceffarily belongs to it, but leave the parti-
cular predicate undetermined* If any one, for ex-
ample, fays, This world eiilfcrexi/is ofitfelf of u the work
offome all'wife and powerful caufe, it is evident that one
of the two predicates mufl belong to the world ; . but
as the propofition determines not v^ich, it is therefore
of the kimi we call tBsjunSive. Such too are the fol-
lowing : The fun either moves round the, earth, or is the
centre about which the earth revolves. Friend/hip Jindi
men equals or makes themfo. It is the nature of all pro-
pofitions of this claia, fuppofing them to be exad ia
point 'of form, thstt upon determining the particular
predicate, the refl are of courfe to be removed ; or if
all the predicates but one are remdved, that one necef-

202

LOG

jtitMve particles. And benec it i« that propofitione
of this dafs take dieir names from Uicfc particles
which make fo Dcccflary a part b£ them^ and indeed
conftitute their very nature confidercd as a diftin^
fpccies.

Cha? VI. Of the Divifion of Propofitions into Self-
fvidcnt and Dtmonftrablg.

Proporiti. ^* ^^^^ *°y propofition is offered to the view of
ons divided the mind> if the terms id^hich it is expreffed be
into fclf- underftood ; upon comparing the ideas together, the
5I!f 1" A*r** agreement or difagreement aiTcrted is either immedi-
"""* "" mxAj perceived, or found to lie beyond the prefent
reach of the underftanding. In the firft cafe the pro-

dcmooftra

I a pi3

fider the proofs open which they are eftaUUbed* &aot
the mathematicians are univeriaUj allowed to have hk
upon the fight m^hod of arriving at unknown truths^
fince they liavc been the happiell la the cfaosce as weS as
the appbcation of their principles^ it may not be ami^
to explain here their«method of ftating fdf-evident pn>-
pofitions, and applying them to the purpofea of demon-
ft ration.

IV. Firfl the* it is to be dbferved, that tbey harr Se^
been very careful in afcertaining their ideas, aod fix-f "=
ing the fignfication of their terms. Por this purpoiie ^^',
they begin with definthom^ in whidi the meaning of^r
their words is fo diftin£Uy explained, that they caa-^
not fail to excite in the mind of an attentive reader ^^

pofition is faid to be Jtlf*rmdent^ and admits not of the very fame ideas as are annexed to them by the
any proof, becaufe a bare attention to the ideas them- writer. And indeed the clearnefs and irrefiftiblc cwi-
felves produces fidl convi^Siion and certainty ; nor is dence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothiag
it poffible to call in any thing more evident by way of fo much as this care in laying the foundation. \%1]cir
confirmation. But where the conneffcion or repug- the relation between any two ideas is accttratelj and
nance comes not fo readily under the infpe^tion of the juftly traced, it vnll not be difficult for another to
mind, there we mufl have recourfe to reafoning ; prebend that relation, if ia fetting himfclf to ciiico
and if by a clear feries of proofs we can make out the
truth propofed, infomuch that felf-evidence ihall ac-
company every ilep of the procedare, we are then
able to demonftrate what we affert, and the propofi-
tion itfelf is faid to be demonftrable. When we affirm,
for infbmce, that it is impoffihle for the fame thmg to he
and not to he; whoever iinderfUnds the terms made
ufe of perceives at firft glance the truth of what is af-
* ferted, nor can he by any efforts bring himfdf to be-
lieve the contrary* The propofiticn therefore v^felf-
evident^ and fuch that it is impoffioble by reafoning to
make it plainer ;* becaufe there is no truth more oh*
vious or better known, from which in a confequence
it may be deduced. But if we fay. This world had a
btginrung; the affertion is indeed equally true, but
fhines not forth with the fame degree of evidence.
We find great difficulty in conceiving how the world
could be made out of nothing : and are not brought
to a free and full confent, until by reafoning we ar«
rive at a clear view of the abfurdity involved in the
contrary fuppoiition. Hence this proportion is of the
kind we call demonflrahle^ inafmuch as its truth is not
immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be
made appear by means of others more known and
obvious, whence }X follows as an unavoidable confe-

Se)f.«vi-

piincale^
•fre^CM-
ing

it he brings the very fame ideas into compariion. B:it
if, on the contrary, he affixes to \m words ideas de-
ferent from thole that were in the mind of htm wha
firft advanced the demonftration ; it is evident, that as
the fame ideas are not compared, the fame relation can-
not fubfift, infomuch that a propofition will be rejedcd
as fal c, which, had the terms been rightly uuderftocd,
muft have appeared inconteftably true. A fquare, fur
infUnce, is a figure bounded by four equal right Imo,
joined together at right angles. Here the nature of the
angles makes no lefs a part of the idea than the equa-
lity of the fides ; and many properties demoollraud
of the fquare flow entirely from its being a re^iangular
figure. If therefore we fuppofe a man, who ha^ form-
ed a partial notion of a fquare, comprehendixig only
the equality of its fides, without reganl to the angles,
reading fome demonftration that implies alfo this latter
confideration ; it is plain he would reje^ it as not uni-
verfally true, inafmuch as it could not be appdicd
where the fides were joined together at equal angles.
For this laft figure, anfwcring ftill to hU idea of a
fquare, ^would be yet foundi without Jthe property
affigned to it in the propofition. But if he comes af-
terwards to corrreA his notion, and render his idea
complete, he vrill then readily own the truth and juft-
nefs of the demonftration.

V. We fee, therefore, that nothing contributes ioybsA
much to the improvement and certainty of. humao°^'
knowledge, as the having determinate ideas, and^^
keeping them fteady and invariable in all our dif-p,«3i

quence.

II. From what has been faid, it appears, that reafon-
ing is employed only about demonftrable propofitions,
and that our intuitive and felf-evident perceptions are
the ultimate foundation on which it r^fts.

III. Self-evident propofitions furaifh the firft prin- coiirfca and ftafonings about them. And on this ao-ra^i
denrtraihs cipks of reafoning; and it is certain, that if in oar count it is, that mathematicians^ aa was before ohfarved,^^
tkefira refearches we employ only fuch principles as have alwap begin by defining their terms, and diftindlyun-^'^y

this chara6ier of felf-evidence, and apply them accord- folding the notions they, are intended to cxpreis.«i^
ing to the rules to be afterwards explained, we fhall Hence inch at apply theiftfelvet to thefe lludies have
be in no danger of error in advancing from one dif-
covery to another. For this we may appeal to the
writings of the mathematicians, which being conduct-
ed by the exprefs. model here mentioned, are an incon-
tcflable proof of the firmnefs and ftability of human
knowledge, when butit upon fb fure a fpundation. For
not only have the propofitions of this fcience ftood the
left of ages ; but are found attended with that inviaci-

cxadly the fiime views of things j and* bringing al-
wap the very fame ideas into oompaiifon^ readily dif-
cem the rcbtiona between them. It is likewife of
importance, in every demonftration, to exprefa the fame
idea invanably by Jthc fame word. From this pradice
ma&ematicians never deviate f and if it be neccffiuy in.
their demonfbatibns, where the reader's comprehenfioa*
is aided by a diogram, it is much more fo in aO reafon-^

bk eviditncrj aa forces the affent of all who duly con- ings abo«t moial or inteVe&ual truths where the lAt^^t^

caaaot

PartU. ; L O G I C. aoj

CUOM be itpre&fltcd by aditgradu The ob{ervatl0ii kind, eM i* treated at (iidi \sf |eonc€rIdd ihrilerit.

of tbia fide may fiimctimes be produdive of iOJound' Thua» A? ^^haeir a figit &m /ram autptiad i» a m i ht -p ii

iog periods i but wbea trwA it tke cbf&Bt^/btuJ ought aflanied bpr Cudid U a pofttdate, becanie tke maaner

to be drffttfed* of doi^g it ia (o obriooa, aa to fefoire no Pie»id ii e

ThecL* ^'* ^'^^ ^ matbcmatiCiaDa have taken diii flrft tcadung. But then k ia net aqnaDy endcnt, how UNi

Vl^ih-m g iif iep« and made known the ideaa whgfe lehtioaa tiber ait to eonftroft «i eqoaatcnl triangle. Fortfaii

prfaici^ intend to' inveftigatef their deiteateiii to hnr down ion lie ndvaneca it aa a den^nftnUe prapofition» tefO

e^ uf^"*^ ''^ fdf-erident trotbf wfateh may fiorve as a toundn- down rules for the esaft perfennanee^ and at the iano

vfij^Sfr tion far their ^nre vcafomngs* And here indeed tine protes, that if thefe ndes ate fisUowed* the %ne

kaowJedgc. they proeeed with remarkable circtttnfpeAiOOff admit* wiH be juftly defcribed. . ' ^

tinff no principks but what flow immediatdy from JX* This leads us to take notice, that as le]£«ridentAn4 de-

thetr definitions, and neceffarily force themfelves upon truths are diftinguiflied into different kinds, according moflftnft)a

a mind in any degree attentive to iu ideas. Tlius a as they are Q^ecubitive or practical } fo is it atfo with I^l!^ti*

eircle is a figure formed by a riffht line moving round dempnftrable^ propofitioos. A demooftimble 4ecula-2£|^J|^J[^

ipme fixed point in the fialme puine. The fixed point tiv^ piopofition is by mathematicians called a tAeonm. aadpro*

round which the line is fuppofed to move, and where Such is the fiuqous 47th propofition of the firft book bknu.

one of its extremities terminates, is called the centre of of the elements, known by the name of the Fythag^

the circle. The other extremity, which is conceiyed rie tbeonmf from its fiippo£ed inventor Pythagoras,

to be carried round until it returns to the point whence viz. *^ that in every right«n^kd triangle, the Iquare

it firft fet out, defcribes a curve running into itlelf, and delbribed upon the fiik fubtendin^ tl^ right«angle is

termed the circumference. All right Imes drawn from equal to both the fquaies defcnbed upon the fides

the centre to the circumference are called roifi^ From containing the rightpan^." On the other hand, t

thefe definitions compared, geometricians derive this demonftrable praAical propofition is odled a prMem /

ielf-«vident truth ; that tbt ridu afihefami turck are ail wt where fiudid teaches us to defcribe a fquare upon a

- eqttal to me another. given ri^t-line. ^l

Prof»fici- ^ VII. We now obferve, that in all propofitions we X. It may not be amifs to add, that, befides the CorolLiridl

ons ^vided either affirm or deny feme property of the idea that four kinds of propofitions already mentioned, mathe* ^re obvious

iDtofpectt-^conf^tut^ the fubjed of oUr judgment, or wemamtain maticians *have alfo a fifth, known by the name of ^u^m

r^^^ that fomething may be done or effeaed. The firft fott eoroUarui^ Thefe are nfually fid>joined to theorems or [^^"^

are called Jftculatvce propofitions, as in tbq example problems, and diner from them only in this ; that they proUeouv

mentioned above, the raM of the fame ctrck are ail flow from what is there demonftratcd in fo obvious a

equal one to another. The others are called /ro^iM/, for manner as to difcover their dependence upon the pro^ ^

a reafon too ojmous to be mentioned r thus, that a r^ht pofition whence they are deduced, ahnou as ibon aa

line may he drawn from omf foint to another is a praAical propofed. Thus Euclid having demq^iftntedt ** that

propofition ; inaimuch as it exprefles that fomething m every rig^t-lined triangle all the thiee angles taken

may be done. together are equal to two right4mgles;'' adds by way of

Hence^ma- VIII. From this twofold confiderationof propofiticms corollary, *^ that all the thrM angln of any one triangle

thcmatical erifes the twofold divifion of mathematical principles taken together vte equal to all the three angles of any

principles into axioms and poftulates. By an axiom they un« other triangle taken together :" which is evident at

dtitiogiiilh* derfbnd any (idf«cvident fpeculative truth $ as, That the firft fight ; becaufe in all cafes they axe equal to two

onftTandKH ^^^^^ h greater than its farts / That thmgi equal t0 one right ones, and things equal to one and the fame thing

fttih tfT r tmd the fame thing are equal to one another. But a felf* are equal to one another. ^g

erident pra6Ucal propofition is what they call a pofiu^ XI. The icholia of mathematicians are indifibently Scholia

late. Such are thofe of Eudid | that a finite right Sm annexed to definitions, propofitions, or corollaries 9 f^^e the

may hy continued Jire8iy fonweirds ; thai a circle may he and anfwer the fame puipofes as aimotations upon a V^^^V^f ^

defcrOedahout any centre with any d^ance. And here we daflk author. For in them occafion is taken to explain or^j^coji^

are. to obferve, that as in an axiom the agreement whatever may appear intricate and obfcurc in a train of ment,

or difagreemeent between the (ubje^ and predicate reafoning; to anfwer objeftions; to teach the applica*

muft come under the immediate infpe^ion of the tionandidfesof propofitiont; to lay open the original

mind ; fo in a pofiulate, not only the poflibility of and hiftory of the fevexal diCooveries made in the fci*

the thing aflerted muft be evident at &rft view, but ence ; and, in a word, to acquaint us with al fuch par»

alfo the manner in which it may be effeded« For ticuiars as deferve to be knowi^ whether confidered as

where this manner is not of itfelf apparent, the pro* points of curiofity or profit,
pofition comes under the notion of the demonftrable

•Part HI. Of REASONIN G.

whtch ii eonjtfis. equaUty, it is phin, that by bardy confidering the fi: ^c^ t^

IT often happens in comparing ideas together, that gures themfelves, we cannot arrive at an cxaft deter- meini of

^ their agreement or dtfiimement dumot be diifcem- mination ; becaufe, by reafgn of their difiigreeing forms^ ^^'^^L^.

ed at firft vliew, efpedalhr if dbey are of fuch a nature as it is impoffibk fo to put them tcfgether, as that their ie.*"^^ ^^^^

Aot to admit of an exaft appiication one to mother* • mnal parts (hall mutually comcidc. Here then it be*

C c a comes

^•4

6o
Thttnuifk
ner

u«th ter>
ued rea-
fonJDg,

I a R

wherever there m thi4 ability of diftingaiflua^ good
fix>m bad a^onsy and of purfuing the one and a-roif-
Ing the other* there alfo a creatore is acGountafale. Wf
have then got a third idea, with whi<^ accomtd^^
neft is infeparabty connededy viz. reafon €uui iiierty i
which are here to be confldered as making up o:^
comjJcx conception. Let ns now take this middle
idea, and compare it with the other tenn in the qae«
ftion, viz. num^ and we all know by experience that ir

LOG

comes neceflaiT to look oat for fome third idea that
will adnit of fuob an apph'cation as the jprefent cafe re*
quires ; wherein if we uuxeed^ aH difficulties vani(h«
amd the rdation we are inrqueft of may be traced with
eale. Thus nght-Koed figures are sdl reduced to
iquaresy hj means of which we can meafure their areas,
and deUrmine cxaifUy their agreement or diiagreement
in point of magnitude.

, II. But how can any third idea ferve to difcover a

oerAfAri- relation between two others? The anfwer is. By be- .may be affirmed of him. Having thus by mears of
"■-ifftt ||]g compared feverally with thefe others ; for fuch a the intermediate idea formed two feveral yuigme:AM,
^ ^'^ ' comparifon enables us to fiee how far the ideas with viz. that man is pojfejfed of rtafon and tHerfy; aisd th^
which this third is compared are conne^^ed or disjoin- reafon and Bhtrty hnpiy accovniMenefr ; a third o&vi-
ed between themfelves. In the example mentioned oufly and neceflarily follows^ viz. Mo/ jiuifr is accomsia^
above of two right-lined fig^ures» if we compare each of for bU affioni. Here then we have a complete id
.them with fome fquare whofe ar^a is known, and find of reafoning, in which, according to what has beet
the one ezadUy equal to it, and the other Icfs by a already obferved, there are three diftinCt judgznests;
(quare inch, we immediately conclude that the area of two that may be ftyled previous, inafnuich as thej \ed
^thefirfi figure is -a fquare inch greater than that of the to th^ other, and arife from comparing the n»ci&
fecond. This manner of determining the relation be-
tween any t¥w ideas, by the intervention of fome
third with which they may be compared, is that which
we call nafonmg ; and is indeed the chief inftrumeilt

idea with the two ideas in the queftion r the third is i
confequence of thefe previous a^, and flows ins
combining the extreme ideas between themfdves. If
now we put this reafoning into words, it exhibits wka

by which we pnfli on our difcoveries, and enlarge our logicians term a fyllogifm ; and, when propofed in dze
knowledge. The great art lies in finding out fuch in- form, runs thus :

The pirtf

termediate ideas> as, vdien compared with the others in
the question, will fumifh Evident and known truths ;
becaufe, as will afterwards appear, it is only by meansof
them that we arrive at the knowledge of what is hid-
den and remote.

III. Hence it appears, that every ad of reafoning

th'a^conili- >^cc^^^y ' i"cl"<^^^ three diftindi judgments ; two

tate an %St wherein the ideas whofe relation we want to difcover

•r reafon- -^^ feverally .compared with, the middle idea, and a

fy&o^im ^^^ wherein they arc themfelves conne6ied or disjoin-

^^ * ed, according to the refult of that comparifon. Now,

^ in the fecond part of logit: oiu* judgments, when put

into words, were called propoiitions, fo here in the

third part the expreffions of our reafonings are termed

^ Every creature pofTefled of reafon and liberty u k-
countable for his a6iioni>.

** Man is a creature pofTefled of reafon and libertr:
Therefore man is accountable for his a^Uons."

V. In this fyllogifm we may obferve, that there at p.
three feveral propoiitions expreffing the three jndgt-
ments implied in the ad of readToning ; and fo di^w^^
as to reprefent diflindly what pafles within the mind b^.
tracing the more diftant relations of its ideas. Tlie tm
firft propofitions anfwer the two previous judgme^
in reafoning, and are called the prcrtii/ts, becaufe ther
are placed before the other. TTie third is termed tk
conc/nfion, as being gained in confequence of what va»
aflertcd in the premifes. We are alfo to remember,

fyi^ogifrnt^ And hence it follows, thlt as every aA of that the terms expreffing the two ideas whofe rd»-

reafoning implies three feveral judgnients, fo every fyl-
logifm muft include three diflindl propofitions. When
a rea£bning is thus put into words, aod appears in form
of a fyllogifm, the intermediate idea made ufe of, to
difcover the agreement or difag^eement we fearch for,
is called the middle term ; and the two ideas themfelves,
yitli which this third is compared, go by the name of
Ukt extremes,

\ IV. But as thefe things are befl illuftrated by ex-
■■•'^•^■^"amples; let us, for inftance, fet ourfelves to inquire

InftsDCCy

tions we enquire after, as here num and accom^dis'
tufs^ are in general called the extremes ; and that tk
intermediate idea, by means of which the relaticm s
traced, viz. a creature pojMfed of reafon and Bhertf^
takes the name of the middU term. Hence it foOov^
that by the frenufes of a fyllogifm we are alvrapt*
underftand the two propofitions where the middle tcsa
is feverally compared with the extremes ; for thefe cos-
flitute the previous judgments, whence the truth »e
are in queft of is by reafoning deduced. The coadt'

^^ whether men are accountabk for ihehr aSions. As the JSon is that other propofition, in which the extretff

relation between the ideas of man and accountablenefs
comes not within the immediate view of the mind,
our firfi care mufl be to find out fome third idea that
vfrill enable us the more eafily to difcover and trace it.
A very fmall meafure of refle£kion ia fufficient to in-
form us, that no creature can be accountable for his
a^Uons, unlefs we fuppofe" him capable of diflinguifh-
ing the good from the bad ; that is, unlefs we fuppofe
him poflfeiFed of reafon. Nor 'us this alone fufficient;
For what would it avail him to know good frgm bad
a&ions, if he had no freedom of choice, nor could a-
void'the one and purfu^ the other ? hence it becomes
necefiary to take in both confiderations in the prefent
c:afe. It is at the fame time equally apparent^ that

themfelves are joined or feparated agreeably to what
appears upon the above comparifon.

VI. The conclufion is made upof jhc extreme tent&!;i.
of the fyllogifm : and the extreme, which fervcs astkc*
predicate of the conclufipn, goes by the name of thc,^
major term : the other extreme, which makes the fub-^^.
je6t in the fame propofition, is called the minor term* i.
From this diflin^ion of the extremes arifes aHb a &■
llin£tion between the premifes, where thefe extremes
are feverally compared with the middle term. Hat
propofition which compares the greater extreme, or
the predicate of the conclufion, with the middle ^rm,
is called the major propofition : the other, wherein the
fame middle term is^ compared with the fubjed of tlie

5 condufioa

Part TIT. LOG

cendofiofi orleffcr ^trenie» in called the nunorfropo'
Jfiion. All this ift obvious from the fyllogifm ^eady
giveoy wheit the conclufion is, - Man L accoitntahU far
ou a8iani. • For here the predicate accountable /or hti
. aSio/Ut being connected with the middle tcrmr iu the
firft of the two.premifeS; every creature pojfejjed of rea*
fon and Rberty it accountable for his oBlons^ gives what
we tail the major prop^Juion, la the fecond of the
prcmifesy man is a treatwre poffeffed of reafon and liberty ^ '
we find the leffcr extreme, or fubjeft of the condu-
fioD, viz. many conne£led with the fame middle term,
whence it is known to be the minor proportion. When
a fyllogifm is propofed in due form, the major propo-
rtion IS always placed firft, the minor next, and the
. conclufion laft.
iTitfinffle VII. Thefe things premifed, we may in the gene-
%A of rca- ral define reafoning to be an a6t or operation of the
fonio^ the mind, deducing fome unknown propofition fro^n other
premtfes previous ones that are evident and known. Thefe
tuitive previous propoutions, m a umple act of realomng, are
trutha. only two in number \ and it is always required that
they be of themfelves apparent to the underfhmding,
infomuch that we afient to and perceive the truth oC»
them as foon as propofed. In the fylloflpfm given
above, the premifcs are fuppofed to be felf-evidrnt
truths; otherwife the conclufion could not' be inferred
by a fingle ad of reafoning. If, for inftance, in the
ma^or, every creature poffeffed of reafon and Bberty is aC'
^ countable for his aSionSf the connection between the
fubje^t and predicate could not be perceived by a bare
attention to the ideas themfelves^; it is evident that
this propofition would no lefs require a proof than the
conclufion deduced from it. In this cafe a new middle
term muft be fought for, to trace the conne^on here
fuppofed ; and this of courfe fumifhes .another fyllo*
gifm, by which having eftablifhed the propofition in
queftion, we aie then, and not before, at liberty to
ufe it in. any fucceeding train of reafoning* And
fhould it fo happen, that in this fecond efiay there was
ftill fome previous propofition whofe truth did not ap-
pear at firft fight, we muft then have recourfe to a
third fyUogifm, in order to lay open that truth to the
mind : becaufe fo long as the premifes remain uncer-
tain, the conclufion buik upoa them muft be fo too.
When, by conducing our thoughts in this manner, .
we at laft arrive at fome fyllogifm where the previ-
ous |)ropofitions are intuitive truths ; the mind then
refts in full fecurity, as perceiving that the federal cdn-
clufions it has paffed through ftand upon the immove-
, ' . able foundation of felf-evidence, and when traced to

their fource terminate in it.
**, VIII. We fee, tlicrefore, that in order to infer a

?^*JJ*°T"*jJ conclufion by a fingle aft of reafoning, the premife^
eftexercire inuft be intuitive propofitions. Where they are not,
•fit, only a previous fyllogifros are required ; in which cafe rea*
coDcatcnaj' fbning becomes a complicated aft, taking in a variety
li^ f^ff ^^ fucccffive fteps. This frequently happens in tra-
^^ dng the more remote relation of our ideas ; where,

many middle terms being called in, the conclufion can-
not be made out but in confequence of a feries of fyl-
logifms following one another in train. But although
in this conc^enation of propofitions, thofe that form
the premifes of the laft fyUogifiii are often jconfide-
rably removed from felf-evidence ; yet if we trace the
reafoning backwardsj we ball find them the condufions

205

, I a

of previous fyUogifms, whoTe premifes approach nearer
and nearer to intuition in proportion as we advance,
and are found at laft to terminate in it. And if, af*
ter having thus unravelled a demonftradon, we take it
the contrary way ; and obferve how the mind, fetting
out with intuitive perceptions, couples them together
to form a condufion ;■ how, by introdudng this con-
dufion into another fyllogifm, it ftill advances one
ftep farther ; and fo proceeds, making every new dif-
covery fubfervient to its future progrefs ; we (hall
then perceive clearly, that reafoning, in the higheil
fenfe of that faculty, is no more than an orderly com*
bination of thofe fimple afts which we have already fo
fully explained. « .67

IX. Thus we fee, that reafoning, beginning with ^qyj'e*
firft principles, rifes gradually from one judgement to ^r"ij',JJL j^
another, and coniiefts them in fuch manner, that every every ilep
ftage of the progreifion brings intuitive certainty along of the pn^
with it. And now at length we may deaiiy under- grcffiiau
ftand the definition given aS^ove of this diftinguiHiing
faculty of tj^e human ndnd. Reafon, we have faid, is
the ability of dedudng unknown truths firom prxnciple*
or propofitions - that are already known. This evi-
dently appears by the foregoing account, where we
fee that no propofition is admitted into a fyllogifm, to
ferve as one of the previous judgments on which tlie
condufion refts, unlefs it is< itfefif a known and efta-
blifhed truth, whofe connexion with felf-evident prin-
ciples has been already traced*

Chap. II. Ofthefeveral kinds of Reafoning : and
firfij of that by v/bich we determine the Genera
and Species of Things.

I. Ai/L the«ims of human reaibn may in the general Reafonine
be reduced to thefe two: i. To rank things under twofold,
thofe univerfal ideas to which they truly belong ', and,

2. To afcribe to tl^em tlieir feveral attributes and pro-
perties in confequence of that diftribution. ^

II. One great aim of human reafon is to determine The fir(l
the genera and fpecies of things. We have feen in ^^^^ »"«-
the Firft Part of this treatiic, how the mind proceeds ^.f,^\^^
in framing general ideas f- We have alfo feen in the w*^^ of
Second Part, how by means of thefe general ideas w&'thin|ri>.
come by iinivcrfal propofitions. Now as in thefe uni^t Sec ^«*-
verial propofitions we affirm fome property of a ge-"*^''»P '^'
nus or fpecies, it is plain that we cannot apply thi»
property to particular objcds till we have Br^ deter-

• mined whether' they are comprehended under that ge-
neral idea of wliich the property is affirmed. Thus
there are certain properties belonging to all even num-
bers, which neverthelefs cannot be applied to any par-
ticular number, until we have firft difcovered it to be
of the fpecies expreffed by that natural name. Hence
reafoning begins with referring things to their feve-
ral divifions and claifes in the Icale of our ideas ; and
as thefe divifions are all diftinguifhed by particular
names, we hereby learn to apply the terms expreifing
general conceptions to fuch particular obje& as come
under our immediate obfervation*

III. Now, in order to arrive at thefe concluGons, byxheftcM
which the feveral obje|^ of perception are brought un- by which
der general names, two things are manifeftly necef-'** wrive
fary. Firft, that we take a view of the idea itfel£j*„,^"^Yl!L»
denoted by that general name^ and carefully attend tOf^^^

lh&

2o6

7»
Tbofe (lepf

always fol-
lowed, rho'
in familiar
cafes we do
not alwjiyt
accead to
ibem.

7»
The great

importance

of this

branch of

rcafoBJog*

L O

tlie diflinguifhifig marks ^hich fcrve to chanderite
it. Secondlfi that we compare this idea with the
objefl under confideration, obferving diligently, wheve*
in they agree or differ. If the idea is found to corre^
fpond with the particular objed^ we- then without he*
fitation apply the general name ; but if no fuch corre-
fpondence interrcneit the condufion muft neccflkrily
take a contrary turn. Let usy Cor inftance* take w
number e^Atf and confider by what ftepa we aic led
to pronounce it an tven number. Firft then» we call
to mind the idea iigniiied by the expreffion am even
ntmher^ viz. that it is a number diviiible into two equal
parts. We then compare this idea with the number
eighty and» finding them manifeftly to agree, fee at
once the neceffity of admitting the condufion. Thefe
federal judgments therefore transferred into language*
imd reduced to the form of a fyllogifmi appear thus:

" Every number that may be divided into two
*< equal parts is an even number :

** The number eight may be divided into two equal
" parts ;

** Therefore the number e^h$ is an even number.''

IV. Here it may be obfenred* that where the ge*
neral idea, to which particular objects are referred^ is
very familiar to the mind» and frequently in view ;
this reference, and the \ipplication of the general
name, feem to be made without any apparatus of rea-
ibning. When we fee a horfe in the fields, or a dog
in the flreet, we readily apply the name of the.fpe-
cies ; habit, and a Ikmiliar acquaintance with the ge-
neral idea, fuggeiUng it inftantaneoufly to the mind.
We are not however to imagine on this account that
the underfianding departs from the ufual rules of jiift
thinking^ A frequent repetition of ads begets a ha-
bit ; and habits are attended with a certain prompt-
nefs of execution, that prevents our obferving the fe-
deral fteps and gradations by which any courfe of ac-
tion is accomphfhed* But in other inftances, where
we judge not by precontrafted habits, as when the
general idea Is very complex, or lefs familiar to the
mind, we always proceed according to the form of
reafoning eftabli/hed above. A goldiinith, for in-
fiance, who is in doubt as to any piece of metal, whe-
ther 4t be of the fpecies called gcid^ firft. examines its
properties, and then comparing them with the gene-
ral idea fignified by that name, if he finds a perfe6k
correfpondcnccp no longer hefitates under what ckb
of metals to rank it.

V. Nor let it be imagined that our refearches here,
becaufe itt appearance bounded to the ifnpofing of ge-
neral names upon particular objeds, are therefore tri-
vial and of little coniequeoce. Some of the mofk con«
fiderable debates among mankind, ami fuch too as
nearly regard their lives, tntereft, and happinefs, turn
wholly upon this article. Is It not the chief employ*
ment of our feveral courts of judicature to detenaiine
in particular inftances, what is nWy jufticc, and equity ?
Of what importance is it in many caCes to dedde »-
right whether an adion (haU be termed murder or
wumflaughur ? We fee then that no lefs than the lives
and fortunes of men depend often upon thefe decifions.
The reafon is plain. Adiions, when once refiored to
a general idea, draw after them aU that may be af-
firmed of that idea i infopiuch that the determining
the fpecies of adions is all one with detcnniiiiDg what

G I C.

proportion of praift or d«Qpm£e»

blame, Cffr. ought to foUcMv them. For as it is aS^^

ed that murder deferves death ; by btingisig asy fB.

ticular action under tlue head of muider»

decide the puttiflunent due to it.

VL But thegreatimpoitaiioeof thsthvaackof im.
bniaj;, and the neceffity of ewe and dfcmi^e&ki.'^
in reKrritt^ particular objeda to general ideast b ^j^
finthcr evident from the pniAioe of die mathnwirv^
^u.. £vesy one who has read Euclid kaowi» tJ»^

cuas.

he frequently requires us to draw lines througli oertki
points, and according to fuch and fuck ciiredioea
The figures thence reiulting are often fquarcs, pani.
Idograms, or rectangles. Yet Euclid never iss^f^dn j
this from their bare appearance, but always dem».
ftrates it upon the ftrideft prindples ^ gcomctiy.
Nor is the method he takes in any thing difierem Enos
that deferibed above. Thus, for inftance, having hi^
fined a fquare to be a figure bounded by four eqb!
fides joined together at right angles ; when fuch a fi-
gure anfes in any conftru&on previous to the de&a-
ftration of a propofition, yet he nevei calls it by tix .
name until he luu fhown that iu fuies arc equal, asd '
all iu an^es right ones. Now this is apparently tk
fame form of reaibning we have before exhibited a ;
proving ^ht ta be an even number.

VII. Having thus explained the rules 1^ whidi vc..*
are to condud ourfdves in ranking particular objeai^
under general ideas, and fliown their conformity tb.
the pradice and manner of the authematiciaaa ; k t:-^'-'
mains only to obferfe, that the true wav of render-^
ing this part of knowledge both eafy and certain, it, -
by habituating ourfdves to dear and determinate ideai^??
and keeping Uiem fteadily annexed to theii* refpcC^ct^*^
names. For as all our aim i^ to apply general woidi^
arigfatf if thefe words ftand for invanable ideas tbs
are peiledly ^tnown to the mind, and can be rea£f
diftmniftied upon occafion, there wiU be little dasgv
of miftake or error in our reafonings. Let ua fupfde
that, by examining any objed, and tarrying our st-
tention (ucceifivdy firom one part to another, we ha^t
acquainted ourfdves with the feveral particulars ob-
fervaUe in it. If among theiie we find fuch aa.coofth
tttte fome general idea, framed and fettled before-
hand by die underftanding, and diftinguiihed by apir-
ticular name, the refemblance thus known and percei-
ved neceiiarily determines the fpecies of the objcd,
and theitby gives it « right to the name by wiiidi
that fpedes is called.. Thus four equal fides, joined
together at right angles, make up the aotioa of a
fquare. As this is a fixed and invariable idea, with-
out which the general name cannot be applied; weoe*
ver call any particular figure ^i/fuare uitil it appears
to have thefe feveral conditiofls f and contrarily,
wherever a figure is found with thefe conditions, it
neceflarily takes the name of a fquare* The iame
will be found to bold in all our other reafonii^ of this
kind, nrfiere* nothing can create any difficulty but the
want of fetded ideas. If, for inftamcc, we have not
determined within ourfdves the predfe notion deno*
ted by the word uumfiaughier,^ it will be irapoffible far
us to Ac/d<i^ whether any particular a^oa ought to
bear that name ; becaoie, however nicdy we cxamioe
the adion itfdf , yet, being ftrangers to the geseni
idea with which it ii to be conpmd^ we nt utteriy

unaUe

Part III. L O

X itaable to judge of their agt^ment or di(agreement«

Bat if we take care to remove this obftade, and di-
ftin6Uy trace the two ideas under confiderationy all
diffculties Tanifliy and the refolution becomes both eafy
and certain.

VIII. Thus we fee of what importance it is towai;dg
the improvement and certainty of human knowledge,
that we accuilom ourfelve§ to clear and determinate
idcaty and a fteady application of wordsw

Chap. in. Of Reafoning^ as it regards the Powers
and Properties ^ Things^ and the Relations of
our general Ideas.

Thedifttnt* !• ^^ "^^ come to the fecond great end which
tioD of rem- men have in view in their reafonings ; namely, the
^J^nKt^'itdifcovering and afcribing to things their fcveral attri-
^PJ'^^'JjI^butes tod properties. And here it will be neceflary
at it COB* to diftingttifli between reafoning, as it regards tlv:
cernt com- fciencesy and as it concerns oonunon life. In the fci-
monlife* enccs» our reafon is employed chiefly about univerfal
truths, it being by them alone that the bounds of hu*
man knowledge are enlarged. Hence the divifion of
things into various daifes, called otherwife genera and
• J^eeiei* For thefe univerfal ideas being fet up as the

reprefentatives of many particular things, whatever
it affirmed of them may be alfo afHnned of aU the in-
dividuals to which they belong. Murder^ for inft^nce,'
1% a general idea, reprefenting a certain fpecies of hu*
man actions. Reafon tells us that the puniftiment due
to it is deathm Hence every particular a^ion, coming
under the notion of murder^ has the punifliment of
death allotted to it* Here then we apply the general
truth to fome obvious inftance ; and this is what pro-
perly conftitutes the reafonincr of common life. For
men, jn their ordinary trania6tions and intercourfe
one with another, have, for the moft part, to do on-
ly with particular obje<^8. Our friends and relations,
tiicir chara^lers and behaviour, the conilitution of the
ieveral bodies that furround us, and the ufes to which
Ihey may be applied, are what chiefly engage our at-
tention. In all thefe, we nrafon about particular
things ; and the whole refult of our reafoning is, the
mpplying the general truths of the fciences in the or-
dinary tlranfaSdons of human life. When we fee a
^pcr, we avoid, it. Wherever we have t)ccafion
ior the forcible a^on of water to move a body that
naket confiderable refiftance, we take care to con-
vey it in fuch a manner that it (hall fall upon the ob-
jed with irapetuofity. Now all this happens in con-
fei|ucnce of our familiar and ready application of thefe
two genefral trutlu. The hiteofa viper is mortal. Wa*
ter^fidRmg upom a 6ody with impeiuqfiiyj a3s very forcibly
towards fitting ii m motion. In like manner, if we fet
^urfelvcs to ooniider any particular chara£^er, in order
to determine the fliare of praifc or difpraife that be-
longs to it, our great concern ia to afcertain exadly
the proportion of virtue and vice. The reafon is ob-
vious. A juft determination, in all cafes of this kind,
depends entirely upon aa application of thefe general
maxims of morality: Firtwms aSiom deferve praife }
yviciotu aSioM deferve Idam^,

II. Hence it appears that veafoning, as it regards
common life, is no more than the afcribing the ge-
acial pn]f>ectics of tUnp to thp& fevetalobjeds with

««

I C. ^o^

which we are more immediately concerned, accord- 1^
ing'as they are found to be of that particular divifion?*"^ !|?^
or dafs to which the properties belong. The fteps J^^. p^^^
then by which We proceed are manifefUy thefe. Firft,tti the rea-
we refer the obje£^ under confideration to fome gene-^<>niog0f
ral idea or clafs of things. We then rccolka the fe-JJ^^
veral attributes of that general idea. And, lailly, a-
fcribe all thofe attributes to the prefent objefl. Thus,
in confidering the chara6ier of SemproniuSf if we iind
it to be of the kind called virtuous^ when we at the
fame time reflect that a virtuous charafter \€ defer-
ving of efleem, it naturally add obvioufly follows that
Sempronius is fo too. Thefe thoughts put into ^fyl-
logifm^ in order to exliibit the form of reafoning here
required, ruif thus :

Every virtuous man is worthy of efteem.
Serripronhu is a virtuous man :
** Therefore Sempronius is worthy of efteem."
III. By thh Jy^og^m it appears, that before we af-Thecon-
fihn any thing of a particular objed, that obje^l muiincaiMi ii€
be referred to fome general idea. Sempronius is pro- ^*P^'>^<»c«
nonnced worthy of efteem only in confequence of his „^1 ^IJJi.
being a virtuous man, or coming under that general jhts ©f rca-
notion. Hence we fee the neceflary conne^ov of fomng one
the various parts of reafoning, and the dependence *P**" *"•"
they have one upon another. The detennimiig the * ^'
genera and fpecies of things is, as we have faid, one
exercife of human reafon ; and here we find that this
exercife is the firft in order, and previous to the o-
ther, which confifts in afcribing to them their powers,
properties and relations. But when we have taken
this previous ftep, and brought particular obie^s un*
der general names ; as the properties we alcribe to
them are no other than thofeof the general ide^a, it i9>
plain that, in order to a fuccefsful progrefs in this part
of knowledge, we muft thoroughly acquaint ourfelve»
with the feveral relations and attributes of thefe our
general ideas. When this is* done, the other part will;
be eafy, and requires fcarce any labour or thought,.
as being no more than an apj^icationr o^ the general
form of realbning rcprefented in the A>regoing fyllo--
gifm. Now, as we have already fofficiently ihown'
how we are to proceed in determininfv the genera'
and fpecies of things, which, as we have faid, is the
previous ftep to this fecond branch of human know-
ledge ; all that is fiirther wasting towards a due ex-^
planation of it is, to offer fom« contiderations as to
the manner of inveftigating tlie general relations of
our ideas. This is the highcft exercife of the pt'wers
of the underftanding, and that by means whereof M<e
arrive at the difcovery of univerfal truth#; infomuch
that our dediidt ions in this waytoirftitute that particu-
lar fpecies of reafoning which we have before find re*
gards principally the icieoces. ^f

IV. But that we may condud our thoughts with Two Ainfr .
fome order and method, we ihall begin with obfcr-' ^J****^ ^
vi^g, that the relations of our general ideas are of two^^^'j^^^,
kinds: either fuch as immediately difeover themfelves, ibue^.
upon comparing the ideas one with another ; or fuch '
as, being more remote and diftant, recniire art and
contrivance to bring them into view. The rclattona-
of the firft kind fumifti u» with intuitive and felf-evU
dent truths : thofe of the feCond are traced by reafon*
ing, and a due application of intermediate ideas* It
is of this Idft kind thnt we arc to fpeak here, having.

2o8 LOGIC.

difpatchcd wKat wa* neceflary with regard to the o- being able to formperfeft reafoners by bookisdri

ther in the Second Part. As, therefore, In tracing the we find by experience, that the iludy of t clr y

, more dlllant relations of things, we muft always have cepts does not always add any ^reat degree ofli.:;

rccourfe to intervening ideas, and are more or lefe to the underilanding. In Ihort, it is the habit sli

fiicccfsful in our refcarches according t<J our acquain- of reafoning that makes a reafoner. And tErr

lance with thcfe ideas, and ability of applying them ; the true way to acquire this talent is* by bei'a;Tr

it is evident that, to make a good reafoner, two converfant in thofe fciences -where the art. of ivi: i

things are principally required. Fhj}^ An extenfive ing is allowed to reign in the greatefl pcnttn

knowledge of thofe intermediate ideas, by means of Hence it was that the ancients, who fo wdl uaii

which tilings may be compared one with anotlier. flood tlie manner of forming the mind, alwarsf.i

Secondly^ The (kill and talent of applying them happily with mathematkt^ as the foundation of their % \

in all particular inftances that come under confidera- fophical fludies. Here the underilanding is br a

79 tion. grees habituated to truth, contracls infeafibly :i c:;^

F:rft,an y^ \^ order to our fiiccefsfnl progrefs in reafoning, tain fondnefs for it, and learns never to yield hi J

ku^oM^lcdc* ^^ m\\^ have an extenfive knowledge of thofe inter- fent to any proportion but where the cvivki.T i

et intermc- mediate ideas by means of which things may be com- fufficient to produce full convi<^on. For thisrcii

diaic ideas, pared one with another. For as it is not every idea Plato has called mathematical demonftations tb(

that will a^ifwer the purpofe of our inquiries, but fuch thanks or purgatives of the foul, as being tbe }.
only as are peculiarly related to the objecls about *pcr means to cleanfe it from error, and rcftor* l.

which we reafon, fo as, by a coraparifoh with them, natural exercife of its faculties in which juil tLu ;

to furnish evident and known truths ; nothing is more confiEs.

apparent than that the greater variety of conceptions VIII. If therefore we would form our mind^: .

we can call into -view, the more likely we are to find habit of reafoning clofcly and in train, wc a^>

fome among them that will help us to the truths here take aay-mpre certain method than the excrci%JL

required. And, indeed, it iv found to hold in experi- Celves in mathematical demonilrations, fo as to cutlv

ence, that in proportion as we enlarge our views of a kind of familFarity with thcai. Not tliat wc 1. >

things, and grow acquainted with a multitude of dif- upon it as fieceffary that all men fhould beciap:;

ferent objeds, the reafoning faculty gathers flrength : thematicians ; but that, liaving got tlie way of iri:

for, by extending our fphere of knowledge, the mind Ing which that iludy neceflarily brings iYicitkc'\

acquires a certain force and penetration, as being ac- they may be able to transfer it to other parts of kr?

cuilomed to examine the feveral appearances of its ledge, as they Aiall have occadon.
ideas, and obferve what light diey caft one upon ano- IX. But although the (ludy of mathematics be o-^

iQ ther. others the moil ufeful to form the mind andgi^' \

To excel in VI. This is the reafon why, in order to excel re^ an early relifh of truth, yet ought not other part» \

■°y ojj* markably in any o*ie branch of learning, it is neceffa- philofophy to be negleAcd. For there alfowf e:-

r™Jj^^ ry to have at leafl a general acquaintance with the with many opportunities of exerciiing thepowrT>.

-wc mu&'be whole circle of arts and fciences. The truth of it is, the underilanding $ and the variety of fubjeds -

ill general all the various diviiioas <^ human knowledge are very rally leads us to obferve all thofe difTereDttari) ■

acquainted nearly related among thcmfelves, and, m innume- thinking that are peculiarly ''-adapted to the Ic^-

wholccir- ™^^^ inilanccs, ferve to lUuilrate and fet off each o- ideas we examine, and the truth we fearch afttr.

de of arts ^^T. And although it is not to be denied that, by an mind thus trained acquires a certain maktvycf^'-

andfcien- obilinate application to one branch of fludy, a man own thoughts, infomuch that it can range and si' |

**•• may make coniiderable progrefs, and acquire fome diem at pleafure, and call fuch into view asbt* - 1

degree of eminence ia it ; yet his views will be al— its prefent dcfigns. Now in this the whole art w^- 1

ways narrow and con^dled, and he will want that foiling coniifls ; from among a great variety of cii;' .^

mafterly difcernment which not only enables us to pur- cnt ideas to (ingle out thofe that are mo/l prop^

Tue our difcoveries with eafe, but alfo, in laying them die bufinefs m hand, and to lay tbem together m ^J^J '

open to others, to fpread a certain brightncfs around, order, that from plain and eafy beginnings, bv^s-

them. But when our reafoning regards a particular degrees, and a continued train of^evident ivms ^

fcience, it is farther neceflary. that we more nearly may be infenfibly led on to'fuch difcoveries, as at >^

acquaint oarfelves with whatever relates to that fci- firil fetting out appeared bey5nd the reach of a'^^''.

ence. A general knowledge is a good preparation, underilanding. For this purpofe, beiidea the liuiiy

and enables us to proceed with eafe and expedition mathematics before recofnmended, we ought ^^^h-

in 'whatever branch of learning we apply to. But ourfelves diligendy to the reading of fuch authors j

then, in the minute and intricate queflions of any have dillinguiflied themfelves for flrength of reaionn

fcience, we are by no means qualified to reafon "with and a juil and accurate manner of thinking. ^^^^

advantage until we have perfe(^ly maflered the fci- obfervable, that a mind exercifed and icalon« •

Si ence to which they belong. truth, feldom refb fatisfied in a bare conte/npw^'^

Secondly, VII. We come now to the fecond thing requi- the arguments offered by othej*« ; but will be ntq*^-

the ikill of yg^j^ jj^ order to a fuccefsful progrefs in reafoning ; ly affaying its ovvn ftrength, and purfuing '^^^^\^

Cennediate namely, the ikiU and talent of applying intermedi- ries upon the plan it is moil accuftomcd to. ^ I,

ideas hap- ate ideas happily in all particular inftances that come infenfibly contra6l a habit of tracing ^^^^/^|°L/

|>Uyin{ar- under confideration. And here, rules and precepts flage to another, and of inveftigating thofe g^

^^^ *^* arc of little fervicc. Ufc and experience arc the bell relations and properties which wc afterwards aicn ^

^* inftru&ors. For, whatever loigicians may boafl of particular thing«i according as wc find thcin coPjP

T. . L O

tienclcd (ssfder tKe akftr^' ideal to which the proper-
ties belong*

Chap. IV. OfiheFormsofSylkgifms.

^^ 1. HiTfifckro wc have conlefttei oi\rfc!vc« With a
g^eneral notion of fyilogifmsy and of the p^rts of which
they conlift. It is now time to enter a litue more
particulariy into the fubjed> to examine their various
ibrms, and lay open the rules of ai^umentation pro-
per to each* In the fyllogifms mentioned in the fore*
'going chaptersi we may obferve, that the middle term
18 the fubje& of the major propofition, and the predi-
'cate of the minor, This'difpofition» thourii the moft
natural and obvious, is not .however necelUiry \ it fre*
quently happening, that the middle term is the fub*
je£t in both the premifes, or fhe predicate in both \
and fometimes, diredly contrary to its difpofition in
the foregoing chapters, the predicate in the major,
and the fubjofl in the minor. Hence the diftin&ion
of 'fyllogifms into Virioxft kinds, called j%t/f-^/ by logi-
cians. For figure^ according to their ufe of the word,
is nothing eli^ but the order and difpofition of the
middle term in any fyllogifm. And as this difpo&tioh
iB, we fee» fourfold, fo the figures of fyllogifms thenee
aiiiing are four in number. When Uie middle l^rm i)i
the fubjed of the major propofition, and the predi<^ate
of the minor, we have what is caBed the j^ figure t
As,

" No work of God is had i ^

*' The natural paifions and appetites of faien a)e

" the work of God :
" Therefore none of them is bad.'*
If, on the othf r hahd, it is the predicate of both the
ipremifes, the fyllogifm is faid to be Utitfecond figure ;
As,

" Whatever is fcatl is not the work of God ;

'*^ AU the natural pai&ons and* appetites of men

** are the work of God :
*' Therefore the natural paifions and appeties of
"'men are not bad.'*
Affatn, in the third figure^ the middle tenh is the fut>-
Jcfi of the two premi&s : As,
" AH Africans are Uack :.
** All Afiricani Sue men :
«• Therefore folne men are black.'*
And laftly, by making it the predicate of the major,
and fubjedt of the minor, we obtain fyllogifms in the
fourth figure : As^

•• The only being who ought to be worfhippcd is

** the Creator and Governor of the world 5
*♦ Thte Citeator and Governor of the world is

" God r
*• Therefore God is the only being who ought to
*> be worihipped."
^oodt ,^^- But, befides this fourfold difiindion of fyllo^
> gifmi^ there, is alfo a farthler fibdiviilon of thelh in
every figure, aiiiing from the quantity and quality^ as
they are caMed, of the propofitions. By quantity we
mean the confideration of propofi^onft^- sis univerfaU or
particular ; by quality, as affirmative or negative.

Now as, in all the feveral difpofitions of ^e middle
term,, the propofitions of which a TyOogifiAi confiUs
tnay be eithdr univerfid or Mtkidat> affirmative or
• Vttfc.XiPaftL

G I C. , ^ aof

negative \ the due determination of titefe^ aiid fo pub-
ting them together as the laws of argumentation re^*
quire, conflitute what logicians call the moods of fyllo*
rifms. Of thefe moods there is a determinate num- ■)

her to cveiy figure, including all the pofiible ways in t

which propofitions differing in quantity or quality caii
be combined, accordi>ig to dny-^pofition of the mid'
die term, in order to arrive at a juft condufion.

The firft figure has only fo\u: legitimate nioods.
The major propofition in this figure muit be univerfal,
and the minor a£Erroative ; antl it has this property^
that it yields conclufions of all kinds, aifirmativc and
ne^tive, univerfal and particular.

The fecond figure has alfo four legitimate moods.
Its m^or proppfition muit he univerfal^ and one of the
premifcs muft be negative. It yields coAclufions both
univerfal and particular, but all negative.

The third figure has fia legitimate moods. Its mi-
nor muft always Ibe affiiinative ; and it yields ^onclu-
fions both' affirmative and negative, but all particular;
Thefe are all the figures which were achiiitted by*
the inventor of fyllogifms ; and of which, fo far as we
know, the number of legitimate xhoods has been af-
certained, and fevetally demonftrated. In every figure
it win be found upon trial, that there zxtfiyty-four A\£i'
ferent moods of fyilogifin ; and he who thinks it worth
while to^conftruA fo many in tht fourth figure, always
'remembering that the mtddie term in each muft be the
preScate of .the major and the futjeS of the minor pro-
pofition, will eafily difcerfl what number of thefe moods
lire legitimate^ and give true conclufions. -

Befides the rules that are proper to each figure^
Ariftotle has given fome that are common to all, by
which the legitimaty of fyllogifms may be tried.
Thefe may be reduced to five : -r — i . There muft
be only three terms in a fyllogifm : As each term
occurs in two of tlie propofitions, it muft be pre-
cifcly iht fame In hoth ; if it be no/, -the fyllogifm tS
faid to have four termSf which makes a vicious fyllo^ .'
gifm. 2. The nuddlc term muft be taken umverfally in
one of the premifes. 3. Both premifes muft not hepar*
tladar propofitioiis, nor both negative* 4. The conc/u*
fion muft be particular ^ if either of the premifes htparti^
cular ; atid negative^ if either of the premifes be negative*,
5* No term can be taken umverfaUy in the condufion^ if
it be not taken umverfally m the premifes*

For underftanding the fecond And fifth of thefe rulef^
it is neceffary to obterVe, tliat a term is faid to be taken
univerfally, not only when it is th^fuhjeS of a univer^
yb/ propofition; but alfo when it is tntpre^cate of a ne^
gative plropofition. On the other hand, a term is faid
to be t2^tn particularly y when it is either }^tfubje8 of
a particular or tb): predicate bf an qffirmaiivt propoi^

III. The divifion of fyllogifms accordirig to modd FoandatioS-
and figure refpedts thofe efpecially which are known of the other
by the name of plain fimplfc fyllogifms ; tliat is, ^^^c^rlj^^^
art IjJounded to tliree propi^itions, all fimple; and ^^^ * *
where the extreme^ and middle te)'m are conneAed,
abcording to thcf rules 1^ down above. But as the
mind is not tied down to any one precife forni of rea-
foning, but fometimes ihakes ufe of more, fometimet
of fewer premifes, and often takes in compound and
conditional propofitions, it may not be amils to take

D d notitd

218 L O G I a

• dldte cooftquczices whatfocycr, lafomnch that they are of wUicli is the aflertion to be difprwed, and Ote coi

in fa6l no more than enthymemes of hypothetical fyl* fcqucnt a disjundive propofitiont enumcratiiiir all >J«

logifms. But thpn it is particular to thems that the pofltbk fappofitionsupon which that afTerdoa caatit

ground on which the conduflon refts, namely its co- place. If then it appears, that all tliupfe feraalKp

herence with the minor, is of itfelf apparent, and pofitions ought to be rej<£ied9 it ia pLun, tlut tBeu

! feen immediately to flow from the rules and rcafons of tecedent or aflertion itfelf nmft be fo too. Whd

9$ logic. therefore fuch a proportion as that before naim

A foricecof XIII. The next fpecies of reafoning we ihall take is made the major of any fyllogiiin ; if the miatz

yUin finiple notice of here is what is commonly known by the name je£ts all the fumM>fitions contained in the confqi^

fj logifmi. ^f sL/oritti. This is a way of arguing, in which a it follows neceUaiily, that the conclofiv ought ton

great number of proportions wrt fo liyked together, je£t die antecedent, which, as we have faid, is 3

that the predicate of one becomes continually the fub* veiy aflertion to be difproved. This particular «3

jcift of the next following, until at laft a conclulion is of arguing is that which Ipgictans call a Jikmma; &

formed, by bringing together the fubjeft of the firft from the account here given of it, it appean tia:«

propofition, and the predicate of the laiL Of this . may in the general define it to be a hypothetic^ fji

kind is the following argmnent. k>gifm, where the coniequent of the major 'mU

<* God is omnipot<*nt : jun^vc propofition, which is. .whoQ]^ taken svzrc

** An omnipotent being can do every thing poffible: removed in the miaor. Of this kind is the foli;?

^* He that can do every thing poffible, can do what* ing :

If God did not create the world perfed i& ki
** kind» it muft either proceed from want of ::<
** clination, or from want of power:
But it could not proceed either from uraat cf &•
'' clination, or from want of power:
^ Therefore, he created the world perfcd is b
^' kind." Or, which is the fame thing: "Iti»
" abfurd to fay that he did not create the w
" P^c& in its kind."
XVI. The nature then of a dilemma is umidi^j
this* The major is a conditional propofitioa, vboici
confequent contains all the fevers^ffuppofitiooiap^^
which the antecedent can take place. As thada
thefe fuppolltions are wholly removed in the miic?,
it i& evident that the antecedent muil he fo too; is^

" ever involves not a contradidion:
** Therefore God can do whatever involves not a

** contradiction."
This particular combination of propofitions may be
continued to aivy leogth we pleafe, without in the. leaft
weakening the ground upon which the conclusion refts.
The reafon is, becaufe the foritea itfelf may be refol<%
ved into as many fimple fyllogifms as there are middle
terms in it ; wheie this is found univerfally to hold,
that when fuch a ^iblutioiiis nude, and the fyllogifms
are placed in train, the conclufion of the lail in the
feries is alfo the conclufion of the forites. This kind
of argument,^ therefore, as it ferves to unite feveral
fyllogifms into on^^ mud lland upon the iame founda-
tion with the fylloffifins of which itcon&fts, and is iur

deed, properly fpeaking, no other than a compendiioua. much that we here always argue from the removal

way of reafoning ^fyllogiftically. ^ the confequent to the removal of the antecedent. Ik

Af<^tesof ^I^« What is here faid of plain fimple propofitiona ifi, a dilemma is an argument in the mcJus toSeuii

^ypotheii- i9#^y be as yrell applied to thofe that are conditional ;. hypothetical fyllc^fms, as logicians love to fpciL

<al ffUo- that is, any number of them may be fo joined to. Hence it is plain, that if the antecedent of thena^

gether in a feries, that the confequent of one ihall be- is an affirmative proportion, the concluiipn of tbedi-

come continually the antecedent of the next follow- lemma will be negative; but if it is a negative p

ing ; in which cafe, by eftabliihing the antecedent of pofition, the conchifion will be affirmative*.

the firft propofition, ynt eftabliih the copfequent of tho

laft, or by removing tb< laft confequent remove alfa

the firft antecedent. This way of reafoning is es*.

^plified in the foUovving appgua^nt.

** If we love any perion, all exBotioQ9 of hatred to-

** wards hiqi ceafe ;
*^ If all emQtions of hatred towards a perfon ceafe,

<* we cannot rejoice in his misfortunes ;,
^ If we rejoice not in his mjsfortunes,, we certainty

** t^iih hix^ no iiijury ;
'* Therefore, if welpve a perfont we wifli him no

igiinuw

Ch4P.V. OfbiduQiofu

I.. All rtvfoning proceeds ultimatdy fx(m ^^
tjruths, either felf-evident or taken for gnnted; aixidieei
firft truths of fyllogiftic reiUbningS' 'xik genercl'^f^^
tions.. But except in the mathematics, and fackotiir^
fciences as, being convcrfani about mere idei^ "^
no immediate relation to things without the mio4i ^
cannot aflume as truths proportions which are geiKnL
The mathematicmn indeed may be confidered as takis^
^ injury." his ideas from the beginning in their ^nMf«/ form. £^

It ia evident that this, forites, at well as the kft, prop^twn compofed of fuch ideaa is. therefore geaci*^'

,iiiay be fefolved into a leries of ^^iftinjft fyllogiims»

with this only diff^renqe^ th^ here the fyllo^nis ^rc

aU conditionaL
The^und ^^* T^ ^ i^A'ft of fyUogifm we (hall take
•K iuv^- notice of in thjs diapter ia that i^ommpoly diftingiufh-
meotstion cd by th^ name of a d^mma, A dilemma is an ar-
in a dUem- g^ment by which we endeavour to prove the abfur-
^^ dity or fiidfiehood of Ibme aflertion* In order to this,

-m^ ajTyme. a conditional propofition^ the antecedent

and thpfe which are theoretic are reducible totwopvt*
or tennsy^ ^preduaie and ^ftdyeS^ with a eofnla P^
rally aQbrmative* If the agreement or the rdatioi be
tween the two terms be not immediate andfclf-e^*
he has recoucfie to an a«wm, which is apropo^^^^^'^
more general f and which fupplies him with a tbiro A
mMe term. This he compares firft with the /'*<^'
and then with the fidjeB, or yce ver/a. TiM^ ^^

comparifons. when drawn out ia form, make w^
4 • * jfofipofi^

L O

«« Siat< it ii Mt ta^xiAmU Mr the wdrk of a fi-

'** nite being :
"** Therefore it it the work of an infinite Being."
Woi^y a di^un^live propolition is that, where of fe-
eral predicatesy we iffifimi One neceiTanly to belong
o the fubjed» to the axcldioQ of all the reft, but
eatve that particular .one undetermined. Hence it
olloDvs, that at ibon as 'we detennine the particxilar
[>redicate, all the reft are of courfe ta be reje^ed s or
£ vre rejcft aH^the predicates but one, that one necef-
farlly tueiT place. Wheni therefore, in a disjun6live
ryllo^ihiy the feveral predicates are enumerated in the
major ; if the minor eftabliHies any one of thefe pre-
dicates, the conclusion ought to remove all the reft ;
or if, in the minor, all the predicates but one are re-
moved, the eoockifion muft neceflanly cftablifli that
ane« Thus, in the dicjun^ve fyUogiim given above,
tke RU^or affirms one of the three predicates to be-
long to the earth, vis. filf'exijience^ or that it is /Ar
nuork of a finite^ or that it is tbt mfork of qh infinke Be*'
ing^ Two of thefe predicates are removed in the
minor, vis. felf-extftence^ and the work of a finite he»
tng. Hence the condufion neceflarily afcribes to it the
third predicate, and af&rms that it is the work of an
infinUt Being* If now we give the fyllogifm another
turn, infomuch that the minor may eftabliih one of the
predicates, by affirming the earth to be the produSion
of an infinite Being : then the condufion muft remove
die other two, afferting it to be neither felfexifient^
. nor the work of a finite being, Thefe are the fonns of
reafoning in thefe fpedes of fyllogifms, the juftnefs of
which appears at firft fight : and that there can be no
other, is evident from the very nature of a disjun^ive
propoiition.
t IX. In* the feveral kinds of fyllogifms hitherto men-
L- tioned, we may obferve, that the parts are complete ;
that is, the three propofitions of which they confift are
leprefented in form. But it often happens, that fome
one of the prcmiles is not only an evident truth, but
alfo fiuniliar and in the minds ol all men ; in which cafe
it is ufually omitted, whereby we have an imperfe^
fyllogifm, diat feems^o be made up of only two pro-
pefitions. Should we, for inftance, argue in this
mltoner :

«< Every man is mortal :

•* Therefore every king is mortal :'*

the fyllogifm z^ftxr% to be imperfect, as confifting'

but of two propofitions. Yet it is really complete ;

only the minor {every king it a man'] is omitted : and

left to the reader to fupply, as being a propofition fo

_ familiar and evident that it cannot efcape him.

1^^'^^ X. Thcfc feemingly impcrfcft fyllogifms are called

enthymemes ; and occur very frequently in reafoning,

efpecially ^vhere it makes a part of common conver-

fation. Nay, there iji a particular elegance in them,

liecaofe, not difplaying the argument in aU its parts,

ihcy leave fomew;hat to the exercife and invention of

the mind. By this means we are put upon exerting

•urfelves, and-feem to (hare in the difcovery of what

is propofed to us. Now this is the great fecret of

tine writing, fo to frame and put together our thoughts,

89 to give full play to the reader's imagination, and

• draw him tnSenfibly into ovr very views and courfe

of leafoning. This gives a pteafure not unlike to that

tl^hthc author himfclf feels in compofing. Itbefidea

X *

G I C. * ZI1

(hortens difcourie, and adds a certain force and liveU-
nefs to our arguments, when the words in. which they
are conveyed favour the natural quick nefs of the mind
in its operations, and a fingle exprefiion is left to ex-
hibit a whole train of thoughts. ^^

XI. But there is another fpecies of reafoning with Ground oit
two propofitions, which feems to be complete in itfdf, fcafoning

and where we admit the condufion without fuppofin^\'^ *"*"^V
^ . - /r 1 . t • .i_ • J r ** <»*»tc come-

any tacit or luppreiled judgment m the mmd, from quenccSk

which it follows fyllogiilicaTly . This happens between
propofitions, ^'hcre the connedlion is fuch, that the ad*
miffion of the one neceflarilyand at the firft fight implies
the admiflion alfo of the other. For if it fo fells out,
that the propofition on which the other depends, is
fdf-evident, we content ourfelves. with barely affirm-
ing it, and infer that other by a dire A condufion^
Thus, by admitting an univer&l propofition, we are
forced alfo to admit of all the particular propofitions
comprehended under it, this being the very condition
that conftitutes a propofition univerfal. If then that
unxverfal propofition chances to be felf-evident, the
particular ones follow of courfe, without any farther
train of reafoning. Whoever allows, for inftance,
that tUngt equal to one and the fame thing are equal to
one another t muft at the fame time allow, that two
triangles 9 each equal to afquare whofe fide is three inches ^
are alfo equal between themfchoes. This argument
therefore, '

** Things equal to one and the (ame thing, are equal

*' to one another :
<* Therefore thefe two triangles, each equal to the

** fquare of a line of three inches, are equal be«

•• tween themfelves :'*
is complete in its kind, and contains aU that is neceC%
fary towards a juft and legitimate condufion. For the
firft or univerfal propofition is felf-evidcnt, and tliere-
fore requires no- farther proof. And as the truth of
the particolar is infeparably conneded with that of the
univerfid, it follows from it by an obvious and un-
avoidable confequcnce. ^|

XII. Now, in ail cafes of this kind, where propofi- All redaci-
tions are deduced one from another, on account of a [*'*.jf^ ^i^
known and evident connection, we are laid to reafon r)|^"JJ,g
by immediate confequcnce. Such a coherence of pro- fom, ^r oi
pofi tions manifeft at firft fight, and forcing itfdf upon iher.
the mind, frequently occurs in reafoning. Logiciana
have explained at fome length the feveral fuppofitions
upon which it takes place, and allow of all immediate
confequences that foUow in conformity to them. It is
however obfervable, that thefe arguments, though
feemingly complete, becaufe the condufion follows ne-
cefTarily from the fingle propofition that goes before,
nmy yet be confidered as real enthymemes, whofe n\a-
jor, which is a conditional propofition, is wanting. The .
fyllogifm but juft mentioned, when reprefented accord-
ing to this view, will run as follows ; •

^* H things equal to one and the fame^thing, are e-
*^ qud to one another ; thefe two triangles, each
** equal to a fquare whofe fide is three inches,
' ** are alfo equal between themfelves.

** But things equal to one and the fame thing, are
^' equal to one another :

** Therefore alfo thefe triangles, Gfr. are equal be-
** tween themfelves, *'_

This obfervation will be found to hold In all immc-

D d 2 djatc

244

LOGIC J

Ijorj Bacon* the beft and foundeil of logicians, called made are no where &fely to be fottod* So thtti^
the key of interfretatian, ther poHtion of the Stagyrite, ihatfyihgifm u m^<]

VI. *^ Iniiead of taking his axioms arbitrarily out of prior in order t§ ifuiuSiOH^ is equally uofouoded; xt
the great families of the categories (fee Category ), indu^ton does not only natnrally but neceflaiih prtc
and ere^ing them by his own fophiRical invention in*
<to the principles upon which his difputadon was to' be
employed, had the analytical genius of Ariftotk pre«
fented us with the lawsof thetroc inductive l.ogic,
by which axioms are philAfophically formed, and

W W 4 i

Jyifo^m; and, except in mathematics is iocre^^
fped^ indifpenfable to its exiilence ; iince, till gctr.
are e'iabltihed, there can be neither defimhan^ pro^^
nor axiom f and of courfe no fyllogtfhi* And as iiid«ti2
is the firft, fo is it the more ejjeniiid and fundsKri

Jiad he with his ufual fagacity given us an example of inflrument of reafoning : for as fy11ogi£n cannot t<

»04
Iadii6tion
■prior CO

it in a ftngle branch of fciencc ; he would have brought
.to the temple of truth an offering more valuable than
be has done by the aggregate of all his logical and phi-
lofophical prod unions.

VII. •*' In all ibiences, except the mathematics, it it
. . only after the fNnucTivs procefs has been indufiriouf>
denxutioo, |y purfued and fuccefsfully performed, that definition
may be logically and ufefuUy introduced, by beginning
with the ^^iiiTj, palling through all the graduate and fub*
/ordinate ftages, and marking Hitfpecific difference as it de»
fcends, tiH it arrive at the individuaJt which is the fubje6l
of the queftion. And by adding an affirmjtian or ne*
gation of the attribute of the genus on the JPeciet or «•
dividua\ or of a general accident on the particular ^^«
Jiance fo defined, making the definition a propofition,
the truth of the queftion will be logically folved with-
out any farther procefs. So that inflead of being the
Jirjl^ as employed by the. logic in common ufe, dtfitu*
tion may be the loft a£k of reafon in the fearch of truth
•10$ ^^ general.
And to fyl- VIII. *' Thefe axioms or girneral propoiitions, thus
logifai. indudively eflabliflied, become another fpecies of prin-
ciples, which may be properly called secondary,
and which lay the foundation of the fyUogiftic method
of reafon ing. When thefe are fomaed, but not before,
we may fafely admit the maxim with which logicians
fet out in the exercife of their art, as the great hinge
on which their reafoning and difputation t4um : From
truth/ that are already hnovyn^ to derii*e others which are
not known. Or, to ilate it more comprebenfively, fo
as to apply to probable as well as to fcienti£c reafon*
ing— /rem truths which are better known, to derive others
which are lefs known^ PhiI«foph{calIy fpeaking, fyllo-
giftic reafoning is, under general prop^tions to reduce
pthers which are lefs general or which are particular ;
for the inferior ones are known t© be true, only as we
trace their conneAi*n with the fuperior. Logically
fpeaking, it is, To predicate a genus of a f pedes or in^
dividual comprehended under it, or an accident of the
fuhflance in which it is inherent.
'^ IX. " Thus induction and svhocism are the

iiAd"^U»? two method* of dlred reafoning correfponding to the

ififm total- twokindsof principles, /rmuiry and /rfcrw^ry, on which them all, if not interrupted by prejudice orpcnc^^

duce its own principkst it aiuft have them firom hct
tion ; and if the genexal propofitiona or fccoacsr
principles be imperfectly or infirmly cftabliihci m
much more if they be taken at hazard, upon autlenr:
or by arbitrary afliunption like thofe of Aritlotle, i^
the iyllog^mg in the woiid is a vain and ufcki'i kR>
machy, only inflruraental to the multiplication of M
learning, and to the invention and confinnatiQn of ott
The truth of fyllogifms depends ultimately on tlxtrj
of axioms, and ^he truth of axioms on the (bttodoebit
indu6Uons (E)."-~Biit though indu^ion it pro?:.
order, as well as fupeiior in utflity, tofyUogiihi, veiu?.
thought it expedient to treat of it laft ; both becsJE^
fyllogifm is an eafkr exercife of the reafoning £»sc['
than indudion, and becaufe it is the method of mrk-
matics, the firil fciencc of reafon in which the hca
is commonly initiated*

Chap- VI. 0/ Dan0nftration,

I. Havjnc difpatched what feesiied nece&ytctt
faid with regard to the two methods of dirrd m^
in^^ indu&ion 9Xi6, fyUdgtJrn ; we now proceed to ood
der ^e laws of demonftration. And here it iBoi'K
acknowledged, that in ftri^ demonibation, wlaciiR>
moves from the mind all poflibility of doubt or on.
the indu«5Uve method of rtrafonin^ can have nop^ ^
When the experiments and obfervations from vb
the general conclufion is drawn- are numcrootinio'
teniivcj the refult of this mode of reafoning if £»
certainty ; and could the indudion be made conp!<^'
it would be abfolute certainty, equally convincing *^
mathematical demonfbation. But however nununB
and exteniive the obfervations and expeiilnefitt ib^
be upon which an indudUve conduiion is dbbHibf^
they mull of neceflitv come fkort of the number i*
extent of nature ; which, in fome cafesi by Tt$ b
menlity, will defeat all poflibility of thdr co«k^
fton ; and in others, by its dtilance, h'es our ci i^
reach of their immediate application. Thougbtr^'
does not appear in all other departments of iwf^^
with that bold and refifllefs con>i6Uon with wliicbj
prefides in the mathematical fcience, it fhin«tliro«?

ly different, thcy arc founded, and by which they are refpedtively
condud^ed. In both methods, indeed, reafon proceeds
hy judging and comparing f but the procefs is different
throughout ; and thou[»h it may have the iandion of
Ariftotle, an inditdive fythgifm is a folccilm.
X. *• Till general truths are afcertained by induc-
tile founds- tion, the third or middle terms by which fyllogifms are
tion of fjU
logilJBi.

X07
Mu^ion

by error^ with a clear and ufeful, thougb infe"^,
ilrcngth. And as it is not neceflary for thf p^
fafcty or convenience of a traveller, that he ihouM »•
ways enjoy the heat and fplendor of a ^^^^^^
whilft he can with more eafe purfue his joumq' ^
the weaker influence of a morning or an evening iiy»'^
i\ is not requiiitef for the various cottcera«iA<^rf

(^. ) This chapter is almofl wholly taken from Tatham^s Chart and Soale of Trtith ; a work which, sot'"*
Aandini^ the rugged nefs of its iiyle» has fo much real merit as a fyfkm of logic, that it cannot be loo (iiMK^^^
ftudied by the young inquirer who wi^es to travel by t^c ftraight road io IQC tcnyle of Science.

r. L

pofes of Efe» that men fiiould beJcd by truth of the
xnoft redundant brightnefs. Such tmth is te be had
only in thofe fciences which are couTcrfant about ideas
and their various relations ; where every thing being
certainly what it appears to be, definitions and axioms
arife from mere intuition, litre Jyliogifm takes up the
procefs from the beginning ; and by a fublime intellec>
tual motion advances from the fimpleft axioms to the
moft complicated fpeculationsy and exhibits truth
springing out of its fim and pureft elements, and fpread>
ing on all fides into a fyftem of fcience. As each ftep
in the progrefs is fyllogiilicy we fhall endeavour to ex-
plain the ufe and application of fyllogifms in this fpc-
cii-s of reafoning.

We have feen, that in aH the different appearances
they put on, we ftill arrive at a jufl and legitimate con*
cluiioii ; now it often happens^ that the conclufion of
one f yllogifzn becomes a previous proportion in ano-
ther ;- by which means great numbers of them are
{bmetimes linked together in a fenes» and truths are
made tor follow one another in train. And as in fuch
a concatenation of fyllogifms all the various ways of
reafoning that are truly conclufive may be with fafety
introduced ; hence it is plain, that in deducing any
truth from its firft principles, efpecially where it lies at
a confiderable diitance from them, we are at liberty to
combine all the iever^C^inds of fyllogiims above ex-
plained, according as they are fotmd beft to fuit the
end and purpofe of our inquiries. When a propofi-
tion is thus, by means of fyllogifms, collefted from
others more evident and known, it is faid to be prove J;
fo that we may in the general define the proof of a
propofition to be a fyllogifm, or feries of fyllogifmst eol-
le£ling that propofition from known and evident truths.
But more particularly, if the fyllogifms of which the
proofs coafift admit of no premifes but definitions, felf.
evident truths, and proportions already eftabliflied, then
is the argument fo confiituted called a tLmonfiration ;
whereby it appears that demonftrations afe ultimately
ibunded on deTnitions and felf-evident propefitions.
y, II. AH fyllogifms whatfoever, whether compound,
bat- multiform, or defcjElive, are redncible ta plais fimple
c* fyllogirms in fome one of the four figures. But this is
^^ not all. ' Syllogifms af the Mt figure, in particular,
admit of all pofiible condufions : that is, any propofi-
tions whatfocver, whether an aniverfiil affirmative or
univerfal negative, a particular affirmativ« or parti-
cular negative, which fourfold, divifion. embraces all
their varietiet ; any one of thefe maj be inferred by
virtue of fome fyllogifm in. the firft ngure. By this
means it happens that the fyllogifms of aO the other
figures are reducible alfo to %£>gj£ais of the hxO^
gure, and may be confidered at ftaoding on the time
touDdation with them. We cannot heoe demonfbate
and explain the manner of thia redu^on^ becaufe it
would too much fwell the bulk of this^treatife* It.is
enough to take notice that, the thing is uaivtrfally
known and allowed among logicians,^ to. whole wri-
tings we refer fuch aadefin farther fatisfa^op in this
matter. This then beiiur laid down, it is plun that
any demonflration what^ever may he confidered as
compofcd of a feries. of fylk^fins, all in the firft fi-
gure. For, fince all the lyllogifkns that enter the de.
monftration are reducible to fyllogifms of fome one of
tlie foor £fuces| and fiace the fyflo^fias of itU the

■ ■ f

G i tX 415

other figures are farther redudbTe to fyllogiiml of the
firft figuiY, it is evident, that the whole denftonftra-
tion nuiy be refolved into a ^feries of thefe laft fyllo^
gifins. Let us now, if poffible, difcover the ground
upon which the condufion refts in fyUogifms of the
firft figure ; beeaufe, by fo doing, we (hall come at an
univerfal principle of certainty, whence the evidence
of all demonftrations in all their parts may be ulti*
mately derived. ^j^

III. The rules then of the firft figure are briefly Thegroand
thefe. The middle term is the fubjca of the major ?f «*^on-
propofition, and the predicate of the minor. The SJ g^^
major is always an univerfal propofition, and the mi- *
nor always affirmative. Let us now fee what effect
thefe rules will have in reafoning. The major is an
univerfal propofition, of which the middle term is the
fubje6t, and the predicate of the conclufion the predi-
cate* Hence it appears, that in the major the pre-
dicate of the conclufion is always afiirmed or denied
univerfally of the middle term. Again, the minor is-
an affirmative propofition, ^whereof the fubjed of the
conclufion is the fiibjeC^, and the middle term the pre-
dicate. Here tlien the middle term is affiimed of tht.
iubjed of the conclufion ; that is, the fubje^l of the
conclufion is affirmed to be Comprehended under, or
to make a part of, the middle term. Thus then wc
fee what is done in the premifes of a fyllogifm of the
firft figure. The predicate of the conclufion is uni«
verfally affirmed or denied of fome idea. The fub-
je£i of the conclufion is affirmed to be or to make a
part of that idea. Hence it aaturally and unavoidably
foUoMrs, that the predicate of the conclufion ought to
be affirmed or denied of the fubje£i. To illuftratethis
by an example, we (hall refume on^ of the f yllogifxn4
of the firft chapter.

^ Every creature poflefTed of reafon and liberty is

*' accountable for his a£Uons:
'* Man is a creature poffeffed of reafba.and liberty ::
** Therefore man is accountable fosv his actions.''
Here, in the firft propofition, the predicate of the
conclufion, accowUahiinefif is affirmed of all creatures
that have reafon and hberty. Again, in the feoond
propofition, mon, the fubj^^i' of the conclufion, is af*
firmed to be or to -make a part, of this dafs of creai»
tures. Hence the conclufion neccflarily and uhavoidi-^
ably fcdlows, viz. that man is accountable for his ac*
tions y beeaufe,. if reafon and hberty be that which
conftitutes a creature accouotabk, and man has reafon
and hberty, it is plain he. has that which conftitutes >
him accountafaje* In hke manner, where the major
is a negative, propofition, «»r denies the predicate of
the. cenclufion< univerfidl^ o£ the middle term, as the
minor alvrays afferte:-the fubje^ ofr the conclufion to
be OIL make a. part of that. middle. term, it is no lefs-
evident that the predicate, of tht conclufion oi^ht in
this cafa to be denied, of the fubje6k. So that the
^und of reafoning, in all fyllogifms of the firfl figure^
IS inanifeftly this r. ** Whatevier may he affirmed unv-
verfid^ of any idea,, may be affirmed of every, or
any number of particulars com^sehended under that
idea." And ag^ :. ^* Whatever may be denied
tmiverfally of any idea, . may be in like manner cenied
of every or any number of its individuals.." Thefe
two propefitions are called by logidaas the SSum de
mmip aad.4^«ia dcmihi and are indeed, the great

principles^

BUS t^ G

principles "^f fyflog^c roafoning, inafmuch as all con-
clufions wliktfoever either reft immediately upon them,
or upon ptopofitiong deduced from them. But what
adds greatly to their value ii, that they are really

t C. 1

tbui at lengtli we have, according to our tA cri;:
reduced the ceitainty of demonftration to oae fc^
and uniirerial principle ; which carries its own tr^^
^ong with it« and which is indeed the ultioate f^

111

felf-evident truths, and fuch as we cannot gainfay dauonj^f all fyllogifiic teafimin^.

without running into an cxprefs contradiAion* To

affirm» for inilance, that no man is perfiS^ and yet ai^

gue thatyoiMf men art perfeQ ; or to fay that all men are

mortal^ and yet ^ztfome men are not mortai^ is to affert

a thing to be and not to be at the fame time.

V. Ddmonftration therefore icnring as an isf^a]
guide to truthf and (landing en fo furc and ci^^
able a bails, we may now venture to affert, tk -^1
rules of logic fumiflLa fufficient criterion for tli(;H|
ftinguiihing between truth and faUehood. Far ^|
l>cmonftra- IVrAnd now we may affirm, that, in all fyllogiikls -every propofition that can be demonftrated istcti

famble
^ide to
troth und
certainty.

of the firft figure, if the premifes are true, the conclu-
iion mull needs be true. If it be true that the pre*
dicate of the conclufion, whether afErmative or nega-
tive, agrees univcffally to fofnc idea ; and if it be alfo
true that the fubjc£l of the conclufion is a part of or
comprehended Under that idea$ then it ncccffarily
follows, that the pJredicate of the conclufion agrees alfo
to the fubjed. For to affcrt the contrary, would be
to run counter to fome one of the two principles be*
fore eflablifhed ; that is, it would be to maintaii^ an
evident contradiAion. And thus \*'e are come at lad
to the point we have been all along endeavouring to
etlablifli ; namely, that every propofition which can
be demonftratcd is ncceflarily true. For as every
'demonftratioH may be refelved into a feries of fyllo-
gifms all in the firft figure \ and'ae in anyone of thefe
fyllogifms, if the premifes are true, the conclufion
muft needs be fo too \ it evidently follows, that if all
the fcvcral premifes are true, all the feveral condu*
fions are fo, and confequently the conclufion alio 6f mind, fuUy to inftruft us in all thefcpoints. It t<ac^

(arily true, he is able to diftinguifh truth &oi& Hk
hood who can with certainty judge when a pnp
tion is truly demonftrated* Now, a demoaftntioi; «
as we have faid, nothing more than a conatodt:
of fyllogifms, all whofe premifes are definition, k:<
evident truths, or propofitions previouOy dhbBd
To judge therefore of the validity of a demoo&itis;
we muit be able to diftinguifh whether the dejsbor
that enter it are genuine,, and truly defcnptive of u.*
ideas they are itieant to exhibit : whether tk p
pofitions affumed without proofs as intuitive tr^
have really that fdfreridence to which they lay els:
whether the fyllogifms are drawn up in due kz.
and agreeable to the laws of argumentation : is h.
whether they are combined together in a juil asdr-
derly nuinner, fo that no dibionflrable piopo£is
ferve any where as premifes unlefs they are coEdt
fions of prerious fyllogifms* Now, it h the ba^
of logic,' in explaining the feveral operations of ^

the nature and end of definitions, and lays dovii
rules by whic;h they ought to be framed. It "d^
the feveral fpedes of propofitions, and diib'ngdir;
the felf-evident from the demonflnible. It deliaei^
alfo the difi«rent forms of fyllogifins, and tx^hk\^
laws of argumentation proper to each. In finctit^-
fcribes the manner of combining fyllogifms, foastk
they may form a train of reafoning, and Wiofc
fucceilive difcovery of truth. Tlie precepts oflcp'^
therefore, as they enable us to judge with ccrtt^
when a propofition is duly demonftrated, fwDiij
fure criterion for the diftinguiftiing between tniii^

•the laft fyDogifm, ,which is always the proj)ofition to
be demonflrated. Now that all the premifes of a de^
monflration are true, will eafily appear from the very
nature and definition of that form of reafoning. A
demonftration, as we have faid, is a ferics of fyllo*
gifms, all whofe premifes are either definitions, felf-
evident truths, or propofitions already eftablifhed.
Definitions are identical propofitions, wherein we
conned the defcription of an idea with the name by
which we choofc to have that idea called, and there-
fore as to their truth there can be no difpute. Self-
-evident propofitions appear true of themfelves, and
leave no doubt or uncertainty in the mind. Propofi- falfehood
tions, before eftablifhed, arc no other than conclufions VI. Perhaps it niay be obje6led, that ^^^^\
gained by one or more fteps from definitions an(i felf- tlon is a thing very rare and untommon, « b«og ^
^erideht principles, that is, from true premifes, and preroptive of but a few feiences, and therefore^,!
therefore muft needs be true. Whence all the pre- criterion here given can be of' no great ufe. ^J
vious propofitions of a demonftration being, we fee, wherever, by the bare contemplation of our v^
tnanifeftly true j the laft conclufion, or propofition to ^ truth is difcoverable, there alfo demonftration naj'^j
be demonftrated, muft be fo too. So that demonftr?- attained. Now that is an abun<lantly fufficicntc"*^
tion not only leads to certain trnth# but we have here rion whieh enables us to judge T^ith cn^'n^y ^^
alio a clear view of the ground and foundation of that
•certainty. For as, in demonftratingy we may be faid
to do nothing more than combine a &ries of fyllogifms
together, all refting on the fame bottom ; it is plain
that one uniform ground of certaiitty runs through the
*whoIe, and that the conclufions are every where built
tipon fome one of the two principles before eftabli(hed,

as the foundation of all our reafoning. Thefe two ^^^ .«v«». w* w*....^ «*^.. »^..^...^wv « . .

principles are eafily reduced into one, and may be ex- there we are fure that fcientifical knowledge is ^
prefftd thus : <* Whatever predicate, whether affir- attainable. But where there is fome ^^^^^^^^
mative or negative, agrees univerfally to any idea ; reafoning, which yet amounts not to the ^ . u
*he fame muft needs agree to every xjr any number of of demonfbration, there the- precq>ts of j^' j/
individuals comprehended Under that idea." And teaching us tfv det^nUfte- wrfght rf the dep,
N^ 186. M ^

crfes where the knowledg<; of truth comes witlnfl ^
reach ; for with difcoveries, that lie bej^ond tk J
mits of the human mind, we have, propcrffi ^^ ^^
nefs or concernment. When a propofition isdf"*^^
ftrated, we arc certain of its truth. When; on u.
contrary, our ideas aire fuch as have no vifiblc connjc^
tion or repugnance, tend therefore furnift not the p.
per means of tracing their agreement or diragree|C^'

• LOG

proofs and of what u ftifl wanting to render it full
a.nd complete, enable u& to make a dae eftimate of
tlie meaiures of probabUityi and to proportion our
&irent to the grounds on which the propoiition ftands.
.Ajid this is sdl we can poffibly* arrive at> or ^ren fo
much as hope for, in the exercife of faculties (b im«
perfefl and h'mited as ours.

VI 1. Before we dondude this chapt^, it may not be

I a 417

true* For as the one is t>ece(Eurily trUe, and the other
neceflarily falfe ; when we cotne to difcover which is
the falfe proportion, we thereby alfo know the other
to be true.

IX. Now this is precifely the manner of an indireft ^. " 7
demonflration, as is evident from the account given ©^ *^ J^Jl^.
above. For there we aflume a propoiition which dire£Uy ^om a fore
contradi£bthat we mean to demonftrate ; and, having guide to
* improper to take notice of the diftin^ioa of demonftra- by a continued feries of proofs fliown it to be falfe, thence ceruint^.
tion into dina and ineKreff* A direS demonfiration is, « infer that its contradiSory, or the proportion to be
when, beginning with definitions, felf-etident propofi- demonftiat^ is true. As, therefore, this laft condu-

fion is certain and unavoidable ; let us next inquire

tions, or known and allowed tmthB,we form a train of fyl-
Jogifms, and combine them in an orderly manper, con-
tinuing the feries through a variety of fucceflive fteps,
until at laft we arrive at a fyllogifm whofe conclufion
is the proportion to be demonftrated. Proofs of this
kind leave no doubt or uncertainty behind them ; be«
caufe, all the feverd premifes being true, the conclu-
iions mufl be fo too, and of courfe the very laft con*
clufion or propofition to be proved. The ^other fpe-
cies of demonftration is the indirefff or, as it is fome-
times called, the apogogkal* The manner of proceed-
ing here is, by afluming a propoiition which direAly
contradi£t8 that we mean to demonftrate ; and thence.

afler what manner we come to be fatisfied of the falfe-
hood of the affumed propofition, that fo no poffible
doubt may remain as to die force and validity of de«
monibations of this kind. The manner then is plain-
ly this : Beginning with the afTumed propofition, we,
by die hdp of definitions, felf-evident truths, or pro**
poiitions already eftablifhed, • continue a feries of rea-
foning,^n the way of a diref^ demonftration, Until at
length we arrive at fome abfurdity or known fdfehood.
Thus Euclidy in the example before-mentioned, from
the fuppofition that cirdes touching one another in*
wardly have the fame centre, deduces, that a part is

by a continued train of reafoning, in the way of ^a di« equal to the whole* SincCi therefore, by a due and Of*

rc£b demonftration, deducing fome abfurdity or ma
nifeil untruth. For hereupon we condude, that the
proportion afiumed was fsdfe ; and thence again, by
an immediate confequence, that the propofition to be
demonftrated is true. Thus Euclid, in his third book,
being to demonftrate that circles which touch one another
inwardly have not the fame centre, aifumes the dire6^
contrary to this, viz. that they have the fame centre; and
thence, by an evident train of reafoning, proves that a
fart it equal to the whole. The fuppofition therefore
leading to this abfurdity he concludes to be fdfe, viz.
that circlet touching one another inwardly have the fame
centre ; and thence again immediatdy infers, that they
have not the fame centre*

VIII. Now, becaufe this manner of demonftration is
i o' accounteS by fome not altogether fo clear and fatisfac-
^a ^^^ ' ^^ ^^^ therefore endeavour to ihow, that it
Qra- equally with the other leads to truth and certainty.

derly proceis of reafoning, we come at laft to a hS£t
condufion ; it is manifeft, that all the premifes cail-
not be true : for, were all the premises true, the
laft condufion muft be fo too, by what has beea
before demonftrated. Now, as to all the other pre*
mifes made ufe of in the courfe of reafoning, they
are manifeft and known truths by fuppofition, as
being either definitions, felf-evident proportions, or
truths previoufly eftablifhed. The affumed propor-
tion is that only as to which any doubt or uncertainty
remains. That alone, therefore, can be fdfe ; and in-
deed, from what has been dready fhowu, muft una-
voidably be fo. And thus we fee, that in indired de-
monfbations, two contradi^ory proportions being laid
down, one of which is demonftrated to be falfe, the
other, which is dways the proportion to be proved.

lit

muft neceifarily be true ; fo that here, as wdl as ia
the diredl vray of proof, we arrive at a dear and iatif-
Two proportions are faid to be contradiStory one of fadory knowledge of truth.

another, when that which ia aflerted to be in the one X. This is univerfally the method of reafoning in all . Jli^i,
is afferted not to be in the other. Thus the propo- apogogicdorindiref^dcmonftrations. But if any pro- la^'^iiie of
fitions. Circles that touch ow another inwardly have the portion is affumed, from which, in a 6sre€t train of indireddc^
fame centre f and Circles that touch one another inwardly reafoning, we can deduce its contradi^ry \ the pro- moniha-,

portion fo affumed is fdfe, and the contradictory one ^'^*'
true. For if we fuppofe the affumed proportion to
be true, then, rnce dl the other premifes that enter
the demonftration are dfo true, we fhdl have a feries
of reafoning confifting wholly of true premifes ;
whence the laft concluron or contradidary of *the af-
fumed proportion muft be true likewife : fd that by
this means we fhodd have two contradictory propor-
tions both true at the fame time, which is manifeftly
impoifible. Tht affumed proportion, tlierefore, whence
this abfurdity flows, Ynuft neceffarily be &lfe ; and
confequendy its contradictory, which is here the pro-
portion deduced from it, )nuft be true. If then any

have not the fame centre, are contraSOories, becaufe the
fecond afTerts the direCt contrary of what is afferted
in the rriL Now, in all contradidory proportions,
this holds univerfally, That one of them is neceflarily
true, and the Pther neceffarily fdf^. For if it be
true, that circles which touch one another inwardly
have not the fame centre ; it is unavoidably fdfe, that
they haVe the fame centre. On the other hand, if it
be falfe that they have the fame centre, it is neceflarily
true that they have not the fame centre. Since therefore
it is impoffible for them to be both true or both falfe
at the fame time ; it unavoidably 4^Uows, that one
is neceflarily true, and the other neceflarily falfe. This

then being allowed, which is indeed felf-evident ; if any "proportion is propofed to be demonftrated, and we

two contradictory proportions are aflumed, and one of ajume the eontradiSory of that proportion, and thence

them can by a dear train of reafoning be demonftra- dire^ly infer the propofition to be demonftrated ; b^

ted to be falfe, it neceflarily follows that the other ia this vexy means we know that the propofition fo in*

VoL.X«FartI« . Sc ftrred^

ai8 L O

•

ferred ii true. Tatf finct from an tfliimed propofition
we have deduced its contraAi6torjf we are thereby
certain that the aftimed propofition is falfe | and if Toi
then its contradi^oryi or that deduced from it» which
in thia cafe is the fame with the propofition to be de-
monftrated, mull be true.
iif XI. We have a curious inftance of this in the twelfth

ti%^ propofition of the ninth book of the Elements. Eu-
of theprm* ^^ there propofes to demonftrate, thai in any fmet
cipka ef lo* 9f numberi^ rifing from unity in geometrical frogref»
gie indU'- ^aii» all the prime numhers that meafure the la/i term
penialkly ;„ the ferret wiH alfo meafure the next after unity. In
in^tls^ ^° order to thiSf he aflumes the contradid^ory of the pro-
poper pofition to be demonflrated ; namely> that fome prime
Judges of number meafuring the Iqji term in the feries does not
^emeoara. „feafure the next after unity ; and thence, by a conti-
nued train of reafoning, proves that it a6lually does
B\earure it. Hereupon he concludes the aflumed pro-
pofition to be £dfe ; and that which is deduced from
it. Or its contradictory, which is the very propofition
he propofed to demonftrate, to be true. Now that
this is a juft and condufive way of reafoning, is a-
bundantly manifeft from what we have fo clearly efta-
blifhed above. Whence k appears, how neceflary fome
knowledge of the rules of logic is^ to enable us to judge
of the force, juftnefs, and validity, of demonftntions.
For, though it is readily allowed, that hf the mere
ftrength of our natural faculties we can at once difcem,
that of two contradictory propofitlons, the one is ne-
cefiarily true, and the other necefiarily fiadfe ; yet

w&en they are fo Enkc# together is a

as that the one ferres as a previous aropofition

the other is deduced, it does not lb unmcdxsteiy

pear, without fome knowledge of the principles

gic, why that alone, which is eoBcded by re **

ought to be embraced as true, and the others

it IS collected, to be reje£led as frlfe.

' XII. Having thus fufficiently evinced the

demonftrstion m all its branches, and ihown the

which we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at ^ '.:=

conclufion, according to the various ways of aig7s£=!r

made ufe of ; it is needlefs to enter upon a psrticsa'

confideration of thofe fcveral fpecies of ialfe rea£&rLi=ic.

which logicians diftinguifh by the name of foftte >=. .'

He that thoroughly underflands the form and Et-tlt-

ture of a good argument, will of himfelf itAdsIy dif>

cern every deviation from it. And although ^^^J^^«3-

have been divided into many claiTes, which aie 2I!

called by founding names, that therefore carry in tkj

much appearance of learning ; yet are the care
themfelves fo very palpable and obvious, that it ircJ
be loft labour to write for a man capable of brm?
mifled by them. Here, therefore, we choofe to coadod^
this part of logic ; and (hall in the next give /^sc
account of Method: which, though infeparable fiu-s
reafoning, is neverthelefs always confidered by k^-
cians as a diftinCl operation of the mind ; beczs^
its influence ii> not confined to the mere exerci£e s£
the reafoning faculty, but extends in fome degree t3
all the trania£Uons of the underftanding.

PartIV. Of method.

ISI

The Bndcr<

fisnding

ipmetimes

employed

ia putting

together

known

Sruthi.

T2S

Sometime*

in the

fcarchand

difcovery

of fuch at

areuo-

kaowD.

"TXTE have now done with, the three firft operations
of the mind, whofe office it is to fearch after
truth, and enlarge the bounds of human knowledge.
There is yet a fourth, which regards the difpofal and
arrangement of our thoughts, when we endeavour fo
to put them together as that their mutual conne^on
and dependence may be clearly feen. This is what lo-
gicians call Methody and place always the laft in order
m explaining the powei#' of the underftanding ; be-
eaufe it necef&rily fuppofcs a previous exerciie of our
other faculties, and fome progrefs made in knowledge
before we can exert it in any extenfive degree.

II» In this view, it is plain that we muft be before-
hand well acquainted with the truths we are to combine
together ; 'btherwife, how could we difcem their feveral
connexions and relations, or fo difpofe of them as
their mutual drpendence may require \ But it often
happens, that the underftanding is employed, not in
the arrangement and compofition of known truths,
but in the frarch and i^fcovery of fuch as are un-
known. And here the manner of proceeding is very
different. We afiemble at once our wh(^e ftock of
knowledge relating to any fubjeft, and, after a gene-
ral furvey of things, begin with examining them fe-
parately and by parts. Hence it comes to pafs, that
whereas, at our firft felting out, we vrere acquainted
#nly with fome of the grand ftrokes and outlines of
truth ; by thus purfuii^ her through her feveral
windings and recefies, we gradually difcover thofe
more mward and finer touches whence (he derives all
her 'ftrei^thy fymmetry, and beauty. And here it

is, that when, by a narrow icrutiny into tliTng^ «e
have unravelled any part of knowledge, and traced ft
to its firft and original principles, infomuch that tk
whole frame and contexture of it lies open to the vkv
of the mind ; here it is, that, taking it the contivr
way, and beginning with thefe principles^ we can ts
adjuft and put together the parts as the order and aie-
thod of fcience requires.

III. But as thefe things are heft underftood when 3-
luftrated by examples ; let us fuppofe any xnackine, for
inftance a watch, prefented to us, whofe ftru^uie isd
compofition we are as yet unacquainted with, l»t
want, if poilible, to difcover. . The manner of pro-
ceeding, in this cafe, is, by taking the whole to pieces,
and examining the parts feparatety, one after another.
When, by fuch a fcnitiny, we have thoroug^y ia.
formed ourfelves of the fi^e and contexture of eack,
we then compare them together^ in order to judge of
their mutual a^on and influence. B^ this means we
gradually trace out the inward make and compofitioa
of the whole, and come at length to difcem how parti
of fuch a form, and fo put. together as^we found i?
unraveHing and taking them a^nder, conftitute that
particular machine called a ^match^ and contribute ta
all the feveral motions and phenomena obfervable ia
it. This difcovery being made, we can take diings
the contrary way, and, beginning with the parts, fa
difpofe and conned them as their (evend ufes and ftruc-
tures require, until at length we arrive at the whofe
itfelf, firom the unravelling of which thofe parts re*
fulted.

IV.Aad

L O G I a 2.19

IV. And M It IS m tncing und examimng the works method ofdoSntu or hj/lntSm ; inafmiich as, ia bjing
^f art ; A> is it, in a great mealurey in unfolding any part our thoughts before others, we generally chooie to
^£ human knowledge : for the relations and mutual proceed in the fynthetic manner, deducing them from
babitudeS'Of things do not always inmiediately appear their firil principles. For we are to obferve, that al*
apon comparing them one with another. Hence we though there is great pleafure in purfuing truth in the
have recourfe to intermediate ideas i and, by means of method of inveftigation, becaufe it places us in the
them, are furnilhed with thofeprevious proportions that condition of the inventor, and ihows the particular
lead to the concluiion we are in queil of* And if it train and proce'fs of thinking by which he arrived at ^
fo happen that the previous propofitions themfelves are his difcoveries ; yet it is not fo well accommodated to "
not fufficiently evident, we endeavour. By new middle the purpofes of evidence and convi^on. For, at our
terms, to afcertain their truth ; ' flill tracing things firil fetting out, we are commonly unable to divine
backward, in a continual feries, until at length we where the analyfis will lead us ; infomuch that our re-
arrive at fome fyllog^m where the premifes are firft fearches are for fome time little better than a mere
and felf-evident principles. This done, ,we become groping in the dark. And even after Ught begins to
.perfe6Uy iatisfied as to the truth of all the conduiions break in upon us, we are ftill obliged to many reviews,
'we have pafled through, inafmuch as they are now and a frequent comparifon of the feveral fteps of the
ieen to iiand upon the firm and immoveable founda* invefUcration among themfelves. Nay, when we have
tion of our intuitive perceptions. And as we arrived unravelled the whok, and reached the very foundation-
^t this certainty by tracing things backward to the on which our difcoveries fland, all our certainty, in re**
original principles whence they flow ; fo may we at gard to their truth, will be found in a great meafure to
any time renew it by a dired contrary procefs, if, be- arife from that connedtion. we are now able to difcem
ginning with thefe principles, we carry the train of between them and firil principles, taken in the order of
our thoughts forward until they lead us, by a con- compofition. But in the fynthetic manner of dilpo-
ne£led chain of proofs, to the very laft condufiou of iing our thoughts, the cafe is quite different : for at
the feries. we here begin with the intuitive truths, and advance
V. Hence it appears, that, in difpofing and putting by regular dedufUons from them, every ftep of the
together our thoughts, either for our own ufe, that the procedure brings evidence and convidioA along with
difcoveries we have made may at all times lie open to it ; fo that, in our progrefs from one part of know-
- the review of the mind, or where we nflbn to commu- ledge to another, we have always a clear perception of
nicate and unfold the difcoveries to others, there are the ground on which eiur affent relis; In conmiuni-
two ways of proceedingr equally within our ohoice : eating therefore our difcoveries to others, this method
for we may fo propofe the truths relating to any part is apparently to be chofen, as it wonderfully improves
of knowledge, as they prefented themfelves to the mind and enlightens the underftanding, and leads to an im-
in the manner of invefligation ; carrying on the feries mediate perception of truth.

of proofs, in a revcrfe order, until they at laft termi- VII. The logic which for fo many ages kept pof-

nate in 'firil principles : or, beginning with thefe prin- fefllon ,of the fcnools, and was deemed the mofl im-

ciples, we may take the contrary way, and from them portant of the fciences, has long been condemned as a

deduce, by a direft train of reafoning, all the feveral mere art of wrangling, of very little ufe in the purfuit

propofitions we want to eftabliih. This diverfity in the of truth. Attempts have been made to reflore it to

manner of arranging our thoughts gives rife to the credit, but without fuccefs ; and of .late years little or

twofold divifion of method eflabHfhed among logi- no attention whatever has been paid to /A^ or/ o/" rr<^-

cians: for method, according to their ufe of the word, ing in the courfe of what is called a liberal education.

is nothing elfe but the order and difpofition of our As both extremes may be faulty, k fhould feem that

thoughts relating to any fubje6l. When truths are fo we cannot conclude this ihort treatife more properly

propofed and put together as they were or nught have than with the following

been difcovered, this is called the ojio/p/^ mf/i^o^, or the » f yr i- r

method of refoluHon ; inafmuch as it traces things back- Reflections on the Utilitt of Logic.

ward to their fource, and refolves knowledge ints its If Ariflode was not the inventor of logic, ^he. wa«

firft and original principles. When, on the other hand, certainly the prince of logicians. The whole theory

they are deduced from thefe principles, and conned^ed of fyllogifms he claims as his own, and as the firuit of

' according to their mutual dependence, infomuch that much time and Ubour ; and it is univerfally known,

the truths firfl in order tend always to the demonilra- that the later writers on the art have borrowed their

tlon of thofe that follow; this confUtutcs what we call materials almofl entirely from his Organon and Por-

' ihc fynthetic method^ OT method of compojition. For here phyry's IntroduAion. But after men had laboured

' we proceed by gathering together the feveral fcatter- near 2000 years in fearch of truth by the help of fyU

ed parU of knowledge, and combining them into one logifins, Lord Bacon propofed the method of indue-

' whole or fyftem, in fuch manner that the undcrfland- tion, as a more effeAual engine for that purpofe ; and

' ing 18 enabled dillindly to follow truth through all her fince his days the art of logic has gradually fallen into

ditterent ftages and gradations. - difrepute.

'. VI. There is this farther to be taken notice of, in To- this confequence many caufcs contributed. The

I relation to thefe two fpecies of method ; that the firft art of fyllogifm is admirably calculated for wrangling; '

^\a& alfo obtained the name of the method of invention^ and by the fchoolmen it was employed with too much

"^ hccaufe it obferves the order in which our thoughu fuccefs, to keep in countenance the abfuidities of the

lodfucceed one another in the invention or difcovery of Romifli churdu Und^r their management it pro.

tc. uuth. The other, again, is often denominated the duced numberkls difputes, and numberlefs fe&s, wh*

£ e a fought

2ao

LOGIC.

Sought agafnft each other with much ^nimofity with-
out gaining or lofing ground; but it djd nothing con-
fiderable for the benent of human lift» whillt the me-
thod of induction has improved arts and increafed
knowledge. It is no wonder, therefore, that the ex-
cefliTe admiration of Ariftotle, which continued for (o
many ages, (hould end in an undue contempt ; and
that the high efleem of logic, as the grand engine of
fcience, ihould at lafl make way for too unfavourable
an opinion, which feems now prevalent, of its being
unworthy of a place in a liberal education. Men rare-
ly leave one extreme without running intothe contrary :
Thofe who think according to the fafhion, will be as
prone to go into the prefent extreme as their grand-
fathers were to go into the former; and even they who
in general think for themfelves, when they are offend-
ed at the abufe of any thing, are too apt to entertain
prejudices ajrainft the thinir it/eff, ** In practice (fays
t ^«'^'". the learned Warborton f ), logic is more a irick than
«r ii^" ''^/cience^ formed rather to amufe than to in(lru£l. And
' in fome fort we may apply to the art of fyllogiiin what

a man of wit fays of rhetoric, that it only tells us how
to name thofe tools which nature had before put into
our hands. In the fervice of chicane, indeed, it is a
ineer juggler's knot, now faft, noW loofe; and the
fchools where this legerdemain was exercifed in great
perfeddon are full of the ftories of its wonders." The
authority of IVarhurton is great ; but it may be coun«
terbalanced by another which, on fubje6b of this na-
ture, is confeffedly greater.

** Laying afide prejudice, whether fafliionable or
J- JppndUe anfa(hionable,let us confider (fays Dr Reid :() whether
#p tpr^ - logic is or may be made fubfervient to any good purpofe.
SUtcltm ^^' profeffed end is, to teach men to tliink, to judge,
ibePrimdpU' ^d to reafon, with precifion and accuracy. No man
amJ PrtgrytyrnSi (ay that this is a matter of little importance : the
mflUmftm* ^^ly thing therefore' that can admit of doubt is, whe-
ther it can be taught ?

** To refolve this doubt, it may be obferved, that
our rational faculty is the gift of God, given to
men in very different meafures : Some have a *large
portioi), fome a Icfs ; and where there is a remarkable
dcfedl of the natural power, it cannot be fupplied by
. any culture. But this natural power, even where it
is the ftrongeft, may lie dead for want of the means of
improvement. Many a favage may have been born
with as good faculties as a Newton^ a Bacon^ or an
j^riftot/e; but their talents were buried by having never
been put to ufe, whilft thofe of the philofopheis were
cultivated to the beft advantage. It may likewife be
obferved, that the chief mea^ of improving our ration-
al power, is the vigorous exercife of it in variou^ways
and on different fubje6ls, by which the habit is ac-
quired of cxercifing it properly. Without fuch ex-
eicife, and good fenfe over and above, a man who has
ftudied logic all his life may be only a petulant wrang-
ler, without true judgment or flcill of reafoning in any
fcience*"

This mufl have been Locke's meaning, when in his
Thoughts on Education he fays^ '* If you would have
- your fon to reafon well, let him read ChiUingworth.''
The fbite of things is much altered fince Locke wrote:
Logic has been much improved chiefly by his writings;
md yet much lefs ftrefs is laid upon it, and lefs time
confumedin its ftudy. His counfel, therefore, was ju-

dicious and feafonable; to wit. That the imprnn^
of our reafoning power is to be expeded mucbrv^.
from an intimate acquaintance with the aatboiT.
reafon bed, than from fludying voluminous fjHir.
fchool logic. Bi^tf he had meant, that the he:.
logic was of no ^^ nor deferred any attention. >
furely would not have taken the pains to makt Lcr-
fiderable an addition to it, by his £fay on tht Hun
Underfland'mg^ and by«his Thoughts on the CWka ^
Und^andlng ; nor would he have remitted his prj
to Cbillmgworihf the acuteft logician as well as tk ^
reafoner of his age."

There is no fludy better fitted to exerdfc d
ftrengrthen the reafoning powers than that of iLc :.
thematical fciences ; becaufe there is no other Itil-j
offcience which gives fuch fcope tobngand^.'
rate trains of reafoning, or in which there is hh\
room for authority or prejudice of any kind lo : n
faljfs bias to the judgment. When a youth of ^o
rate parts begins to liudy Euclid, every thing b %-;
to him : His apprehenfion is unfleady ; his juc^ i
is feeble ; and refb partly upon the evidenre < ;
thing^ and partly upon the authority of hb ta.
But every time he goes over the definitions, thcur
the elementary propofitions, more light breaks ir. r.
him ; and as he advances, the road of democir;.
becomes fmooth and eafy: he can walk initk.
and take wider fteps, till at lafl he acquires tk:^
not only of ufideritanding a demonftration, but(fc
covering and demon ffarating mathematical tTvtli>.

It muft indeed be confefled, that a man witiioQ:-v
ndes of logic may acquire a habit of reafoniog j^
in mathematics i and perhaps in any other fcieDce. Gca
fenfe, good examples, and affiduous exercife, imfb:
a man to reafon juiUy ai^ acutely in his own prc^<
without rules. But whoever thinks, that &u3 h
conceffion he may infer the inutility of logic, b^^^
by this inference a great want of that art ; k: "
might as vrell infer, becaufe a man may go from ^
burgh to London by the way of Paris, that tktJ 1
any other road is ufelefs.

There is perhaps no art which may not be acqin? i
in a very confiderable degree, by exampk and p
tice, without reducing it to rules. But predict;.'
ed with rules may carry a man forward in hisrtii'
ther and more quickly than pra^ice without la^f "
Every ingenious artift knows the utility of havi::^
art reduced to rules, and thereby made a fciencf. "I
rules he is enlightened in his pra6lice, and works*-'
more affurance. They enable him fomctimestoc^:^^
his own errors, and often to dete& the errors of oici
and he finds them of great ufe to confirm his ju
to juftify what is right, and to condemn whatisw'j^'
Now mathematics arc the noblefl praxlt d»>
Through them we may perceive how the ^^^^^
of fyllogifm are exemplified in one fubjefti natnelj'^
predicament of quantity ; and by marking the forc«
thefe forms, as they are there applied, we may ^^
abled to apply them of ourfelves elfewhcrc. ^^l^
thefcfore, will fludy mathematics with this wev, '
become not only by mathematics a more cxp^t fep
arty and by logic a more rational matbematiciatii*^ ,
wifer philofopher, and an acuter reafoner, in autcf .
fible fubjeas either of fcience or deliberation. ^^J
when mathematics, . ioftcad of being ^^^cd to ^,

silent t>iirpofc, arc ufed not to exemplify logic, but
3 fupply its place ; no wonder if logic fall into con-
cmpt, and if mathematics, inftcad of furthering fci-
nce, become in fa»£t an obftacle. For when men,
Lnowing nothing of that rcafoning which is umverfaiy
;oine to attach thcmfelves for years to ^JingUfpecies^
I fpccies wholly involved in hnes and numbers^ the mind
>ecomes incapacitated for reafoning at large, andefpe-
:ially in the fearch of moral trtab* The objc6t of ma-
:hematic8 is demon/lration ; and whatever in that fcience
s not demonftration, is nothing, or at leafl below the
Tublime inquirer's regard. Prvbabtliiy^ through its al-
moft infinite degrees, from fimple ignorance up to abfo-
iUte certainty ,13 the terra incognita of the mathematician.
And yet her* it is that the great imfineft of the human
mind is carried on in the fearch and difcovery of all the
important truths which concern us ar reafonable be-
ings. And here too it ts that all its vigour is exerted :
for to proportion the aflcnt to the probability accom-
panying every varying degree of moral evidence, re-
quires the moft enlarged and fovereign excrcife of rca-

fon.

In reafonings of this kind, wiU any man pretend
that it is of no ufe to be well acquainted with the va-
rious powers of the mind by which we reafon ? Is it
of no ufe to refolve the various kinds of reafoning in-
to their fimple elements ; and to difcover, as far as we
are able, the rules by which thefc elements are com-
bined in judging and in reafoning ? Is it of no ufe to
mark the various fallacies in reafoning, by which even
the moft ingfcnious men have been led into error ? It
muft furely betray great want of underftanding, to
think thefe things ufelefs or unimportant. Now thefc
are the things which logicians have. attempted \ and
which they have executed— not indeed fo completely
as to leave no room for improvement, but in fuch a
manner as to give very confiderablc aid to our reafon-
ing powers. That the principles they have laid down
with regard to definition and divifion, with regard to
the converfion and oppofition of propofitions, and the
general rules of reafoning, are not without ufe, is fuf-
ficiently apparent from the blunders committed daily
jDy thofe who difdain any acquaintance with them.

Although the art of categorical fyllogifm is confef.
£cdly little fitted for the difcovery of unknown truth,

G 1 c.

It may yet be employed to excellent poif ofc8» as it i**
perhaps the moft compendious method of dete61ing a
fallacy. A man in queft of unknown truths miift ge-
nerally proceed by the way of indu<Siion, from efFedis to
caufes ; but he, who as a teacher is to inculcate any
fyftem upon others, begins with one or more felf-evi-
dent truths, and proceeds in the way of demonfbation,
to the conclufion which he wifties \o eftablifh. Now
every demonftration, as has been already obferved, may
be refolved into a ferics of fyllogifms, of which, the con-
clufion of the preceding always enters into the premi-
fes of that which follows ; and if the firft principles be
clear- and evident, and every fyUogifm in forae legiti*"
mate mode and figure, the conclufion of the whole
muft infallibly be admitted. But when the demon-
ftration is thus broken into parts; if we find that the
conclufion of one fyllogifm will not, without altering
the meaning of the terms, entei^legitimately into the
prelnifes of that which fhould immediately follow ; or,,
fuppofing it to make one of the premifes of a new fyl-
logifm, if we find that the conclufion, refulting from
the whole ferics that obtained, is di&rent from that
of the demonftration ; we may, in either of thefe cafes,
reft aflured that the author^s reafoning is fallacious^,
and leads to error ; an^that if it can'ied an appear-
ance of convi6lion before it was thus refolved into its-
elementary parts, it muft have been owing to the ina-
bility of the mind to comprehend at once a long train
of arguments* Whoever wifhes to fee the fyllogiftic
art employed for this purpofe, and to be convinced of
the truth of what we have faid refpe<5^ing its utility,,
may confult |he excellent writer recommended by
Locke, who, in places innumerable of his incomparable
book, has, without pedantry, even in that pedantic
age, made the happieft application, of the rules of logic
for unravelling the fophiitry of his Jefuitical antago--
nift.

Upon the whole, then, though we readily acknow-
ledge that much time was wafted by our forefathers
in fyllogiftic wrangling, and what might vrith little
impropriety be termed the mechanical part of logic y,
yet the art of forming and examining arguments is cer-
tainly an attainment not unworthy the ambition of that,
being whofe highcft honour is ta be endued with rea-
fon.

2'%Y

LOG

LOGIST-E, certain officers at Athens, in num-
ber ten, whofe bufinefs confifted in receiving and paf-.
fingthc accounts of magiftrates when they went out
' of ofiicc. The hgijla were elefted by lot, and had
ten euthyni or auditors of accounts under them.

LOGOGRAPHY, a new method of printing, in
which the types, inftead of anfwering only to fingle let-
ters, arc made to corrcfpond to whole words.

This method, though feemingly a retrograde pro-
ceffionin the printing art, has lately obtained the fanc-
tion of his Majefty*B patent, and has for fome time
been actually put in execution in the way of trade,,
apparently with advantage to the proprietors. In
the year 1783, a treatlfe upon this fubjeA appeared,
by Henry Johnfoa,; in whkh the origin as well as

L O G«

the utility of the art are fully laid down, and the ^'**T^*''
matter fet forth in fuch* a light ad can- fcarce aUow ^J^ j
us to doubt that it is an improvement in the art.
Mr Johnfon informs us^ that about five years before, ,
viz. in the year. 1778, intending to publifh a daily
lift of blanks and prizes in the lottery numerically ar-
ranged, he found it could not be accomplifhed in time
by the ordinary way of printing, On this account
he procured types of two, three, or more figures as -
was neccflary for his purpofe ; and thus any entire num»- ''

her mtght as readily be taken up as if it had been a<
fingle type. His next attempt was in forming fome :
large mercantile, tables of pounds, fhillings, pence, and*,
farthings. For thefe he procured types expreffive of
any fum of money ready compofcd and united, " b'v-

whicA

LOG [a

Logogrt- which (fiiys he) every fpecies of figure-priating could
P^' . be performed for the tenth part of the coft, printers
always charging it double the price of letter print-
ing." Having thus fucceeded to hid wifh in his two
£rft attempts^ he next began to confider if the me*
thod could not be applied to words; and in thu alfo
the fuceeffi was equal.

The properties of the logographic art, according
to ourauthor^ are, i. That the compofitor (hall have
iefs charged upon his memory than in the common
way. 2. It is much Iefs liable to error. 3. The
type of each word is as eaiily laid hold of as that of
a fmgle letter. 4. The decompofition is much more
readily performed, even by the merefl novices, than
they now decompofe letters. 5* No extraordinary
«xpence nor greater number of types is required in the
logographic than in the conunon method of printing. |

The hrfi of thefe )K>iit4onA is proved by our author
in the following mapper. In the common method,
the compoiitor has 150 divifions to Mshich there is no
reference, and the printing offices are not agreed with
refpe6i to the mode of placing their boxes ; ^* but
under this improvement* he has only to know the
letters of the alphabet, and is ailifted with an index
of them, infomuch that the fimplicity of the latter
apparatus enables him, by a little pradice, to lay his
finger almoft blindfold on the word required ; and the
mcaneft capacity is equal to this mental exercife,
having little more to do than knowing by infpeffcion
the difference between words under three and thofe
above three fyllables; and all the apparatus being
within a compafs not a great deal nu)re extended than
•common printing, for thefe reafons he is as foon pof-
felTed of his type of a word as they are of a fingle
letter.'*

Thus the firft and third pofitions may be faid to
be proved $ but in his proof of the fecond, our author
himfelf (hows that his art is not infallible, by fubfti-
tuting the word ihird io&c^A ^i fecond. Subftitutions
of this kind, he owns, may readily take place \ but
fuch errors are much more confpicuous than literal
ones, though they may be corrected with equal eafe ;
^* for the enx>neous fubfUtution cannot fail of being
nearly equal in length to the word required; although,
even othenvife, it would not be attended with greater
difadvantage than in the common way, and it would
be redlified with greater facility."

The eafe with which the compofition is performed,
(hows that there muft be an equal eafe in performing
the decompofition 5 ** from whence (fays Mr John-
fon)" it is further demon ftrable, that any work can
be compofed by this method nearly as foon as it can
be deliberately read ; and as to the fifth pofition, that
it (hall not require a greater expence of types, it is
anfwered, that it is impofTible for more types of let-
ters to be wanted for this method than by any otlier
printer according to the equal quantity of bufinefs to
be performed, every office having certain known quan-
tities of each letter called ^ fount. A printer's fount
contains about 92,500 letters, and our want is not
more ; nay, nearer the truth, the prefcnt quantity
for a fount containing much more of fome letters than
neceifary, and fewer of others ; which arifes from the
calculation of the quantity of each letter wanted be-
ing adhered to fince the oldfpelling.

a2 ] LOG

Our author now proceeds to demooftrate tlui *jLt
number of types muft neceffarily decreafe as they a::
combined into fyllables, and much more when forad
into words* The whole art of arranjging tlie vr^i
coafiils in placing them under as few diviiloBS as p. <
fible, and ftill fewer fubdivifions ; which is attained b
the following procefs*

I. A colle^on of words, with the addition c
tenfes, plurals, and degrees of comparifon, amocn^
ing to more than 100,000, was made frooi the Sd
Englifh difkionaries.

a. CoUedUons were made from the mifcellaneofis jzr,
of 20 newfpapers, the Spe^tor, and Comnion Prayr-
book. The method was, by procuring duplicaLB 1
every (heet, fo that each alternate iide might be pa.^
over with white paper, in order to leave the whok i
the words on both (ides perfe6l ; and thus the ^h.t
might be touched with Iefs danger of injury than othc^
wile could have been done. Tlie confufion ari^
from the parts of other words being feen froic tL:
oppoiite fide was likewife prevented.

3. The words, being feparately cut out, were c&s
put into a cafe marked with the divifioas £rom oce c
16, according to the number of letters contaioecis
each word. Thus feveral letters were diflincUy ca-
le^ed ; and then each feparate parcel forted in a ok
containing 26 .divifions, marked with the letters d
the alphabet, according to the commencing letter n
the word; and thus idl the words were ranged alpb'
betically, confiding of two, three, four, or fivt k-
ters, in feparate parcels.

4* The feme words were then placed together, xl
pofted into an alphabet, with the number of tirsa
marked to each that had occurred on the whole ; tki:
in this manner a proportion might be determined bcw
many times particular words ought to be repeated ix
the printing of one (heet, and alfo to know wi^s
words are in general ufe : There are likewife a nua-
ber of technical terms, and £ivourite phrafes a ^^
number of times repeated almofl by every author , ba
though thefe occur throughout the whole book iu
grreat proportion to the reft, no more of them wiD b€
neceflary than what fuffice for a fingle fheet.

5. The whole of the above might be done witboji
the trouble juft mentioned, by poiling every word at
once into a triformed alphabet ; becaufc the fubdi^-
fions of tlie fecond and third commencing letter d
each word for references are now obtained, and tLci
can eafily be placed in its proper divifion, and may \a
marked as often as it occurs, without repeating tlte
fame word ; whence we plainly fee the eafe and cxp6
dition of it, from the facility and expedition of poll-
ing every word from a leaf in any book. Before lucli
fubdivifions were known, they could only have beco
placed under the firfHrommencing letter of the word \
which would caiife fuch a multiplicity of repetitions,
that it would take up more time, be far more liabk
to error, and require more fiibordinate pollings to
bring them into arrangement; fo that they maybe
found more eafily than by the above proceedings. Thuj
alfo a coUedion will be obtained of fingle and doubk
words, which are conftandy required from 20 to 400
or 500 times in the printing one fheet of any work
whatever ; and which alone would abridge the com*
pofitor's work near one-third. This fecond procds

likewife

LOG

t 223 2

LOG

1 1. Thus It will be found, that out 0/ mor? than Loptf»

^T^ ^ i^t **" ■''*?'" to wjea, out of the firft 1 1. 1 nus it wiu be found, that out of mow than Lor*.

J^ coHeftwn, obfofcte wonls, technrcal terms, &C. which looiooo wonl. of which the EnjrKfh lanVuaM^onfift, pS?

*— ^'— reduces the original coUe^ion to one fifth pwt. there wiU not be wanted much aCcTfoo for a com -^

6. By proceeding in thw manner, feveral fpecies of plet* fount. This wiU be verv evident to anv n^^oL'

words wee omitted m the founts. 1 . Obfofete words y who- ionfults a diaionary. He wiU th*i* fin J ^hl^

becaufe they occur fo feldom, that the difference of vaft number of words require an explanadon • w£«as

time loft m compofing them in the ordinary method m any mifcellaneous work,, there are none b^^^S

Would be unperceptible. 2. Technical tenns, names can be undetftood moft readily either together' orT

ef placw, animals, &c. j though, for any particular part. Newfpapers- retain mo« of the uncommon kind

work, the terms peculiar to it may be added to the of words than any others. « The vocabd«^ /fl

fount m a biformed aljAabet apart. 3. Real com- our author^ or alnKaK^f ,. :* :. „ii.j "^ ^"v
pounds, or words that may be compounded of others,
are alfo rejeded ; becaufe we aAually hare the words
already, and they may be joined with fufScient ex-
pedition, though the {paces are annexed to each, by
beuig conftrufted accordingly. 4. Thofe of the fame

our author) or alphabet as it is called, of the Chi-
nefe, confifts of above 80,000 letters or charaaers: yet
he IS admitted a mafter of the langoage who know»
about4000 of them, no more being in general ufe."

The expedition with which the logographic method-
of pnnung can be accomplifhed, depends effentiaUy on-
tneir arrancrempnt • nrki'x). f— ^ • i

-—,,9 -™- -...-. .....g.^. ^ .1 uuK 01 uic lamc "' l'""""S can oe accompumed, depends effentiallv on-

fpeUing a« hke«,fe omitted, though they bear diffe- their arrangement ; which, from grL number of ex"

Tent figjaifications, for obvjous reafons. periments, our author fou^l to ^ beftTcomied

7. Ihe vanation of tenfes, degrees of comparifon, in the foUowing manner: 1.. Words of one two or

and numerous words m the EngU/h language, having three fyDables. are alphabeticaUy pkced by rtemfelVes

Li?'!^-'!"i^* terminations, fuch as ed, ihg, lv. Including aU poffible commencii fyllableL by wS

WENT, NESS, &c. an alphabet may be formed of fuch
a kind as i» capable of being annexed to the abfo-
lute words or radices, as expeditioufly as the whole
word could be found in the fount, from iu being
thereby fo much lefs extended. Thus, by dividing
fcveral words into their radices and tcnm'nations, many
•ther words may be formed from the radix by the ad-
dition of Yarious terminaUons, and each termination
may be added to other radices to which they are ap-
phcable. ' ^

8. Some radices arc impcrfea, vrz. fuch as end
with the vowel e, which muft therefore be added in
the ufual way of compoiition. Thus> in the word
More, the radix is oiior, to which the terminations
stf edf tfiy ethy er, sag, may be added occafionally.

9- % rcjeaing alfo the words which come under
this Idt denomination, the number ncceifery for a
fount ig reduced to one-tenth of what it would other-

Jjfe be. as will appear evident from the foil^rng To„: i«Sn. who^^^^ffiS Z SS'
fiderations : i. There are at l«ft «, „«.K.. ,K, ;„«. La in » ,„«.„ ™.k .u.*^™ '" ^' '"^' "^ ""1^ P**-

lidcrations : i. There are at leaft 42 verbs, the infi-
Hiuve of which ends in tfy; at qua%, Jignify t the
radices of which are qua/,Jgn ; the terminationi arc,
1^/, «&^, t/ymg, &c. And Mr Johnfon informs us,
that by applying thcfe radices to other terminations,
he was enabled to difpcnfe-with more than coo wonis
which would oth^rwile have been neceflkry. 2. For
aU regular verbs, no more than fix terminations are
neceffary, viz. j, ej, ah, ed, «, ing. There are but

the compofitor cannot fail of finding the word either
in whole or m part let it be what it wiU ; and when,
the whole cannot be found at once, the remainder may
calily be found m iingle or double fyUables amoni
the terminations. 2. All words above three fyllablct
have the feme alphabetical arrangement ; the terminal
tions being the lame at the bottom of each. Experi.
cncc ihows, that by a very few leflbns, the meanelt ca-
paaty naay determine the number of fyflables, and re^
tcr to the particular cafe containing words of that
number, there being confpicuous references to each;
and by thus equaUzing them, any perfon may poffefs-
himfelf very expeditioufly of what he wants. Even-
boys who fcarce knew mote than the letters of the al-^
ph^t, were hardly a fortnight employed in this me.-
thod, when they could at the firft glance teU the num-
ocr ot letters contained in any word..

By this fimplicity of arrangement, any intelLVent

ced ma room with the apparatus, could compofe and-
pnnt, without other previous inilruaion than defirin*
him to remember that the words under three fyllablet
and thofe above three, are placed in fcpaiate alphabets ^
and that whenever he wants a word, the lirft letter ia.
leoi m capitab of two inches on the waUs, the fecond.
m letters ot one inch in right Unes j and where it i»
ncceUary to have more cohimns than one for fuch fe-
cond letter, the third is given, in red down the co-

. *' -' y^ — ,*-» i^«, .wj^. xiicrc «n: oui *aju« icitcr, inc uiira is eiven. in red Hnwn fk«> ^^

fi.w irregdar one. m the Englifh language 5 whence it lumn, comprehending abouf 12 Lfils Tcon^^^
happens that 12 or 14 words may be formed from on^ the tvDc. «t th. ^^a ...«;L ...T'^^I'* ^? ''''''^'^'^

happens that 12 or 14 woo^s may be formed from one
iingic pcrfea verb as a radix, and many imperfea
ones lave double that number.

10. By ufing only the fet of terminations which
may be contained in a box of two feet fquare, the
common operatiotf of printing would be (hortencd near-
ly one half; and in order to find out thofe which arc
moft m ufc, and fitteft to retain, our author di«Aed

them alnhah^rirAlUr wi'^k *k. _j* - 1 ^ ^ .

the types ot the word coming under fiich reference.

To exemplify this method as far aft it can be done-
without aaually feeing the apparatus, our author in-
ftances the two words Above and Unfortm^ly. Jo
looking for the former, the firft letter, A, is feeii upon-
the wall as aheady mentioned; the fecond, B, is on
the cafe under it, and do*n that column is OVE^
oppofite to the cell containing the types of. the whole

them alohahetirftiw ^Jtk ^VT a- j ^^^*^^^ v^pumc ro lae ceu contaimng the types of. the whole

Thus,,
taia

cer

I abs — apper-

f de^— <li8— con

f cer— cap— cu]

\ enter — maia— rfe— fus„ &c»

:ur

otlier word, viz. Unfortunately, may be found by tli«.
fame references, though it contains 13 letters; but
" admitting that pradice will ^yft, the word as fooa
as a iingle Inter, the average wiU be found eight for
one.?*— Our author's explanation of the method ia^
wiiidL this word might be compofcd, howcvtr, fem^

LOG

C 224 1

LOO

by no meafts intelligible. — ** For this 'diftin6boti in
the cafes (fays he), the alphabet, or rather marks of
firft reference in large chara&era on the wall, is di-
vided into two clafies, not as vowels and confonantSy
but as follows, vix. A, Con, Dif, £, In» O, P, S,
Un, connnencing references, the iecond or fubfequent
letters of the words being in a right line from Idfb to
right, and down each column is found the remainder
of the reference to the words, difUngui(hing always
the third letter in red. The fecond diftinAion is,
"that for all other commencing letters, the fecond letter
*4>£ reference is in a column down, and the third letter
In lines from left 'to right in red.

Thefc are the dire^ons given by our author for
Sbrming a fount of words ; the next requiiite is a fount
^f fyllables, formed in the following method: i. A
complete fet of two letters was obtained in all their
*poflible combinations, amounting to 676. 2» Having
next obtained the pofiible combination of thefe letters,
^/e. 175769 by retaining only aU poffible fyllables, and
wordsofthrceletters, itis reduced to the 3 o^h part, which
anfwer all the puipofes of comp#fing with fyllables of
two and three letters, for Latin, French, Engliih, and
•all names of perfoas, places, and things, every pof-
iible fyllable being comprehended among them. Hence
it forms an univerfal triformed alphabet, where £n-

f;liih charadlers are ufed ; from whence all partial bi-
brmed and triformed alphabets in the arrangement of
£ngli(h, French, Latin, and all technical matters, are
^rawn. Though combinations of four* letters are
again 26 times the numljer of thoiie of three letters,
and five letters increafe in the fame ratio ; yet as much
as aH poffible combinations increafe in quantity pro-.
j>ortionate to the number of letters combined, fo they
ilecreafe in the a^ual number of fyllables included
among them, infomuch, that all the fyllables of four,
-five, fix, and feven letters together, are confiderably
•fewer than the fyllables of three lettex^ only. — Be-
iides the two founts already mentioned, a third was
Ibund necefiary for fuch terminations as are moft com-
monly followed by particular pun&nations ; but, after
fome confideration, this waajudged unneceffary.

Our author now proceeds to obviate fome obje&*
tions which muft naturally occur to one who firft hears
of his invention. Thefe are,

I I. A fingle letter damaged in a word renders the
whole ufelefs.

" This is not denied by Mr Johnfon; but he contends,
that the quantity of metal toil in this manner is quite^
trifling.

2. How are the blanks or fpaces in a line to be ma-
naged, as thefe are by no means equal ?

To this our author replies, that, at the time of wri-
tins[ the pamphlet, he was undetermined Aether it be
inoa eligible to have fpaces cad aloi^ with the be-
ginnings of words, or to fpace fhem m the common
manner. The former would be more expeditious ; and
where a greater diftance is required, other fpaces may
ht introduced in the ordinary method.

3. How is a loag word at the end of a line to be
divided ?

This may be eafily accomplished by means of the fyl-
labic fount already mentioned.

4. How is the error of fubftiUKing one word for
Another to be rectified?

The anfwer to this is, that an error of the kind fpe- LojTopv
cified may be comded in the very fame manner as is P^^*
done in conunon printing. Long words may be di-
vided by means of the.fyUabic fount already mention-
ed, and the intervals between the words may be filled
up with^oftff as ufusd.

LOGWOOD. See Hjbmatoxylon*

LOHOCH, or Loch, in pharmacy, a compofitios
of a middle confiftence between a foft eleduary «nd a
fyrup, principally ufed in diforders of the lungs.

LOINS, in anatomy, the two lateral parts of the
•umbilical region of the abdomen,

LOIRE, the largeft river in France, rifes in the
mountains of the Cevennes, and, after running a courfe
of about 500 miles, falls into the bay of Bifcay.

LOKE, in mythology, the name of one of tne
deities of the aorthem nations, anfwering to the An-
manes among the Perfians, whom they reprefent as at
enmity both with gods ancf men, and the author of
aB the evils which defolate the univerfe* Loke is de-
fcribed in the £dda as producing the great ferpent
which incircles the world ; which feems f have beea
intended as an emblem of corruption or fin : he alfo
gives birth to Hela or death, the queen of the infernal
regions; and alfo to the wolf Fenris, that monfter who
is to encounter the gods and dedroy the world.

LOKMAN the Wise, an eminent philofopher a-
mong the Eaflems. The Arabians fay he was the foa
of Baura, the fon or grandfon of a filler or aunt of
Job. He was an Ethiopian, and a flave for fome time.
It is related that he was bom !n the time of David,
and lived till the age of the prophet Jonas. Some fnp-
pofe him to have been the fame widf JE£op the my-
thologifl : and indeed we find in the/parables or apo-
logues of Lokman in Arabic, many particulars that
arc feen in JEfop's fables ; fo that it is not eafy to de.
termine whether the Greek or the Arabian are the on-
ginals. He is laid to have been deformed in his per-
Stn ; but that this defed was fuffidently made up by
the perfe£Uons of his mind. Some pieces of his arc
extant ; and he Was looked upon as fo excellent a per*
fon, that Mahomet has inferted a chapter of the Ko-
ran, called after his name, in which he introduces God
as faying, ** We heretofore beflowed wifdom on Lok-
man.*'i — It is related that he got his liberty on the fol-
lowing occafion. His mailer having given him a bitter
melon to eat, he eat it all. His mafter, furprifed at
his exad obedience, aflced, How it was pofiible for
him to eat fuch a naufeous fruit ? He anfwered, ** I
have received fo nlany favours from you, that it is no
wonder I (hould once in my life cat a bitter melon from
your hand." This generous anfwer of the ilave fbuck
the mailer to fuch a degree, that he inunediately gave
him his liberty. M. Galland tranflated aU the frbles
of Lokman, and Bidpai or Pilpay a bramin philofb-
phef, which were publiflied at Paris in 1724.

LOLIUM, DARHaLL-OKAss, in botany : A genus
of the digynia order, belonging to the triandria dafs
of plants ; and in the natund method ranking under
the 4th order, GramimK The calyx is monophyllous,
fixed, and uniflorous* The moft remarkable fpecies
are, i. The perenne, red darnel, or rye-grafi. This
is very common in roads and dry paftures. It oudces
excellent hay upon dry, chalky, or fandy foils. It
it advantageoufly cultivated along with clover, and

i^prings

Lombard!*

>rinr« earlier than other grafles ; thertbf fopplying particuUr marks of £if our and protcAioQt on account L«iIUt4i
>od Tor cattle at a time when it is moft difiocult to of their great ufcfulnefs to the fick and need^. They ^ ^^jj^^^
« obtaindL Cowf, horfes» and (hecp cat it| goats were thus fupported againft their malignant rivals, and "•"""'
re not fond of it* z» The temulentum, or white obtained many papal conftitutionfi by which their in-
LanK:!^ grows fpontaneoufly ift ploughed fields* If dilute was confirmed, their perfons exempted from
He feeds of this fpecies are malted with barley, the the cogaifance of the inquifitors, and fubjefted en«>
.le foon occafions dninkcnnefs 5 mixed with bread- tirely to the jurifdi^lion of the bifhopt ; but as thefe
rom, they produce but little tSc€t unlefs.the bread ia meafures were infufficient to fecure them {rom m»*
^atcn hot. .leHation, Charles duke of Burgundy, in the year

I^OI-LARDS, in ecclefiailical hiftory, a religious 1472, obtained a folemn bull from Pope Sixtus IV*
<:(£l» differing in many religious points from the church ordering that the Cellites or Lollards (hould be rank-
»f Rome, which arofe in Germany about the begin- ed among the religious orders, and delivered frJm the
ling of the 14th century; fo called, as many writers jurifdidion of the bilhops j and Pope Julius II. grant*
-lave imagined, from Walter Lollard, who began to ed them yet greater privileges in the year 1506. Ma-
logmatifc in I3i5» and was burnt at Cologn : though (lieim informs us that many focieties of this kind are
rjthers think that LoUard was no fumame, but mere- ft ill fubfifting at Colo^, and in the cities of Handers*
ly a tci-m of reproach applied to aU heretics who con- though they havt evidently departed from their an-
cealed the poifon of error imder the appearance of cicnt ndes.

piety. Lollard and his followers reje^ed the facrifice of

The monk of Canterbury derives the origin of the the mafs, extreme undion, and penances for fin ; ar*

-word Lollard among us, from ioiiwitt ** a tart ;" as if guing, that Chrift's fufierings were fufficient. He is

the Lollards were the tares fown in Chrift's vineyard, likewife faid to have fet afide baptifm, as a thing of

Abelly fays, that the word Lollard fignifies " praifing no effedl ; and repentance, as not abfolutely ncceflaryi

God," from the Gennan /<?3«7, " to praife," and ^^rr, &c.-^In England, the followers of Wickliffe were

«* I-ord ;'' becaufe the Lollards employed tbemfelves called, by way of reproach, Lollards^ from fome affinity

in traveling about from place to place, iinging pfalms there was between fome of their tenets ; though o-

and hymns. thers are of opinion, that the Englifh Lollards came

Others, much to the fame purpofe, derive Mlbard^ from Germany.

They were folemnly condemned by the archbifhop
of Canterbury and the council of Oxford.

LOMBARD ( Lambert )« an eminent painter, bom
at Liege in 1 500 ; who, after a diligent ftudy of the
antique at Rome, introduced that ftyle of painting
among his countrymen inftead of the Gothic. He
painted hiftory, architedur^, and perfpe£livc ; and
though he could never altogether free himfelf from his
national go{^t, he is ranked among the beft painters of
his time. He died in 1560.

LoMBAiiD (Peter), well known by the title of
Mqfitr of the Sentences f was born at Novani in Lorn*
hardy ; bnt being bred at Paris, he diftinguiflied him-
felf ft) much at that univerfity, that he firft had the
canohry of Chartrcs conferred on him, was fome time
tiitoi to Philip fon of Louis le Gnis, and laftly ob-
tained the fee of Paris. He died in 1 064. His work
of the Sentences is looked on as the fource of the
fcholaftic th<^ology of the Latin church. He wrote
alfo Commentaries on the Pfalms, and on St Paul'a
Epiftles. '

LOMBARDS, a Scandinavian nation, who for-
merly fettled in Italy, and for fome time made a con-
fidcrable figure. t

Their name of Lombards ^ or Longohards^ is by fome Etymoloflf

iullhardi or ioUtrt^ iuIJerty as it was written by the an
cient Germans, from the old German word iulien^ lol^
kfif or lalleHf and the termination hard^ with which
many of die High Dutch words end. Lollen iigntfies
«* to fing with a low voice," and therefore Lollard
ift a finger, or one who frequently fings | and in
the vulgar tongue of the Germans it denotes a perfon
who is continually praifing God with a fong, or fing-
ing hymns to his honour. The Alexia^s or Cellites
were called Lollards^ becaufe they were public fingers
who made it their bufinefs to inter the bodies of thofe
who died of the plague, and fang a dirge over them
in a mournful and indiftin6k tone as they carried them
to the grave. The name was afterwards affumed by
perfons that difhonoured it ; for we find, among thofe
Lollards who made extraordin^iry pretences to piety
and religion, and fpent the greateft part of their time
in meditation* prayer, and fuch af^s of piety, there
were many abominable hypocrites, who entertained
the moft ridiculous opinions and concealed the moft
enormous vices under the fpectous mark of this ex*
traordinary profeilion. And many injurious afperfions
were propagated againft thofe who affumed this name
by the priefts and monks ; fo that, by degrees, any
perfoa who covered hereiles or crimes under the ap-
pearance of piety, was called a /.clfa.-rf. Thus the
name was not ufed to denote any one particular fe6t,
hut was formerly common' to all perfons and all fefts
who were fuppofed to be guilty of impiety towards

derived from the word lack^ or lache<, fignifying in the °^ '^*
German tongue nv'mter ; becaufe the Lombards, while
in Scandinavia, lived in marfhes, or near the fea. Others
think that it comes from the two German words bngen

(k)d or the church, under an external profeffion of harden^ or helhbordcn that is, from the long' h albert J

extraordinary piety. However, many focieties, confift- they were ftippofed to ufe in war. But Paulus Dia-

ing 1*)th of men and women under the name of Loh conus their htftorian, and who was himftlf a Lombard*

/tfrdlf, were formed in moft parts of Germany and Flan- telk nsi that they were czUiid Lorrgohards from the

dcrs, and were fupported partly by their manual la- length of their beards. A nation called the Lombards

hours, and partly by the charitable donations of pious Is mentioned by Tacitus, Strabo, and Ptolemy ; but

perfons. The magiftnites and inhabitants of the towns theft arc different from the Lombards who afterwardt

where thefe brethren and fifters refided, gasrc them ietdedin Italy, and^ure reckoned to be the fame witk
V0L.K. PartL F f the

try <.f the

1 O M [2

Lomba/ds- the Gepidfe, whom the Italian Lombards almod ex-

^ ' ' ¥ terminated. The Lombardfi who fettled in Italy arc

^ firft mentioned by Profpcr Aquitanus, biftiop of Rhe^

Vamd^Is de- gium in the year 379. That writer tells us, that

feared by ^hout this time the Lombards, abandoning the moft

Uie Loin- ^jftj,^^ coafts of the ocean, and their native country

Scandinavia, and feekjng for new fcttlements, as they

were ovei^ilocked with people at home, fii*ft attacked

and overcame about this time the Vandals in Germany.

They were then headed by two chiefs, Iboreus and

Aion ; who, dying about tlie year 389, were fucceeded

by Agilmund, who is commonly reckoned the firit king

of the Lombards.

Before the time of Odoacer, the Lombard hiftory
affords nothing remarkable; in liis time, however,

3 they fettled on the Danube, in the country of the
They fettle Rugians, whom Odoacer had almod totally extermi-
in the c»un- j^^^^^^ ^^ carried into captivity. During their flay in

this country, they rendered themfelves formidable to
the neighbouring nations, and carried on fuccefsful
w*ars with the Heruli and Gepidae. In 526, they
were allowed by the emperor Juftinian to fettle in
Pannonia ; and here they made war a fecond time
with the Gcpidae. Alboinus, the. Lombard king,

4 killed the king of the Gepidae with his own hand, put
Peftroy the his army to the rout, and cut fuch numbers of them
Ocpida, yj pieces, that they ceafed from that time to be a na»

tion. Having caufed the dcceafed king's head to be
cut off, he made a cup of his ikuU, called in the lan-
guage of the LombardsyZ^^/r, which he made ufe of
in all public entertainments. However, having taken,
among many other captives of great dillindtion, the
late kingVdaughter, by name Rofamundat he married
her after the death of his former wife Clodifvinta, the
daughter of Clotaire king of France.

By this vi6iory Alboinus gained fuch reputation,

that his friendfhip was courted by Juftinian $ and, in

confequence of the emperor*s application^ a body of

^000 Lombards were fent to the ai&ilance of Narfes

againil the Goths. The fuccefs of the Romans in

this expedition, the invafion of Italy by the Lombards,

and their fucceffes in ,that countiy, have been taken

5. ' notice. of under the article Italy, n°28 — 32. At

Alboinus \^^ Albomusy having made himfelf mafter of Venetia,

T*"^K^^ Liguria,^milia, Hetruria, and Umbna, was flain by

g^iffinated ^^ treachery of his wife, in thf^year ^"j^^ the fourth

ac the iiiOi-of hu) reign. This princefs was the daughter of the

^ration (if l^ing of the Gepidac, whom ASboinua had killed in

battle, and made a cup of his fkidl, as above related.

As he was one day feafUng at Verona with hit chief

favourites said principal, ofiicers, in the height of his

mirth he fent for the queen, and, filling the detefted

cup> commanded her to drink merrily with her father.

Rofamundy ftruck with horror, hurried out of the

room ; and highly incenfed againfl her hu(band for

thus barbaroufly triumphing over the misfortunes of

ber family,, iefolveds at all* events, tp make him pay;.

4ear for fuch. an inhuman and affronting copdudl;

Accordingly, flie difcovercd her intention to Helmi-»

child the king's fixieU-bearer, a youth of great bold-

nefs and intrepidity. Hehnichild preremptorily .refufe4

to imbrue his hands in the blood of his fovereigo, or

to be any way acceffory to his death ;..and in this re-^

folution he perfiffed till he was, by a fhameful ftrata-

j^exoy forced by the <][ueea to a coinpliancQ : fmr ihcj^

a6 ]

L O M

lui wifet

knowing that he carried on an intrigpie with e« -f
her ladies, placed herfclf one night in her bed, v:
receiving the youth, indulged him as if (he had br.-
his own miftrefs in his amorous defirei; which *Lthi
no fooner done, than, difcovcring herfelf to ti-. .'•-
ceived lover, (he told, him that he muft now either; :
the king to death, or be put to death by him. H-
michild, well apprifed, that, after what he had d:r .
his fafety depended upon the death of the kirt^, -
gaged in the treafon, which he btherwifc abh'.T 1
One day, therefore, while Alboinus was repoar; .
his chamber after dinner, Hehnichild, with fome» iliir
whom he had made privy to his dcfign, breaki'c -
unexpectedly, fell upon tlie king with their dag-^r
Alboinus, ftarting up at their iiril coming 13, 2.,
hold of his fword, which he had always by hini : \: •
having in vain attempted to draw it, the queec bs-r;
beforehand failened it in the fcabba^il, he d^rf-.ii-:
hirafelf for fome time with a footftool ; but was la 1-
cnd overpowered, and difpatched with many woia^

Rofamund had promifed to Helmichild, tbi,
foon as he had difpatched the king, (he would iri-
him, and, with her perfon, beftow. upon hira the L •
dom of the Lombards. The firft part of her pt».^'.
fhe immediately perfonned ; but was fo far froralc^
able to beftow the crown upon him, that both of i -
were obliged to favc themfelves by flight. 'JTir. t .
to Longinus the exarch of Ravenna, taking wiiii:';
all the jewels and treafurc of the late kin-r. I^d— ^
received her >s4th the greateft, marks of ifriendfhip a
kindnefs, and affured her of his prote^lion- She b..
riot been long in Ravenna, however, before the cx3-l .
judging that a favourable opportunity now ofFerfd '
making himfelf king of Italy by her means, ircprr::
his defign to her, and declared his intention to e^t?
her, provided, by fome means or other, fhe difpaimJ
Helmichild. — Rofamund, highly pleafed with tlicpr*
pofal, refolved to fatisfy her ambition by gettiag ni
of the perfon whom ftie had married in order to p.-
tify her revenge. Accordingly, having prepared a
ftrong poifon, ftie mixed it with wine, anil gave it i.
ho* hufband as he came out of the bath, and calkd r:? '
drink, according to his cuftom. Helmichild had ssc '
half emptied the cup, when, by the fudden and ftra-rt
operation which he felt in his bowels, he condi^
what it was ; and, with his fword pointed at the quc^ « .
breaft, compelled her to drink the reft. The p«^
had the fame effedl on both ; for thej died in a fn
hours. Longinus, on the death of the quera, Li
aj^e all thoughts of making himfelf king of It^y,
and fent the kind's treafure to Conftantinople, is^^-
ther with Albifomda, the daughter of Alboinus h
Rofamund, whom flie had brought along with ho.

After the death of Alboinus, .the Lombards cLi'e
Clcphis, one of the nobility, foctheir king. Hc%.»
murdered after a.fhQrt i^igp of i8>months;-upon whic:
enfued aa interregnum of 10 years, ai related ci^
the article Italy, n*' 32, During this, time, tfer
extended their conquefts in that cpuntry ; but ai ci:
the Romans,, jealous of their progrefs« rcfolTed to pu
a. ftop to their vid^nes, and, lif ppifible, to drive tbce
qnite out*. F01; this puqx>fe,. they defigned not oaiiy
to employ their •wn force, but entered into aUiaact
with the Franks ; which fo alarmed the LomhaxtiH
thftt they re-cfUbliihed the mpaarcbicid form of gn.

L O M [a

vemtnetit amcnfr thesnfehres^ and cbofe Aatharis the
Con of Clephis ior their king. This monarch, confi-
de ring that the power of the dukes, who had governed
X-«oxnbardy foV the.fpace of lo years, was during that
le 11^ h of tiine very much eilabliihed, and that they
wovdd not probably be willing to part with the au-
tiHority which they had fo long enjoyed^ allowed them
t:o continue in their government ; but obliged them to
croTitribute one moiety of their revenues towards the
xnaintenance and fupport of his royal dignity, fuifer-
ing them to difpofe of the other as they thought pro-
per. He referved to himfelf the fupreme dominion
and authority ; and took an oath of the dukes^ that,
in time of war, they would readily affifl him to the
lit moil of .their power. Though he could remove the
diiJkes at pleafure, yet he deprived none of them of
their dukedoms> except incales of treafon ; nor gave
^tlienn to others, except when their male ifiue failed.
Iri^aving fettled matters in this manner with the dukes,
lie enacted feveral wholefome laws againil theft, ra-
pine, murder, adultery, and other vices which prevailed
among his fubjefks, and was the firft of the Lombard
kings who embraced Chriflianity. Moft of his fub-
jeCls followed the example of their monarch : but as
they were all inftrudled by Arian bifhopsj they conti-
nued long infedted with that herefy ; which occafioned
great difputes between them and the orthodox bifhops
of the cities fubjed^ to them.

From the re-eft abh^ment of the monarchy under
Autharis, to the reign of Rotharis in 636, the hittory
of the Lombards atifords nothing memorable. This
n period is remarkable for the introduction of written
- laws among thefe people. 'Before his time they had
been governed only by tradition ; but Rotharis, in imi-
tation of the Romans and Goths, undertook the pub-
li filing of written laws; and to thofe which he enabled,
many were added by the fucceeding princes* Grotius
prefers the method which the Lombards followed in
making laws, to tliat which was pra6lifed by the Ro-
mans themfelves. Among the latter the emperor was
the fole lawgiver ; fo that whatever pleafed him had
the force of a law. But the Lombard kings did not
affume that power to themfelves, fmce their laws were
enaded in public aii^blies, convened for that purpofe,
after tliey had been maturely examined and approved
«f by all the lords of the kingdom. From thefe aflem**
blies were excluded the ecdeliaftic order, and the peo-
'- pie ; fo that tiie legillative power was lodged in the
king. and nobles alone.

The reign of Rotharis is remarkable, not only for

' his introducing written laws among his fubje6ts, but

for the conquefts he made, and. the fuccefsful Wars

carried on with the exarch of Raven na» whom he

* totally defeated in feveral engagements, and made

1 himfelf matter of fome part of his territories. This

monarch died in 652 ; and the affairs of the Lombards

went on profperouily, till the ambition of Luitprand

kid the foundation of the total ruin of his kingdom*

^ He dfcended the throne of Lombardy in 71I9 and

fand scratched all opportunities of enlarging his dominions at

c * the expence of the emperora Of tliis, a fair oppor*-

tunity offered in 716 : for the emperor Leo Ifauricua,

^ who at that time reigned in the eaft, having, by his

» femous edid, foibidden, the worihip of images, and

ordered them to be every where pulled down, the

2^ i L O M

people wert fo Jnrtfvoked at that innovation, that, in Ldtnbtpi*,
feveral places, they openly revolted, and, falling up- w ^,
on the emperor's olficers, drove them out of the cities.
In the eaft, Germanus, patriarch of - Conftantinople,
oppofcd the emperor's defign with great warmth ; but ^
Leo caufed him to be depofed, and Anallatius to be
raifed to that fee in his room, ordering at the fame
time all the images in the imperial city to be pulled
down and publicly burnt. He ilriclly enjoined his
officers in the weil, efpecially the exarch of Ravenna,
to fee his edi6k punctually obeyed in their refpetlive
goveriiments. In compliance with thefe orders, Scho-
laiUcus^ then exarch, began to pull down the images
in all the churches and public places in Ravenna ;
which incenfed the fdperftitious multitude to fuch a
de^ee, that, taking arms, they openly declared they
would rather renounce their allegiance to the emperor
than the worfliip of images.

Thus a kind of civil war being kindled in the city«
Luitprand thought he had how a favourable opportu-
nity of making himfelf matter of the feat of the exarch »
not dt)ubting but the conquett of fuch an important
place would be followed by that of the whole ex* n
archate. Having therefore drawn, together all his He befiegcs
forces, he unexpectedly appeared before Ravenna, and *"^ at la*
clofely befieged it. The exarch little expeded fuch a*;^",^*'
furprife, as a friendly correfpondence had been main-
tained for many years between the exarchs and tlie
Lombard kings. However, he defended the place
with fuch courage and refolution, that Luitprand,
defpairing of fuccefs, broke up the fiege and led his
army againft Clailis, at a fmall dittance from Ravenna,
whii*h he took, plundered, and levelled with the
ground. The lofs of thi& place, and the feverc treat-
ment the inhabitants met with from the king, threw
the citizens of Ravenna into the utmott conttcrnation }
which Luitprand being informed of, he refolved to
take advantage of their fears, and, returning before
Ravenna ^ile the inhabitants were thus difheartened,
to attempt once more the redu6tion of that place.
Accordingly he led his whole army againft it, and,
by frequent attacks, tired the inhabitants and garri-
fon to fuch a degree, that the exarch, finding they
could hold out no longer^ and defpairing of relief,
privately withdrew. ' Luitprand, informed of his re-
treat, attacked the town with more violence than ever ;
and, having carried it by ftofm, gave it up to be plun-
dered by his foldiers, who found in it an immenfe
booty, as it had been for a long time the feat of the
Roman emperors, of the Gothic kings, and the ex-
archs. The king ftripped it of. moft of its valuable
monuments of antiquity, and caufed, among the reft,
an equeftrian ftatue of an emperor, of wonderful work-
manihip, to be conveyed to Pavia, where it is to be
feen to this day. The redu6tion of Ravenna was fol*
lowed by the furrender of feveral cities of the exarchate, ^ ^
which Luitprand reduced to a dukedom ; appointing Reduces
Hildebrand his grandfon to govern it with the title of ^'^^^*»f-
duke ; and giving him, as he was yet an infant, ^^^^"^^1^^^^
deus duk^ of Vicenza for. his guardian.

The conquett of Ravenna and the greater part of
the exarchate did not a little alarm Gregory IL bi-
ttiop of Rome. He was then at variance with the
emperor, whofe. edi^ againft the worttiipping of ima-
ges he had oppofed with all his might, and by that

F f 2 mean*^

1 O M

[ 3s8 1

L O M

ftffiaed by
the Vece-

tMbar<k meant provoked Leo to fuch a degree, that he had
^ F threatened to drive him from the fee, and fend him in*
to exile. However, the pope, no lefs jealous of the
power of the Lombards than all his predeceffors had
been, refolvcd, by fome means or other, to put a flop
to their conquefta. The only prince in Italy to whom
he could have recourfe was Urfus duke of Venice,
J3 the Venetians making already no inconfidcrable figure*
Itnn ^^^uf^ ^^ ^^'^ accordingly he i&TOte a very prefling letter ;
conjuring him to aflift his worthy fon the exarch, and,
for the love of the holy faith, to attempt with him
the recovery of the exarchate, which the wicked na-
tion of the Lombards had unjufUy taken from hisfons
Leo and Conftaotine emperors. Urfus and the Ve»
netians, moved with the pope's letter, and at the fame
time greatly alarmed at the growth of fo powerful a
neighbour, promifcd to aflift the exarch with the whole
flrf<igth of th^ir republic ; and accordingly fitted out
a confiderable fleet, pretending it was defigned for the
fervice of the emperor againll the Saracens* At the
Came time the exarch, who had faken refuge in Ve«
Bice, abandoning that place, as it were in defpair of
bringing the duke over to his party, raifed, in the
(places iiiU fubje6l.to the emperor, what forces he was
able ; and having got together a confiderable body,
he marched with them towards Imola, giving out that
he defigned to. befiege that city ; but, turning on a
fudden towards Ravenna, as had been agreed on be-
tween him and tde Venetians, he laid iiege to it by
land, while they invefted it almoft at the fame inilant
• by fea. Feredeus defended the town for fome time
with great courage and refolution ; obliging all thofe
Who retaVc T^rho were able to bear arms to repair to the w^Jk. But
Ravenna, the Venetians having, in fpite of all oppofition, forced
open one of the gates on the fide of the fea, the city
was taken, and Peredeus flain, while he was attempt-
ing, at the head of a choice body, to drive the enemy
from the pofls they had feized. As for Hildebrand,
he fell into the hands of the Venetians ; who, having
thus recovered Ravenna to the emperor, returned home,'
leaving the exarch in poffeffion of the dty. Luitprand
was' then at Pavia ; but the town was taken before he
<:ould affemble his troops to relieve it.

And now Gregory bifhop of Rcxne, to whom the
recovery of Ravenna was chiefly owing, perfuading
himfelf, that the emperpr would, out of gratitude,
give ear to his remonftrances and admonitions, began
ty folicit him with more prelling letters than ever to
revoke his edidt againft the worfhip of images : but
Leo, well apprifed that the bifhop, in all tlie mea-
fures he had taken, had been more influenced by a re-
gard to his own intereft, than to that of the empire,
inflead of hearkening to his remonftrances, was ftill
more provoked againft him for thus 'obfUnately oppo-
fing the execution of his edid. Being, therefore, re-
folved at all events to have it obferved in Rome itfelf,
and, on the other hand, not doubting but the pope
would oppofe it to the laft with all his might ; in order
to remove all obftacles, he fcnt three officers to Rome,

in the year 725, recalled Scbohfticas, and htK
a patrician into Italy, to govern in his room, r*j;:
vate inflrufiions to encourage the above-mentk^^
iicers with the promife of great rewards, a&du:.
fure them of his prote£tion.

But, in the mean time, the plot was difctnmiii
two of the confpirators were apprehended by tbeciLri
of Rome, and put to death ; the third having eb.
into a monaftery,. where he took the mooaliK h:
and ended his days. Hereupon the exardi, a cs.
pliance witli the emperor's orders, refolvcd to pr;^.-:
no longer by fecret plots, but by open force. Aar,
ingly, he drew together a confiderable body oft:...
and fet out* at the head of them on his march to iU
with a defign to feize on the pope, and iend iiisi,c
had engaged to do, in chains to Conftantinopk. h
on this occafion, Luitprand, though highly prorjr^
againft Gregory for having ftirred up the Vcaetiair

fainft him, yet refotved to affiil hun and the citiia.
Lome againll the exarch, in order to keep the \sL.:
even between them, and by aiEfting fometime^u
one and fometimes the other, weaken both, hdr
to this refolution, he ordered the Lombards of T:
cany, and thofe of the dukedom of Spoleto, t;
the pope and the inhabitants of Rome ; who, Ic,
by this reinforcement far fuperior in ftrcngth zai:^
her to the exarch, obliged him to return to Rarei.
and give over all thoughts of any further attaap:;
the perfon of the pope.

In the mean time, Leo, perfifting in his icex-^
folution of fuppreffing throughout his donuni(£i"
worihip of images, fent frdu orders to the or.
Paul, ftridUy enjoining him to caufe his edid to fee :^
in execution in all the cities of Italy under his esyr
cfpecially in Romei At the fame time, he wrote r-
pope, promifing him his favour and protcdios c '••
complied with the edid ; and declaring him, if bcv •
tinned to oppofe it, a rebel, and no longer vdW »•
the papal dignity. But Gregory was fo kx \r^
yielding to the emperor's threats or promilcs, tkat:
the contrary, he folemnly excommunicated thetxrr
for attempting to put the imperial ©did in exccats
and at the fame time wrote circular letters to tijf '•
netians, to king Luitprand, to the Lombard dukcs.^
to all the chief cities of the empire, exhorting '--
to continue ftedfafl in the Catholic faith, and tot?
pofe with an their might fuch a detettablc innoi^^
Thefe letters made fuch an impreffion on the m^'
the people in Italy, that, though of difiFcrcnt mtt:^
and often at war with one another, they aB u^;'':
protefting they would defend the Catholic tait|i' *
the life of the pope, in fo glorious a caufe, at uk^
pence of their own : nay, the citizenp o{ Koj»^'
the inhabitants of Pentepolis, now Marca d' A»^^^^
not contenting themfelves with fuch a P"'^^"*^'^^!*
penly revolted from the emperor ; and, pu^'^g
his ftatues, they eleded, by their ownauthontvi^^
giftratcs to govern them during the interregnumj
are even told, that, tranfported with a bliod icf^^

were for choofing a new emperor, and co^ ^
him to Conftantinople, not doubting but the pc«r

with private orders, either to difpatch the p<^, or to

take him prifoner and convey him to Conftantinople.

At the fame time, he wrote to Mauritius duke of would every-where join them. But the V^^J^l

Rome, fecretly enjoining him to aflift his three officers ing this refolution unfeafonable, and n<Jt ^^ ^^

in their undertaking : but nq favourable opportunity put in executxoni oppofed it ;. fo that it did fi<)

«fierin^ to put thejr defign. in execution, the emperor, place* I)

V O M

[229 ]

L O M

Iti ^lie'x&ean time* the exarch Paul> kavinsr gained
coxiCcierable party in Ravenna, began, pumiant to
le repeated oniers from the emperor, to remove the'i-
a^esy as fo many idols, out of the churches. Here-
pon the adverfe party, fupported and encouraged by
le pope, flew to arms ; and, falling upon the iconoc*
fts or image-breakers, as they ftyled them, gaare rife
> a civil W9T within the walls of Ravenna. Great num«
ers were killed on both fides : but thofe who were for
le xvQrfhip of images prevailing in the end, a dread-'
il flaughter was made of the oppofite party ; and,
mong the reft, the exarch himfdf was murdered.
-lo^^evcr, the city of Ravenna continued faithfid to
he emperor ; but mofb of the cities of Romagna be*
r>n^uig to the exarchate, and all thofe of Pentapoli$
>r I^a Marca d'Ancona, abhorring the emperor as an
lereticy fubmitted to Luitprand king of the Lombards}
ivboy pretending a zeal for the Catholic religion, took
care to improve the difqontent of the people to his
advantage, by reprefenting to them, that they could
never maintain their religious rights under a prince,
who was not only an heretic, but a perfecutor of tlie
orthodox. " *

In Naples, Exhilaratus, duke of that city, having

received peremptory orders from the ^emperor to caufe

bis edi£t to be put in execution, did all that lay in his

power to perfuade the people to receive it ; but find-

irrg all his endeavours thwarted by the bifhop of Home,

for whom the Neapolitans had a great veneration, he

hired aifaf&ns to murder him. But the plot being dif-

covered, though carried on with great fecrccy, the

Neapolitans, highly provoked againd the duke, tore

both him and his fon to piecCM, and like wife put to

he had fent tb Rome, being apprehended by the citt Lomlianf*.
zcns, and an order from the emperor being found up. i '^.
en liim t« all his officers in that city^ commanding
them to put the pope to death at all events, the pope's
friends thencefdith guarded him' with fuch care, that
the exarcli's eniiiTanes could* never afterwards And an
opportunity of executing their defign. As for the m«f« '

fenger, the Romans were for putting him to death }
but the pope intei-pofed, contenting himfelf with ex-
communicating the exarch. ^^

And now the Romans, provoked more than ever The Ro*
againft Leo, and, on the other hand, unwilling to"**"**^*"
live under the Lombards, refolved to revolt from the
emperor, and appoint their own magiftrates, keeping
themfelves united under the pope, not yet as their
prince, but only as their head. This they did ac-
cordingly ; and from thcfc (lender beginnings the fo-
vereignty of the popes in Italy took its rife, though
they did not then, as is commonly fuppofed by- hifto-
rians, but many years after, become fovereign lords
of Rome.

Eutychius failed in his defign upon the life of the
pope ; but having brought with him from Con ftanti-
nople a good number of troops, he eafily quelled the
rebellion in Ravenna, and feverely punished the au-
thors of the late diflurbanCes. As for the rebellious
Romans, he was well apprifcd he could never reduce
them, fo long as they were fupported by the king of
the Lombards ; and therefore he employed all his art
and policy to take off that prince ^om the party of
the Romans, and bring him over to his own. g

Luitprand, for fome time, withitood all his offers; Luitpnnd^
but Thrafimund duke of Spolpto revolting at this very coDclud<

death one of his chi.ef officers, who had compofcd a jun»S^ure, the exarch, laying hold of that opportuni- •". »Ui»ncc.

libel againil the pope. Li>tprand, and Gregory at
that time duke of Bcneyento, laying hold of fo fa-
vourable an oppoitunity to make themfelves mailers
of tlie dukedom of Naples, did all that lay in their
power to perfuade the Neapolitans^to fubmit to them,
iiut the Neapolitans, bearing an irreconcileable ha-
tred to the Lombards, with whom they had been con-
ftantly at variance, rejedled every overture of that na-
ture with the utmoft indignation; and, continuing
ftcdfail in their allegiance to Leo, received from Con-
ftantinople one Peter, who was fent to govern them in
the room of Exhilaratus^ Some writers fuppofe the
Neapolitans, in this general revolt of the cities of Italy,
to have fhaken off the yoke with the reft, and to have
appointed magiflrates of their own ele^^ion to govern
them, in the room of the officers hitherto fent from
Confbntinople, or named by the exarch : but they
are certainly miflakcn ; it being manifeii from hiflory,.
that Peter fucceeded Exhilaratus in that dukedom,
and that the Neapolitans continued to li^ve under the
emperors, till they were conquered many years after
by the Normans.

In the mean time, Leo hearing of the murder of the
exarch, and the general revolt of the cities, and not
doubtiuffbut the pope was the chief author of fo much,
mifchief, fent the eunuch Eutychius into Italy, Math,
the title and authority of exarch^ ftri6Uy enjoining
liim to get the pope difpatched by fome means or o-
thei;^ fiQce his death was abfolutely neceifary for the
tranquillity of Italy. The exarch fpared no pains to
{et tk pope, into his power :. but a meflengery whom

ty, offered to affift the king with all his ft«ngth a-^^*^
gainft the rebellious duke, provided he would, in like
manner, aiiifl him againfl the pope and the Romans.
With this propofal Luitprand readily clofed ; and a
league being concluded upon thefe terms between him
and the exarch, the two armies joined,, and began
their march towards Spoleto. At tlieir approach, the-
duke, defpairing of being* able to refift two fuch
powers, came out with a fmaU attendance to meet
them, and, throwing himfelf at the king's feet. fued«
in that humble poilure, for pardon ; which Luitprand:
not only granted him, but confirmed him in the duke-
dom, aAer he had obliged him to take a. ne^v oath of
allegiance, and give hoiiages for hif fidelity in time
to come. From Spoleto,, the two armies marched, .
in purfu^nce of the treaty, to Rome;, and encamped
in the meadows of Nero, between the Tiber and the
Vatican. t^-

Gregory had caufed the city of Rome to be fortified "Hie pjpe-
in the befl'manner he could: bilt being fenfible that.["^j ^'
the Roirans alone could not long hold outagainft two P**"*^
faich armies,, and refiediing on dbe' kind treatment the
duke of Spoleto had met with upon his fubmittingto
the king, he. refolved to follow his example ;. and ac-
cordingly, taking with hin> fome of the clergy, and:
the principal inhabitants of the city, he went to watt
on the king in his camp ; and there, with a pathetic
fpeech, as he was a great mailer of eloquence, foften-
ed Luitprand to fuch a degree^ that, throwing him<r-
felf at his feet in the prefence of the whole army, he
begged pardon for entering into an . alliance aga*nfb.

him^;

t O M [

ILamb srdf. fiitti s %tiif tfiurin? him of his proteA!on for the fu
' ' ture, he went wiVx him to the church of St Peter ;
pnd there, difa-rain^ himfelf in the prefcnce of his
chief officers^ he laid his grdle, his fword, and hit
gantlet, with his royal mantle, his crown of gold, and
crofs of /liver, on the apoftle*s f.'pulchfc. After this,
lie reconciled the pope with the exarch, who was
thereupon received into the city, where he continued
for fomc time, maintaining a fnendly correfpondcncc
with the -pope. At this time an impoilor, taking the
name of Tiberius, and pretending to he defcepded from
the emperors, feduced a great many people in Tuf-
oany, and was by them proclaimed emperor. The
exarch rei'olved to mareh againft him ; but as he had
tiot fufficient forces to oppofe the rebels, Gregory, who
let no opportunity flip of obliging L,eo, perfuaded the
Romans to attend the exarch in this expedition ; by
which means the ufurper being taken in a caflle, his
head was fent to the emperor, and the rebellion utter-
ly fuppreffed. But the emperor flill infilling upon his
ediA againft the images being received Jn Rome, the
Romans, at the inftigation of the pope, publicly re-
nounced their allegiance* to Leo, paid him no more
tribute, and withdrew for ever their obedience to the
90 emperors.of the Eaft.
Thcempc- £,eo, informed of thi* Yevolt, and not queftioning
iSc dom^- ^^^ ^^^ P°P^ was the author of it, immediately caufed
>3iionsof the^^ the patrimonies of the church of Rome in Sicily,
jt^ipe. Calabria, and jiis other ^dominions, to be confifcated*

At the fame time, he ordered a powerful army to be
xaifed, with a defign to recover the towns that had re-
volted ; to chaftife the Romans for their rebellion ; and,
above aU, to be revenged on the pope, who had rai-
fed all thefe difturbances, by oppofmg himfelf, and
perfuading others to oppofe, the execution of his e-
'didl. Gregory, alarmed at the warlike preparations
that were carrying on throughout the empire, and
well apprifcd that they were chiefly defigned againft

236 1 L O M

extraordinary marks of honour; and a treaty wa(«* I
concluded between them and Charles, whoetga^: •
march into Italy in perfon, at the head of zp*:^
i'ul army, in defence of the Romans aadtkecL".
if they (hould be attacked either by the emperor cr.
Lombards. On the other hand^ the ' Romans vr.
acknowledge him for their prote^or, and couL >
him the honour of the confulfhip, a6 it had ben i
merly conferred on Clovis by the" emperor Ana*^:
after that prince had defeated the Vi/igoths. The r
baifadors returned from France loaded with n?!. ;:
fents. But Gregory did not lon^ enjoy the ik:
their negociations ; for he died the fame year 731,'cL
was fucc ceded by Gregory II L in whofe time Ll
place the above-mentioned embafly.

The French nation was at this time juft reco*^.
from its dAHreifed Htuation under the defcccdrL*
Clovis ; and by the bravery and conduit of Q^
Mattel, had become the moft povrcrful kingik:
the weft. His fucceffor Pepin was no lefs wife i:
powerful than his fiither had been ; and as the ra-
tion of the Lombard princes would be fatis£ed t
nothing lefs than the entire conqueft of Italy,':
French monarch, Charleinagne, under colour cf:f
ing the .pope, at laft put an end to the cmpir: .
Lombardy, as related under the article Fxiic
n'^ 21, Z2.

The Lombards were at firft 1 cruel and baikr-
nation ; but divefting themfelves by degrees cf t^
native fiercenefs and barbarity , efpecially after'-'
had embraced the Chriilian religion^ th^j gavr^
with fuch equity and moderation, that moll other "•
tions envied the happinefs of thofe who liv^ c/
them. Under the government of the Lombards ;;;
Paulus Diaconus) no vi(Jence was conimittcd, cc.
unjuftly difpoflefled of his proiperty, none opprt^
with taxes ; theft, robberies, murder, and aduhr
were feldom heard of: every one went, without::

him and the Romans, refolved to recur to the pro* leaft appreheniion, wherever he pleafcd. Their ^

te£tion of the French, the only nation at that time
capable of coping with the enlperor, and on whom,
on account of their zeal" for religion, he thought he
might depend. The Lombards were then very pow-
erful ; but, as they wanted to be mafters of Rome,
he did not think it advifahle to truft tliem. The Ve-
netians, though zealous in the defence of the pope.

were lo juft and equitable, that they were retailed
Italy, and obferved there fome ages after their h:
dom was at an end. — ^According to Paulus Diaojs.
alfo, their drefs was loofe, and for the moft pa^
linen, fuch as the Anglo-Saxons wore, being ictr
woven with various colours ; that their (hoes ^
open to the end of their foot, and that they ^^

were not yet in a condition to withftand the power of button or lace them. From fome ancient paist^^

5¥ho sp-

it appears, that they ftiaved the back part 0/ tc-
heads, but, that their hair was long before; the
locks being paited, and laid on each fide thsir fw"-
heads.

LOMBARD, or Lombart (Peter), an cngn^
of coniiderable eminence, who floiuifhed about ^^
year i66o. He was a native of Paris, where he k2''>
ed the art of engraving. It appears tliat he cafflf ^

the emperor ^ aad) l^efides> were jealous of the Lom-
>hards, who, watched all opportunities of enlarging
^heir dominions at the expeiKe of their neighbours.
As for Spain, it was tlien in a moft deplorable condi-
tion, being over-run, and ahnoft wholly ruined, by tlie
Saracens.

The French nation was at this time governed by

jliet to the the celebrated Charles Martel, who had diftinguiflK-d ^^ j^- rr

himiclf in a moft eminent manner in the wars of England before the revolution,becaufc fomc of his pl»^^

France and Germany j and had, not long before, for Englifh publications are dated prior to that ev?"*-

gained a fignal viftory over the Saracens in the neigh- He executed avaft variety ofplatesjas wellhiftoncalw

bourhood of Tours; whence he was generally rcpu- emblematical; which, however, were chiefly for ^**

ted the beft commander, and the greateft hero, of his But his heft works are portraits ; and of thefe /le P^

time. To him, therefore, Gi-egory fent a folemn em- duced a coniiderable number, which are eftccmcd. Th?

bafTy, with a great number of relics, earncftly in- are molUy after Vand^'ck.— He alfo engpraved bin^'

treating him to take the I^omans, and the church, un- cal fubjeds, from Pouflin, Raphael, Annibal CaraccJj

cdef his protedion, and defend them againft the at- Guido, and other mafters-
UmgX& of Leo. The ambafladors were leceivcd with LOMENTACEiE, in botany (from hmat^'^

L O M (a

cstbur ofed by painters), tl^e name of the 33d order
CL X«inn£us'v Fragments of a Natural Method^ con-
\i\iag of the following genera, many of whxh furniih
>^autifLi] tin<S^ure8 that are ufed in dyeing, viz. ade-
xainthera, bauhinia, cxfalpina, caifia, ceratoma,.cercis>
^leditlia, guilandina, haunatoxylon, hymenaea, mimofa,
^arkinfonia, poinciana, polygama. See JSotany,
i>. 464.

L.OCH-LOMOND, a large lake of Dunbarton or

Lennox-ftiire in Scotland, of which Mr Pennant gives

Llie following defcription^ " LfOch-lomond, the laft,

rlie mull beautiful of the Caledonian lakes. Th^ firii

vJe w of It from Tarbat prefents. an extenfive ferpentine

ur in ding amidll lofty hills; on the nortli, barren,

h>lack, and rocky, which darken with their (hade that

tj on traded part of the water. On the weft fide, the

oiountains are cloathed near the bottoms with woods

cif oik quite to the water-edge; their fummits lofty,

iiaktrd, and craggy. On the eaft fide, the mountains

' lire equally high ; but the tops form a more even ridge

parallel to the lake, except where Ben-lomond, like

^>aul amidll his companions, overtops the reft. The

upper paits were black and barren ; the lo\Ver had

<jrtrat marks of fertility,, or at leaft of induftry, for the

- "jellow corn was finely contrafted with the verdure of

. llie groves intermixed with it.

" This eaftern boundary is part of the Grampian
hills, which extend from hence through the counties of
:, Perth, Angus, Meams, and Aberdeen. The road runs '
fometimes through woods, at others is expofed and
_ naked ; in fome, fo fteep as to require, the fupport of
a wall ; the whole the work of the foldiery ; bleffed
.. exchange of inftruments of deftruAion for thofe that
. give fafcty to the traveller, and a polifti to the once
. inacceflibie native! Two gteat head-lands covered with
. trees feparate the firft fcene from one totally diifiiront ;
the laft is called the Point of Firkin. On pafiiiig tliis
cape an expanfe of water burfts at once on your eye,
varied with all the fofter beatities of' nature. Imme-
diately beneath is. a fiat covered with wood and corn:
^ beyond, the headlands ftretch far into the water, and
confift of gentle rifings ;. many have their furfaces co-
vered with wood, others adorned with trees loofely
~ icattered either over a fine verdure or the -purple bloom
of the heath. Numbers of illands are difperfed over
*' the lake, of the bm^t elevated form as the little capes,

• and Wooded in the fame, manner ; others jull peep a-

• hove the fiu-face, and are. tufted with trees; and num-
'" hers are fo difpofed as to form magnificent viftos be-
' twcen.

^- '* Oppofite. Lufs, at a fmall diftance from; (hore, \% a

'' mountainous ifie. almoft covered with wood ; is near
half a mile long, and has a moft fine efied. I could

^ not count the. number of iflands, Init was told there

~ are 2H; the.largeft. two miles .long, and flocked with

If deer.
I " The length, of this charming liake. is 24 Scotch

• miles ; its greatcft breadth -8 ; its greateft deptlj,
ii which is between^ the point of Firkin and Ben-lomond,
; is i20.fathom8. Befides the fi(h comau>n to thaloclis

are guiniads, called Wr^poans. .

" The furface of . Lochrlomond has for. feveral years
{>aft been obferved gradually to increafe, and invade t)ie
Adjacent fliore : and there is reafon Ui fuppofe that
d^ivche9i, houTcsj^ and otiier buildings, have been loft

3« 1 X O M

in the water. Near Lufs is a large heap of ftones at tonoMi
a diftance from the ftiore, known by the name of the ^^^
old church ; and about a mile to the fouth of that, in ^"
the middle of a large bay, between Camftraddan and -
the ille Inch-lavanack, is another heap, faid to have •
been the ruins of a houfe. To confirm this, it ia
evident by a paflage in Cambdens Atlas Britannica^
that an ifland, exifting in his time, is now* loft 5 for
he fpcaks of the ifle of Camftraddan, placed between
the lands of die fame name and Inch-lavanack, in
which, adds he, was an houfe and orchard. Befides
this proof, large trees with their branches ftiU ad-
hering are frequently found in the. mud near the {horc^
overwhelmed in former times by the increafe of water.
This is fuppofed to be occafioned by the vaft quanti-
ties of ftoue and gravel tliat are continually brought
doWn by the mouiiLain rivers, and by the falls of the
banks of the Leven ; the firft filling the bed of the-
lake, the laft impeding its difcharge through the bed
of the river."

LOMONOZOF, a celebrated Ruffian poet, th«
great refiner of his native tongue, was the fon of a
perfon who traificked in fifh at Kolmogori : he was
born in 1711, and was fortunately taught to read; a
rare inftance for a perfon.offo low a ftation in Ruiiia.
His natural genius for poetry was firft kindled by the
perufal of the Song of Solomon, done into verfc by
Polotlki, whofe rude compofitions^ perhaps fcarccly fu-
perior ta our verfion of the pfalms by Stemhold and
Hopkins, infpired him with fuch an irrefiftible paffion
for the mufes, that he fied from his father, who wa» ^
defirous of compelling him to marry, and took i^fugo
in the Kaikonofpalki monaftery at Mofcow ; th^c^Q
had an opportunity o£ indulging, his tafte for letters,
and of ftudying the Greek and Latin languages. In
this feminary he made fo confiderable tf progrefs in po-
lite literature, as to be hoticed and employed by the
Imperial academy of fciences. In 1736 he was fent
at the expence of that fociety, to the univerfity ot"
Marpurgh in Hefle Caffel, where he became a fcholar
of the celebrated Chriftian Wolf, under whom he ftu-
died univerfal grammar, rhetoric. Mid philofophy. Ho
continued at Marpurgh four years,, during which time .
he applied himfelf with indefatigable -diligence to che- -
miftry, which he afterwards purfued with ftill j^reater
fuccefa under the famous Henckcl at Freybcrg in
Saxony. In 1741 he returned into Ruiiia; was cho-
fen in 1742 adjund to the imperial academy; and in •
the enfuiiig year member of that focitty and profcfTor
of chemlftry. In 1 760 he was appoiiitcd infped^or of
the feminaiy, then annexed to the academy ; in 1764
he was gi-atiified by the prefent emprefs with the title of '
counfcUor of-ftate ; and, died. April 4th that year, in -
the 54th year of his age. Lomonozof .excelled in va^-
rioua kinds of compofition ; but his cluef merit, by
which he bears the firft rank among the RMfliau wri-
ters, is derived frcm his poetical compofitions, the
fijieft of which are lu's odes* The firft was written in
1 739* while hcftudied in Germany^, upon the taking
of. Kotfcliin,»a.fortrefs of Crim Tartary, by Marlhal .
Munich. The odes of Lomonozof are greatly ad»
mired for originality of invention, fuWimity of fcuttr -
ment, and energy of language; and compeniate for the
turgid ftyle which, in fome inftances, have been iiu--
fiited to tkem^ by that fpirit and fire which are ths :

pfiu-i-

L O N f 432 1 ION

l4>moiio principal chtraAeriftlcs in thit fpecTet of cmnpclition. toninuf » and Ammianus. That name ym iftot^
*^ Pindar was hU great model ; and if wc m^ give cre« changied into A^gu^a ; in honour, at fome £it, i\,
** dit to a pcrfon well vcrfcd in the Rulfian tongue* he Icpa Auguftai the mother of Conftantiiie thi Gt

has- fuccceded in this daring attempt to imitate the
I'bcban bard» without incurring the cenfure of Ho-
race. In thisi as well as (cveral other fpecies of com-
poiitiont he enriched his native langu^e with various
kinds of metre, and feoms to have merited the appella-
tion bellowed upon him of the Father of Rujpan Poe^

while others think it more probable that it h
name from the fecond legion 9 whofe peculiar tii:-
/fngu/la ; and fome imagine that the hoBcmnv:
peUation of Augufia was conferred npon this c:.
the Romans, as upon other principal cities of ti;r
pire, on account of its being grown up to b? ^

4ry. A brief recapitulation of the principal works of pital of their Britidi province. How long d): r>

Lomonozof, which were printed in three volumes oc-
tavo, will ferve to (how the veHatility of his genius«
and his extentive Unowlcdge in various branches of
literature. The firil volume, befide a Ppeface on the
advantages derived to the Ruffian tongue from the ec-
cleAadical writings, contains ten facred and nineteen
panegjf ric odes, and feveral occaiional pieces of poetr^r.
The fecond comprifes An Effay in Profe on the Rules
for Rufiian Poetry \ Tranflatlon of a German Ode ;
IdylU ; Tamira and Sellm, a tragedy ; Demophoon, a
tragedy ; Poetical Epiftle on the Utility of Glafs; two
cantos of an epic poem, intitled, Peter the Great ; A
Congratulatory Copy of Verfes; An Ode; Tranflation
of Baptift RouiTeau's Ode Sur le Bonheur\ *Heads of a
Courfe of Ledlures on Natural Philofophy ; certain
paflages tranflated in verfe and profe, according to the
original, from Cicero, Erafmus, Lucian, ^lian, Am-
mianus Marcellinus, Quintus Curtius, Homer, Virgili
Martial, Ovid, Horace, and Seneca, t^hich Rufuan
tranAations were brought as examples in his Le^ures
upon Rlietoric; lailly, Def«riptionof tlie Comet which
appeared in 1 744. The third volume confiils chiefly
of Speeches and Treatifes read before the Academy ;
Panegyric on the Emprefs Elizabeth ; on Peter the
Great ; Treatifc on the Advantages of Chcmiftry; on
the Phenomena of the Air occafioned by the Electrical
Fire, with a Latin tranflation of the fame ; on the
Origin of Light as a new Theory of Colours ; Me-
thods to<letermine with preciHon the Courfe of a VefTel;
on the Origin of Metals by the means of Earthquakes;
Latin Differtation on Solidity and IHuidity ; on the
Tranfit of Venus in 1761, with a German tranflation.
Befide thefc various fubjedls, Lomonozof made no in-
confiderable figure in hiftory, having publifhed two
fmall works relative to that of his own country. The
firft, llyled Annals of the Rufllan Sovereigns, is a fhort
chronology of the Ruflian monarchs ; and the fecond

of Augujla prevailed, is not now certainly kncr.
after the eitabliniment of the Saxons we fiadccn:
mention of Augufta. It waa then called Cm'^
daw^ LuttJoun Byrigf Lunden Cea/Ur, Lvli<
Lundatne^ Lunden-herh^ or Luniienlurg ; {inct*}^:
queft the reeords call it Londwia^ Lundenk^ L&z
Londret ; and, for feveral ages pad, it Ins )str. i
ed Lond^n^ a manifeft corruption from Tacitis': :
dinium* The moft probable derivation of tkf: zz
appears to be, cither from the Briti/h woritc:fi

fhip," and din ** a town,*' 1. e. a town or harbcc
(hips ; or from Liin " a lake," /. e. Ua £;, ' :
town upon the lake,'' -the Surry fide being fapr.
upon very probable grounds, to have been aoz
great expanfe of water.

Londinhimy however, was not the pnmiti^r
of this famous place, which exifted before tiieir.
of the Romans ; being, at the time of Cxfanr-
tn the ifland, the capital of the Trhwhatda 0: f
ahtis, l^he name of this nation, as appears frci
ter's Britifli Glofiaryf , waa derived fvom the :
following Britifh words, /r/, nouy bant^ vrhici". i'
the " inhabitants of the new city." This n^I^.^
fuppofed, might have been given thembf thor
hours, on account of their having newly cost-
the continent into Britain, and having there Ice
on the acity called /ri-ii<fw, or the "new city;'* thcmoli"
name of the renowned metropolis of Britain. T^-:
nobantes had come fo lately from BeJgiumi ^'-■
fecm fcarcely to have been firmly eftabliihcd in f '"
at the time of the firft Roman invafion : Fortlie-
city , which foon after became fo famous, was * -
inconliderable, that it is not mentioned by Cs^Vi"
he muft have been within fight of the place ^
was fituated. His filencc about this place, '^^'
brought as a proof that he did not ctoh tiie '^^
while Norden by the firmxljima civilas of the Tn:^-

IP, the Ancient Hiftory of Rufiia, frOra the Origin of tes underftaads the city in qucftion the Tncc-

that Nation to the Death of the Great Duke Yaro-
flaf I. in 1054; a performance of great merit, as it il-
luftrates the moft difficult and obfcure peiiod in the
annals of thi^ country.

I^ONDON, a large city of Middlefex in England,
llie iritrcpolis of Great Britain, and one of the moft
wealthy and populous places in tlic world, is fituated
on the river Thames, in 51° 31' north latitude, 400

themfelvcs having been among the firil of tkc V-
ftatcs who fiibmitted to that conqueror.
By Ptolemy, and fome other ancient wntertc/r

authority, indeed, Londinium is placed in C^'
or Cent, on the fouth fide of the Thames; d
the opinion of fome moderns, that the Roma':
bably had a ftation there, to fecure their conqii^-
that fide of the river, before they reduced ^ |'
bantes. The place fixed upon for this i^"^
8t George's fields, a large p^at of grounJ ^-^

miles fouth of Edinburgh, and 270 fouth-eaft of Dub-
lin ; 180 miles weft of Amftcrdam, 21c north-weft of

Paris, 500 fouth-wcft of Copenhagen, 600 north-weft of between Lambeth and Southwark, where ir^^f^

Vienna, 790 fouth-weft of Stockholm, 8 DO no^-th-caft of man coins, bricks, and chccqncrtd pavein«t.Sj-

Madrid, 820 north-weft of Rome, 8co norlh-eaft of boen found. Three Roman wuvs from Kent, ^,'"

Liibon, 1360 north-weft of Conftantinople, and 1414 and Middlefex, interfeft^ each other i^^"'^!"^. i

ff fouth-weft of Mofcow. this therefore is fuppofed to be the original ^^^ ^

Its iilFcrent This city was by the Romans firft called Londimum which it is thought became negleftcd after U -^

•ames. q^ Lundiaumf as wc find it in Tacitusi Ptolemy, An- mans reduced the Trinohantes, andfettfcdofl^*^':,

N^i86. 3 .

t O N t «33 1 t O M

' de €>t the Hiamcs | and the name w» transfentd 'to iwhich ought be adduced, that this citj was the capi- 3&» fe<>\
Vie new city. tal of Britain in the Roman times. — ^— ^
IThe fituation of this city, as Mr Pennant obfeires. At firft London had no wallg or other fortifications when firft
7a8 juft fuch as the people would fele6i according to to defend it, and was therefore expofed to the attacks Turrounded
He rule eftablifhed among the Britons. An immenfe of every enemy« and thus it ftt£Fered fevercly about ^<h wiUsk
' oreft originally extended to the river*fide, and even as the year 649 being burnt by the Britons under Boa-
ate as the reign of Henry II. covered the northern dicea, and all the inhabitants maflacred. But it was
leighbourhood of the city, and was filled with various foon reftored by the Romans i and increafed fo much»
.peciea of beafts of chace. It Was defended naturally that in the reig^ of the emperor Severus it is called
r>y fbfies ; one formed by the creek which run along by Herodian a great and weakly city. It continued.
Fleet-ditch, the other afterwards known by that a( howeveri in a defencelefs ftkte for more than a eentii-
Waibrook ; the fouth fide was sruarded by the Thames ; ry after this laft period ; when at lail a waB of hewn
the north they might think udficiently protfded by none and Britifh bricks was created round it.
the adjacent fo^ftk London at this time Extended in length from Lud«
lliie Romans poflefled themfelves of London, on ffate-hill to a fpot a little beyond the Tower. The
their fecond invafion in the reign of Claudius, about breadth was not half equal to the length, and at each
• 105 years after their firft under Claeiar. They had he- end grew Confidarably narrower. Mautland afcilbei
gun with Camalodunum, the prefent Maldon in Effex ) the building of the walls to Theodo(ius governor of
\- and having taken It, planted there a colony confifting Britain in t6^* Pr Woodward, with teore probabt-
of veterans of the i4thlegioni London and Verulam lity, fuppo&s them to have been founded under iht
; were next taken pofTeffion of about one and the fame aufpices of Conftantine the Great ; and this feems to
!. time. Camalodunum was made a coloniHf or place go- be confirmed by the numbers of coins of that empe*
▼crned entirely by Roman laws and cuftoms \ Verulam i'or^s mother Helena, which have been difoovered un«
(on the fite of which St Alban^s now ftands), amMif- der them, placed there by him in compliment to her^
., cipium^ in which the natives were honoured with tht The fame emperor made it a biflic^'s fee ; for it ap-
privileges of Roman citizens, and enjoyed their own pears that tht bifhops of London and York, and ano-
laws and conftitutions ; and Londinium only a frafec^ ther Englifti biAiop^ were at the council of Ailes in the
. ivrcf the inhabitants, a mixture of Romans and Britons, year 514: he alfo fettled a mint in it« as is plain from

being fufFered to enjoy no more than the name of citi- fome of his coins. The ancient courfe of the wall y^y^if f^,

" zens of Rome, being governed by Prefe£ls fent annu- was as follows 1 It began with a (brt near the prefent dent

ally from thence, without havine eitlkr their own laws fite of the Tower, was' continued along the Minories, eourlci A(|
'.' «)r magiftrates. ' ^* It was even then of fuch concourfe and the back of Houndfditch, acrofs Biihopfgate-
(fays Mr Pennaiit), and fuch vaft trade, that the wife flreet, iri a ftraight line by Lcmdon-wall to Cripple-
conquerors did not think fit X6 tnift the inhabitants gate; then returned fouthward by Crowder's Well
with the fame privileges as other Jplaces of which they Alley, (where feveral remnants of lofty towers were
had lefs reafon to be jealous.'* But others obferve, that lately to be feen) tb Alderfgate; thence along the
this is a miftake; and that the Roma;)S, in order to back of Bull and Mouth-ftrect to Newgate, and again
' fecure their conqueft, and to gain the affe^ions of thofe along the back of the houfes in the Old Bailey t9
- Britons who had already fubmittcd to their authority, Ludgate \ foon after which it probably^ifhed with
made London equally a municipium or fr^e city with another fort, where the houfe, late the king's mrint-
Verulamium, as may be fden by referring to Aulus ting houfe, in Black Friars, now ftands : from hence
Gellius, 1. 16. c. 13. and to Spanhem. oi^is Ronuin. another wall ran near the river fide, along Thames-.
p. 37, 38. ton\. ii. ftreet, quite to the fort on the eaftern extremity. Thd
It is difficult to (ay wliat were the particular articles walls were three miles a hundred and fixty-five feet iii
'^ of commerce exported from and imported into the circumference, guarded at proper diftances on the land
:^°' port of London at this period. The impoits and ex- fide with fifteen lofty towers % fome of them were re-
ports of the ifland in general we know : Strabo fays, maining within thefe few years, and poffibly may ftilL
'< Britain prodoceth ' com, cattle, gold, filver, iron ; Maitland mentions one twenty-fix feet high, near Gra-
befides which, ikins, flkves, and dogs naturally excel- veUlane, on the weft fide of Houndfditch; another^
lent hunters, are exported from that ifland.'' It is about eighty paces fouth-eaft towards Aldgate ; and
probable that the two firft and three laft articles were the hafes of another, fupporting a modem houfe, at
exported from London ; and pcrhap!>, too, xh^gagatet the lower end of the ftreet caUed the Vinegaryard,
^^ or jet-ftone mentioned by Solinus aa one of the pro- fouth of Aldgate. The walls, when perfed, are fup-
doftioni of Britain, together with horfes, were export- pofed to have been twenty-two feet high, the towers
J ed from thence, " The imports were at firft fait, earth- forty. Thefe, with the remnants of the wall, proved
^ en tfrare, and works in brafs, poliihed bits of bones the Roman ftrudure, by the tiles and difpofition of
emulating ivory, horfe-collarg, to^ of amber, glafles, the mafonry. London- wall, near Mcjprfields, is now
and other articles of the fame material. the liloft entire part left of that ancient precin^ The
In the reign of Nero, as Tacitus informs us, Lon* gates, which received the great military roads, were
don was become a city highly famous for the great four. The Praetorian way, the Saxon Watling ftreet,
coniluz of merchantp, her extenfive commerce, and paffed under one, on the fite of the late Newgate ;
plenty of all things. No fewer than (even of the four- veftige's having been difcovered of the road in digging
^ teen itinera of Antoninus begin or end at Lon- above Holbum-bridge : it turned down to Dowgate,
don ; which tends to corroboxate the many proofs or more properly I)wr-gate or Water-gate^ where
Vol. X. Part L Og ^^

L O N

ioD>AoiL tlicre wu a trajedut or ktry^ to join it to the Wat
ling-ftreet, which wa» condmied to Dover. The He*.
min ftreet pafied under Cripplegate ; and a Ticinal way
went under Aldgate by Bethnat-green, towards Old-
foid> a bafs over the river Lee to Duroletton, the
modem Leiton in Eficx.

After the Romans deferted Britain, a new and fierce
race fucceeded. ' The Saxons, under their leaders
Hengiil and Hocfa, landed in 448, having been invi-

r ^34 3

L o N

London
fubtoiits to
the Siioci.

nate RiagiAi«t« fay what name foevcr tben diftxafa&
ed,. whichy being placed at the head of each wd s
prccin6iy wejpe analogous to the more modem titx ::
aldermen and eommotKounc'd men.

Alfred having, fettled the affairs of England 'it 'a
noil prudent manner, dire£ied his attention to x\tt it.
(lamenting, as much as pofiible, the city of Lsiii.:.
For this purpofe^ he fpirited up the Engllfh to an s^
lation in building their houfes of ftronger aad s>.

ted over by the provincials as auxth'aries againft. the durable materials than formerly. At that time t>r

Mmdercd
by the
Panes.

Scots and Fids ; but qimrrelling with their friends,
they found means to eftablifti- themfelves in the iiland,
and ip procefs of time entirely, fubdued them, a8> re-
lated under the article £ ho land, n° 31 — 44. Lon-
don fell into the hands of thofe invaders about the
.year 457 ; and became the chief city of^ the Saxon
kingdom in Effez. It fuffered much in the wars car-
ried oir between the Britons and Saxons : but it foon
recovered ; fo that Bede caUs it a princely mart-town^
under the government of a chief migiftrate, whofe
title of portgrave^ or portreve (for we find him cal-
led by both names \ conveys a grand idea of the mer-
cantile ftate of London in thole early ages, ' that re-
quired a governor or guardian of the port. During
tlie civil wars of the Saxons with each other^ the
Londoners had always the addrefs to keep thamfelves
neuter; and about the year 819, when all the feven
Saxon kingdoms fell under the power of Egbert, Lon-
don became the metropolis of England, which it has
€wr fince continued.

During the invafions of the Danes, London fuffered
greatly. In 849, thefe invaders entered the Thames
with 250 (hips, plundered and burnt the city, aiid maf-
&cred the inhabitants ; and two years after they re-
turned with a fieet of 350 fail, fully determined to de-
iboy every thing that had efcaped their barbarity in
the former expedition. At this time, however, they
were diiappointed ; moil of their troops being cut in
pieces by kiag Ethelwolf and hit fon Athelbald ; yet
fuch was the deftru6lion made by thofe barbarians at

houfes were moiUy of wood ; and an houfe b^
any other materials was looked apon as a kind of vj*.
der. But Alfred having begua to raife his pahcr: .
flone and brick, the opulent Londoners, and the z^.
bility refident in and about London, followed tht c-
ample, though the cuilom did not come iato gc^ca.
ufe till fome ages after*

In 1015, a foreign enemy again appeared befr
London. Canute king of Denmark having mv^\
and plundered the counties of Dorfct, Somcrfet, zl:
Wilts, failed up the Thames with 200 fliips, and li\:
fiege to the city. The citizens continued faithfuU 1/.
withdanding the defection of the greateH part of ii:
kingdom ; and made fuch a brave rciiftance, that (>
nute thought fit to withdraw his army, leaving 0:!:
his fleet to blockade the city by water, that whtrs '.*
found a fair opportunity he might renew the fiege w :
better fuccefs. At lalt, however, being dcfcaicJj
feveral battles by Edmund Ironfide, he was oblig «
to call off his (hips to cover his own army in caie x
necefiity. In the compromifc, however, whi Ji 'r_
afterwards made between Edmund and Canute, *i;
city of London was given to the latter, and owned b.i
for its lawful fovereign. We have a ilrong pnxif 1
the opulence of London even at this time,/rom the u
laid upon it by Canute in order to pay his a^-my ; tiL
being no lefs than 10,5001. while the reft of theur
tion was at the fame time taxed only at 72,000 L

In 1046, we have the firil in fiance of the Londcs-j^
ers fending reprefentatives to parliament. This Lap-r

9
Recoven

under Al-
fred the
Great.

London, that it fuffered more firom thefe two incur- pened on fettling the fuccefiion to the throne after Ca- '

fioas than ever It had done before. nute's death. The Englifii in general declared for Ed-'^

In the reign of king Alfred the Great, London be* ward fon of king Ethelred ; or, if that could not be

gan to recover from its former ruinous (late. He re- carried, for Hardicanute, ion of Canute by quccs

built its walls> drove out the Danifli inhabitants who Emma, and then abfent on a tour to Denmark. The

city of London efpoufed the claim and interell of Ha-
rold Harefoot» fon alio of Canute, by queea Elgi^a
of Northampton. Edward's party foon declined; asd
the Londoners agreed, for the peace of the realm, that
the two brothers ftiould divide the kingdom betwta

had fettled there, reftored the city to its former liberties
and beauty, and committed the care of it to his fon-
in-law,. Euhelred duke of Mercia^ in hopes that this
might always be a pbce of fecure retreat within its
ftrong walk, whatever might happen fromi a foreign or

domeftic enemy. In 895, however, he had the mor- them ; but aft Hardicanute did not return in proper

ReducLl to ^^c^^^<>" ^^ ^^^ ^^* capiul totally reduced to a/hes by time to Enl^nd, a wttsnage-mote was held at Ox-

aft^^, an accidental fire,, which could not be estinguifiied, as ford, where earl Leofrxc, and raoft of the thanes oa

the houfes at that time wiere aK built of wood. The the north of the Thames, with the pilots of Londoi},

walls, however, being conftrudled of incombuftible na« diode Harold for their king. Hepc, by piUt4 we are

teriak, continued to afford the fame protedion as be- to underftand the dire^lors, magifirates, or leading

fore ; the houfes were quickly rebuilt, and the city di- men of the city : and this manifefily fiiovre, ^that Lon-

Tided into wards and precin6U for its better order and don was then of fuch confequence, that no important

government. This king alfo inftituted the ofilce of national afiair was tranfaded without the confent of

leriff, the nature of which office made it neceflaryto the inhabitants; for the Saxon annals affure us, thsl

Itit overn- ^^ '^ ^^ ^° London : fo that here we have the glim* none were admitted into this affembly of ele^on but

mcQt let- merings of the order of magiftrates afterwards fetded the nobility and the pilots of London,
tied. in the city of London ; in the pcrfon of the portreve. On the invafion of the Normans under William L^^

or portgrave, or governor of the city, as fupreme n^lr London fubmitted as well as the reft of the kingdom ;f^

giftcatc J in- the iheriff, and in the officer o^fubordi* and received two charters from that prince, confirm- aw

4 tag

L O N

£ 435 ]

L O N

iag^ all the prmleees they had under the Saxon kings,
and adding feveral new ones. But while the citizens,
were promifing themfelves all manner of fecurity and
tnnquiUity under the new government, it was almoli
entirely reduced to aihesby an accidental Are in 1077.
It ^ad fcarcely recovered from this calamity, when it
w«8 vifited by another of the fame kind in i o36, which
l^gan at Ludgate, and deilroyed the heft and moft o-
puTent part of the city; confuming, among other build-
ings, the cathedral of St Faults 4 which, however, was
foon rebuilt more magnificently Uian before. Under
Che reign of William Rufus, London fuffered conilder-
ably by fire«, hurricanes, and inundations, and feems
to have been deprefled by the tyranny of that prince ;
hut Henry I. granted large immunities to the city,
"which again revived its trade, and was favourable to
the progreb of the arts. The king, however, iiill re-
*tained the privilege of appointing the portreve, or
chief magiftrate ; but the immunities granted to the
Londoners fecured their affections, and tended much
to fecure him on the throne. At the fame time, there
was fuch a plenty of all kinds of provisions, that as
much corn was fold for i s. as would fuffice 100 people
lor a day ; 4d. would puA:hafe as much hay and com
as would maintain 20 horfes for a day i and a iheep
could be 'bought for a groat.
IVIooftrous Henry thought proper alfo to check the licentious
licentiouf- behaviour of the Normans, which, -by the favour
^fsofthe Showed them under the two Williams, had carried
Ofiaani. ^j^^^ j^^ ^ ^^^ barbarous ptaC^ices. Thofe who

followed William Rufus in his excurfions, haralTed

had engaged in thefe enterprites. He offered 500 lb. ho ^tm. '^
weight of Olver, a prodigious fum in thofe days, f*^r ' * ' '^
his pardon, but was refufcd. The king, however, ftill
continued to drain the citizens of their money by free
gifts ; and at laft fined every feparate guild, fratemityt
or company, that had prefumed to z€t as bodies cor-
porate without the royal letters-patent.

On the death of Henry II. the title of the firft ma-
giftrate of London was changed from portgreve to that
o£ bailiff'; and in 11 89 claimed and a6led in the office
of the chief butler at the coronation of Richard J. In
1 191 this monarch permitted the bailiff, named Henry
Fitz Alwine^ to affume the title of mayor. For, in .^^ ' J^
1 192, we find certain orders of the mayor and alder- r ^^J~
men to prevent fires ; whereby it was ordained, that whcu firft
** «ill houfes thereafter to be ere£ldd in London and infticutcd*.
the liberties thereof, (hould be built of ilone, with
party-walls of the fame ; and covered either with' dates*
or tiles, to prevent thofe dreadful calamities by lire,
which were frequently and chiefly occafioned by houfes
built of wood, and thatched with ft raw or reeds."
And for this purpofe, it was alfd provided by the dif-'
creeter men of the city, ** that 12 aldermen of the
city ftiould be chofen in full huftings, and there fwom
to affift the mayor in appeafin^ contentions that might •

arife among neighbours in the city upon ' inclofure be*
twist land and land, and to regulate the dimenfions of
party-walls, which were to be of ftone, 1 6 feet high
and three feet ^ thick ; and to give diredlions about
girders, windows, gutters, and wells." 'Such confi-
dence alfo did Richard put in the wifdom and faith-

and plundered the country at difcretion. Many of fulneb of the city of London, that when it was re

them were fo extravagant in their barbarity, that what
they could not eat or drink in their quarters, they ei-
ther obliged the people to carry to market and fell
£oT their ufe, or elfe they would throw it into the fire:
and, at their going off, they frequently wafhed their
horfes heels with the drink, and ftaved the caiks con-
taining tlic remainder. King Henry refolved to put
a ftop to thefe excefles and (avage cuftoms ; and there-
fore publiihed a proclamation at London, commanding
that thenceforward all perfons who ftiould be convi^ed
of fuch barbarities ftiould have their eyes pulled out,
or their hands or feet cut oft', as the minilters of juftice
ihould think fit. This effe^ually checked the info-
knee of the Normans, and the city continued to ftou-
rifti throughout the reigns of Henry I. and Stephen.
The . attachment of the citizens to Stephen, howeven
was a crinu; which never could be forgiven by Henry II.

folved to fix a ftandard for weights and meafures for
the whole realm, his majefty committed the <hcecutk>n
thereof to the ftieriffs of London and Mtddlefex, vdiom
he commanded to provide meafures, gallons, iron rods^,
and weights for ftaadards, to be fent to the feveral
counties of England. This happened in 11 98, at
which time com was advanced to the enormous price
of 1 8 s. 4d. per quarter. •

The city of London was much ^voured by King p^^J^
John, who granted them three charters foon after his granted €•
acceflion. -The firft Was a recital and confirmation of the city hy
thofe granted by Henry I. and II. with the farther ^'"SJ"^
privilege of being free from toll and every other duty
or cuftom in his ifiajefty's foreign dominions; for
which they paid the fum of 3000 merks. The fecond
was a confirmation of one granted by King Richard.
By this the citizens of London had the jurffdic^ion

and, of confequence, he made them fenfible of his dif-^ and confervancy of the river Thames ; with a claufe to

^ pleafure^ by making irequent demands of money firorar

#fche thenh About this time, indeed, the Londoners were

l^oudiinen. arrived at fuch a pitch of licentioufnefs, tliat their pro-

fperity feemed .a curfe rather than a blefting. The

fons of the moft eminent and wealthy citizens entered

into a . confederacy to commit burglaries, and to rob

and murder, all that came in their way in the night-*

time. The king took an opportunity from thefe irre-

grularities to enrich himfelf; He demanded feveral

' loans: and free gifts ; till at laft the Londoners, to

prevent further inquiries into their condu£^, paid into

the exchequer 50caL in three years. Thefe diforders,

however, were at laft ftopped by the execution of John

Seaex ; who, though, a very rich and reputable citizeni

extend that jurifdiAion, and the powers therewith
granted, to the river Mcdway ; and with another
claufe to enable the faid city, as confcrvators of the
rivers Thames and Mcdway, to iiTflidt a penalty of lol.
upon any perfon that fhould prefume to eredl a wear
in cither of thefe rivers. The third charter contains
a fee-farm -root of the fheriffwicks of London and
Middlefex at the ancient rent, of which they had been
deprived by Queen Maud ; granting them alfo the ad-
ditional power of choofing their own (heriffs. This
charter was given by way of conveyance from the
crown to the citizens for a valuable confideration, by
which the ftieriffwick became their freehold ; and this
is the firft covenant or conveyance we find on record

.G g 2 with

ION

t a3« 3

L O N

Londftn. with the legal terms of to have and to hoU, which are
"■^ » at this time accouated an eflential part in all convey-

ances of property.
London op- During the reign of Henry 111. the eity of London
^rdTedby was opprelTed in many different ways. In I2i8y he
liair$iiU exa6^ed a fine of 40 marks for felling a fort of cloth
not two yards within the lifts ; and a 15th of the citi-
zens perfonal e dates for the enjoyment of their ancient
rights and privileges. In 122I9 he commanded by
proclamation all the foreign merchants to depart the
city ; v/hrch drew 30 marks from the Anfeatic c<mjv-
pany of the SUelyartl^ to have feifin of their guild or
liall in Thames-ilreet. But it was the wreilling-match
at St Giles's in the fields that brought on their great-
rit burden. In the year 1221, on St James's day*
the citizens pf London having carried oflf the vi^iofy
from the people of Weftminfter and other neighbour-
ing villages, the fteward of the abbot of Weftminllery
meditating revenge againil the Londoners, propofed
another wrefUing-match with them, and gave a ram for
the prize. The citizens reforted to the place at the
time appointed ; but were unexpcdledly afiaulted by a
freat number of armed men, who killed and wounded
many, and difperf^d the reft. Thift raifed a great
commotion in the city. The populace breathed
revenge ; and, by the inftigation 01 Conftantine Fitz«
Amulph, a great favourer of the French party during
the troubles in king John's reign, they proceeded to
Weilminiler, and pulled down tke houfes both of the
fteward and abbot. Hearing afterwards that the ab-
bot was come into the city with his cumplaint* to
Philip Daubney the king's counfel, they purAied him,
beat his fervants cruelly, took away 1 2 of his horfesf
and would have murdered himfelf, had he not cfcaped
by a back-door. Upon this tumult, Hubert de Bury,
then chief jufticiary, fummoned the mayor and many of
the principal citizens to attend him in the tower of
London ; and inquiring for the authors of the riot,
Conftantine, the ringleader, boldly anfwered, that ** he
W218 one; that they had done no more than they
ought ; 9nd that they were refolved to avow what
they had done, Jet the confeqnence be what it would."
In this he was feconded by his nephew and one Geof-
.^ry ; but the jufticiary, having difmifl*ed all the reft,
detained thefe three, and ordered them to be hang^
next morning, though Conftantine offered 15,000
marks for his pardon. Hubert then coming into the

were confirmed. They were exempted fitrr pto*'
tions for burets, u e. lifted doth ; and
the right of having a common feaL The ntcrltz
circumftances of tliis monarch, however, made Lis m-
ten ex2L& money arbitrarily as long as he lived.

Under the fucceedingreigns, as the liberty of the pe:
pie in general was augmented, fo the liberty^ opoiri:!
and power of the citizens of London incrcafed, until tkr
became a kind of balance to the power of tke ens.
itfelf, which in fomc meafure they ftiU continue to ^^
lliots indeed, for which they generally fufiiereci, wcrh
no means unfrequent ; the city often fixffcred far hsy
and plagues. Nothing, however, haj^ned whidb n:
terially affedied the welfare of the city,till the rdg^ ,'
Charles II. in 1665.— This year Lpndon vras laro-:
by the moft violent plague ever known in Bntzi
The whole fummer had been remarkably ftiU c:
warm, fo that the weather was fometimes fi29bca:>.:
even t.o people in perfed health ; and by this xjlu:!
heat and fultry atmofphere, people were undaobtei-.
prepar^ for receiving the infe^ion, whiek appcsr^
w.th violence in the - months of July, Auguft, ^
September. A violent plague had raged in Ho£a::
in the year 1663.^ on which account the imponarai
of merchandife from that country was prohibited tr
the Britifh legiflature in 1664. NotwithftandiB-? tkl^
prohibition, however, it feems the plague had a&«£T
been imported 1 for in the clofe of the year 1 664, rsv
or three perfons died fuddenly in Wcfbninfter, iri
marks of the plague on their bodies. Some of ix:
neighbours, terrified at the thoughts of their daa^.
removed into the city ; but their removal proied t)t
late for themfclves, and fatal to thofe among wks
they came to refide. They foon died of the plapj;
and communicated the infection to £b many otkcs,
that it became impofiible to eztinguifh the feeds of :r
by fcparating thofe that were infeaed from fecb a
were not. It was confined, however, through a b^
frofty winter, till the middle of Fcbnttry, whee k
agam -appeared in the parifti of St Giles's, to whid it
had been originally brought ; and after another Icsf j
reft till April, ftiowed its malignant force afrtA,ii
foon as the warmth of the fpring gave it opportuakr.
—At firft, it took off one here^nd there^ without ssy
certain proof of their having infefted each other, aad
houies began to be (hut up, with a defign to prertst
its i^reading. But it was now too late ; the infeaka

city with a ftrong guard, caufed the hands and feet of gained ground every day, and the ihatting up d
_ 11 .r.i_ ?_.«_^i • 1. 1:1 r.;_. .^ ». houfcs onl^ made the diilndes fpread wider. Peopjf,

afraid of beiilg (hut up, and fequeftered bom all conuE!)-
Bications with fociety, concealed their iUneis* or fboid
means to efcape from their places of confinemeot;
while numbers expired in the greateft tonnents, deli-
tute of every aififtance ; and many died both of tbe
plague and other difeaies, who would in M probaiit-
lity have recovered, had they been allowed tbct
liberty, with proper exercife and air. — ^A hook w
(hut up on account of a maid-iervanty who had odf
fpots, and not the gangrenous plague-blotches, open
her, fo that her diftemper was probably a petcchiil

moft of the principal rioters he could feize 4o be cut
off: all which was executed without any legal pro-
ceedings or form of triaL After thefe arbitrary cruel-
tics, he degraded the mayor and all the magiftrates ;
placed a n^ot over the city, and obliged 30 perfons
of his own choofing to become fecnrities for the good
behaviour of the whok city. Seteral thoufand marks
were alfo exa6ked by the aing, before he would con-
ient to a reconciltation.

This' arbitrary behaviour alarmed the whole nation*
The parliament of 1224 began to be uneafy for them*
felves, and addreffed his majefty that he would be pie;

led to confirm the charter of liberties which he had i!e?er. She recovered ; but the people of die bode

fwom to obferve ; and the confequenee of this appiica- obtained no liberty to ftir, either for air or exetciie, for
lion waa a confinnation of the magna charta m the full • mi^ • • • <>

parliament at Wefiminfter in the year 1235. At this

time al£b| the rights and privileges of the utlzeos

40 days. The bad air, fear, anger, and vexation, st-
tendisg this' injurious treatment, caft die miftie^ of
the baoDj into a fever. The victors appointed ta

fisKch

L O N

[

earoK the houfes, £ud it wa» the plague^ though the

i^yAclaht were of a different opmion : the tamilyy

io'Mrever» were obliged to. begin their quarantine anew,

Llioiigb. it had been alxnoft expired before ; and this

fecond confinement affected them fo muchy that moft

of the family fell (kk, fome of one difiemper and fome

of another. Every illncfs that appeared in the family

produced a Irelh prcrfongation of their confinement;

till at laft the plague yraa a^^uallr brought in by fome

of tho£e who can^ to in^ire into the health of the

faxnily, and almoft A*ery perfon in the houfe died.—

Many examples of a fimilar kind happened, and this

"was oae of the worft confequences of (hutting up

houfcs. All means of putting a flop to the infedlion

"^'ere evidently ineffe^ual* Multitudes fled into the

country ; many merchants, owners of /hips» Sec fhut

thexnfelves up, on board their veifcls, bemg fupplied

^th provifions from Greenwich, Woolwich, and iingle

farm-hoiifes on the Kenti(h fide, n Here, however,

they were fafe ; for the infe&ion never reached below

Debt ford, though the people went frcqacutlyon fhore

to the country-towns, villages, and farm-houfes, -to

tsuy freih provifions. As the violence of the plague

increafed, the (hips which had families on board re«

moved farther off; fome went quite out to fea, and

then put into fuch harbours and roads as they could

beft get at.

In the mean time, the diftempernmade the moft ra«
pid advances within the city, lii the laft week of
July, the number of burials amounted to 2010 ; but
the ftrft week of Auguft it rofe to 3817 ; thence to
3880 ; then to 4237 ; the next week, to 6102 ; and at

237 ] L O N

Magnus. From thence it proceeded to the bridge> t^opdonw
and confumed a great pile of buildings there ; but
was ftopped by the want of any thing more to de-
ftroy. The flames* however, being fcattered by a
ftrong eaft wind, continued their devaftations in other
quaiters. All efforts to ftop it proved unfuccefsful
throughout the Sunday. That day it proceeded up as
far as Garlick*hithe ; and deftroy ing Canon-Areet, inva«
ded CornhiU and the exchange. On Monday, the flames
having proceeded eaftward againft the 'wind through
Thames -ilrcet, invaded Tower-ftreet, Gracc-chiurh*
ftreet, Fecchurch-ftreet, Dowgate, Old-fifli-ftreet,
Watling-ftreet, Thread-needle-ftrcet, and fevera! others,
from all which it broke at once into Cheapfide. In a
few hours Cheapfide was all in flames, the Are having
reached it from fo many places at once. The fire then
continuing its courfe from the river on one fide, and
from Cheapfide 6n the other, furrounded the cathedral
of St Paul's. Tills building flood by itfelf at fome
diftance from any houfes ; yet fuch was the violence of
the flames, and the. heat of the atmofphere occafloned
by them, that the cathedral took fire at top. The
great beams and maffy flones broke through into
Falth-churcli underneath, which was quickly fet on
fire ; after which, the flames iavaded Pater-nofter-row,
Newgate-ftreet, the Old Bailey, Ludgate-hiU, Fleet-
ftreet, Iron-monger4ane, Old-Jury, LaureDce-lane».
Milk-ftreet, Wood-ftreet, Gutter-lane, Fofler-lane,
Lothbury, Cateaton-ftrcct ; and, having deftroy ed
Chrift-church, burnt furioufly through St Martin's Le
Grand towards Alderfgate.

The fire had now attained its greateft extent, and*

laft to 7000 and 8000 weekly. In the laft week of wras feveral miles in compafs. The vaft clouds of fmoke

Septemper, however, the fury of the difeafe began
to abate ; though vaft numbers were fick, yet the
number of burials decreafed from 7155 to 5538 ; the
next week there was a farther decrede to 4929, then
104327, next to 2665, then to 1421, and the next
week to 1031.

All this while, the poor people had been reduced
to the greateft diftreffes, by reafon of the ftagnation
of trade, and the fickneffes to ythich they were pe-
culiarly liabk on account of their manner of living.
The rich, however, contributed to their fubfiftence la
a moil liberal manner. The fums colle&ed on thi9
occaiion, are indeed almoft incredible; being faid
to amount to 100,000]. per week. The king is re-
ported to have contributed loooL weekly; and in the

obfcurcd the fun* fo, that he either could not be feen
at all, or appeared through it as red as blood. The
flames reached an inunenfe way up into the air, and
their reflc&ion from the fmoke, which in the nights
time feemed alfo like flame, made the appearance ftill
more terrible. The atmofphere was illuminated to a
great extent, and this illumination is faid to have been
vifible as far aa Jedbu^h in Scotland. Some of the
light aflies alfo are faid to have been carried to the di>
ftance of 16 miles* Guildhall exhibited a Angular ap-
perance. The oak with which it was buih was fo
folid that it would not flame, but burnt like charcoal, fo
that the building appeared for feveral hours like an en-
chanted palace of gold or bumifhed brafs.

At laft, on Wednefday morning, when every one

parifli of Cripplegate «lone 1 7,000 1. vras diftii- expeded that the fuburbs as well as the city were td

buted weekly among the poor inhabitants.— By the

vigilance alfo of the magiftrates, provifions continued

remarkably cheap throughout the whole time of this

dreadful o^amity, £0 .that all riots and tumults on

that account were prevented; and at laft, on the ceffa*

tion of the difeafe in the winter of 1665, the inhabi-

UDts who had fled returned to their habitations, and

London to appearance become as populous as ever,

though it was computed that 100,000 perfons had

been carried off by the plague.

>Qntof '^^ ^^^J ^"^ fcarcely recovered from the dcfolation

neat occafioned by the plague, when it was almoft totally

la 1666. laid in aflies by a moft dreadful fire. This broke out

in a baker s fhop in Pudding-lime, on Saturday-night,

September a. i666» In a few hours BtHingfgate ward

vat entirely burnt down ; and before morning the fire had

aoflcd Thames-ftrecti and deftroyed the chvtrdx of S%

have been burnt, the fire began of itfelf to abate by
reafon of the wind having ceafed, and fome other
changes no doubt taken. place in the atmofphere. It
was checked by the great building in iJeaden-hall-
ftreet, and in other ftreeta by the blowing op fe-
veral houfes with gun^powder ; and-on Thurfday the
flames were quite extinguifhed. — ^The following is a
calculation of the damage done by this extraordinary
conflagration.

Thirteen thoufand two hundred X.

houfes, at 1 2 years purchafe, fup«
poliiig the rent of ^ach 251. Sier-

of tlie da-
mage duas^

ling, . • -

£ighty-feven parifli-church^s, at
8000 1. . . •

3,960,000 o o
696,000 o 6

carrried forward 4,6^6^000 o o

London.

«4
A defign

tofctit

on fire

. again*

L O N

brought over L.

Six confecrated chapelvy at20ool.

The royal exchange

The cuitom-houfe

Fifty-two halls of companies, at
1500 1, each.

Three city-gatet at 3000I. each

Jail of Newgate

Four flone-bridget

Seiiions-houfe

Guildhall, with the courts and
oiEces belonging to it

Blackwdl-hall

Bridewell . - * -

Poultry Compter

Woodftrect Compter

St Paul's church

Wares, houfeh(^d-ilufF, money,
4md moveable-goods loft or fpoiled

Hire of porters, carts, wag-
gons, barges, boats, &c. for re-
moving goods

Printed ' books and paper in
ihops and warehoufes

Wine, tobacco, fugar, &c. of
'Vfhich the town was at that time
-.very full - • —

4,656,000
12,000
50,000
1 0,000

78,000
9000

15,000
4S000
7000

40,000
3000
5000
5000
3000
2,000,000

[

o
o
o
o

o
o
o

o o

a>ooo,«oo o o

200,000 • o

.150,000 o o

1,500,000. o o

^10,689,000 o o

' It was never certainly known whether this fire was
accidental or defigned. A fufpicion fell i^on the Pa-
'piils ; and this gained fuch general Credit, that it is af-
ierted for a truth on the monument which iscre^ed m
memory of the conflagration. Of thelnith of this af-
fertion, however, though there was not fufiicient proof,
it had the tSofk. of making the Papifls mofl violent-
ly fufpe£led and abhorred by the Proteftants, which
fome time after proved v^ry prejudicial to the city
ilfclf.

Fromrthis calamity, great as it was, London foon
recovered itfelf, and became much more- magnificent
than before ; the ftreets, which were formerly Q-ooked
and narrow,. being now built wide and fpacious; and
the induflry of its inhabitants repaired the lolTes they
.had fuftained. In 1679, ^^ ^^^Y ^^^ again alarmed
Jiy the difcovery of a defign to deflroy it by fire a fe-
cond time. Elizabeth Oxly, fervant to one Rind ia
JFettcr-Jane, having fet her mafler's houfe on fire, was
•apprehended on fufpicion, and confefFed, that (he had
been hired' to do it by one Stubbs a Papifl, for a re-
ward of 5J. w Stubbs being taken into cuftody, ac-
knowledged that he had perfuaded her to it ; and
that he himfelf had been prevailed upon by one father
Gilford his confeffor, who had affured him, that by
burning the houfes of heretics he would do a great fer-
.vke to the church. He alfo owned that he had feve-
ral conferences with Gifford and two irifhmen on the
affair. ITie maid and Stubbs alfo agreed in declaring,
.that the Papllls intended to rife in London, ezpe£^ing
to be po^verfully fupported by a French army. In
confequence of this difcovery, the Papifts were banifh-
..cd fromsthe city and ten miles round, and five Jcfm'ts
were hanged Tor the abovementionod plot.

The Papifts thought to revenge themfclves,i)y for-
.ging what was called the muU'iuhflot^ in which tlie

38 3 • L O N

Pre(byterians were fuppofed to hatcU treacaepsL.* ^
figns againft the life of the king. Sir Kdmasiib -
Godfrey alfo, who had »been very ai^tive ia ki^ r
ceedlngs againft the Papifts, was mordei^ed hx -
unknown perfons $ and this murder, together ;
their difcovering the falfehood of the mcaktES p.
fo exafperated the Londoners, that they rcfuhrt ?'
(how their deteflatioa of Popery, by an cxxx^&s^sw
exhibition on the 17th of November, Queen Hz^
beth*s acceflion to the throne, on which dzf dr
had ufuallv burnt the pope in efngy. The proce£.
began with a perfonon horfebackperfoDatiegS^L:
mondbury Godfrey, attended by a beli-man procL--
ing his execrable murder. He was folh>wed by jyr-
fon canying a large filver crofs, with priefts is cv.-
Carmelites, and Gray-friars, followed by fix ]th'.
then proceeded divers waiters, and after then i.-r:
bi(hops with lawn-fleeves, and others with cope? i . .
mitres. Sue csu-dinab preceded the pope, enthr.-: ^
in a ftately pageant, attended by divers boys wii-. :
of incenfe, and the devil whifpering in his ear. Ir .1
order they marched from Bifhopfgate to Fleet-irrtf
and there, amidft a great multitude of fytcs^-
committed his holinefs to the flames.

This proceflion gave great oflence to the cocrt, z
which the duke of York, afterwards James II. tad
great influence. The breach was farther wideK« r^
the choice of fherKFs for that year. The cand^^
fet up by the court were rejeded by a majoritr of l
moft two to jont ; but this did not deter their par-
ty from demanding a poll in 'their behalf, upon vL.
a tumult enfued. This was reprefented by the Pc- j
party in fuch cc^ours to the king, that he iffued cc. .
commiflion that fame evening fon trying* the rkjcr
which, however^ was fo far from intimidatii^ the rc*.
that they grew more and more determined, not oc:
to oppofe the Poptfh party, but to exclude the i^^
of York from h is fucceffion to the crown.

In the mean time, the king prorogued the parli?
ment, to prevent them from proceeding in th*'ri2-
quiry concerning the Popifti piot, and the cxd-L^tN
biU. Upon this the lord-mayor, aldermen, and cc:-
mon-council, prefented a petition to his majeftv, > j
which they requefted, that he would pennit tti
parliament, to fit in ord^r to complete their faluU7
meafures and councils. This petition was highly r-
feuted by the king ; who, inftead of granting it, d-^
folved the parliament, and could never aftenraids fae
reconciled to the city. From this tin*e it was ^\c-
mined to feize their charter ; and frefti provocaui»
having been given about the eledion of (heriffs, ac?^,
warranto was at laft produced by the attomcr-gfsf >,
ral, in order to overthrow their charter, ^nd thcrrhf
to deprive the citizens of the power te choofe fterits.^
This information fet forth, That -*« the maror asc
commonalty and citizens of the city of London, br
the fpace Qf a month then laft paft and more, uici
and yet do claim to have and ufe, without any kwfi
i»'an*ant or regal gr4nt, <vithin the city of London ^
forefaid, and the liberties and privileges of the iknif
city, the liberties and privileges foUowmg, viz. i. Tt
be of themfelves a body corporate and politic, by tk
name of mayor and commonafty and citiznu of the city j
London^ 2. To have ftierifts aw/ot. et cam. honJm.
£st c9m» MidSefiKf and to name« make, and elc^, 3.^

CODlbtOfC

L O N

C 239 ]

L O N

Xiorj^on. eonftitote them. 3. That the mayor and aldennen
of the faid city (hould be jufticca of the peace, and
hold feflions of the peace. All which liberties, pri-
vileges, and franchifes, the faid mayof aad commo-
nalty, and citizens of London, upon the king did
by the fpace aforcfaid ufurp, and yet do ufurp."

Though notliing could be more unjuii than this
profecution, the miniikry were determiaed at all events
to cfufli the Londoners; rightly judging, that it would
b^ an eaiy matter to make all other corporations
furrender their charters into the king's hands* and
that they had no other body in the nation to fear.
Accordingly they difplaced fuch judges as would not

hfs room. 6. That the juilices of the peace ihould London*
be by the king's commiflion ; and the fettling of thofe
matters to be left to his majefty's attorney-general,
and coiuii'el learned in tlic law.''

To thefe the lord keeper added, in the king's name*
** That thefe regulations being made, his majeily would
not only pardon this profecution, but would confirm
their charter in fuch a manner as (hould be confident
Vith tliem.;" concluding thus: "My lord mayor,
the term. draws towards an end, and Midfuramer-iday
is at hand, when fome of the officers ufcd to be cho*
fen>; . whereof his majefty will referve the approbation.
Therefore, it is his majefty's pleafure, that you return

approve of their proceedings ; and, on the 12th cf to the city^ and coufult the common-council, that he

June 1683, Juftice Jones pronounced the following may fpcedily know your rcfolutions thereupon, and

fentence : "That a city might forfeit its charter} accordingly give his directions. That you may fee

that the malverfations of the common-council were the king is in eameft, and the matter is not capable of

ads of the whole city ; and that the points fet forth delay, I am commaiKled to let you know he hath given

in the pleadings were juft grounds for the forfeiting of ordcrt to his attorneyogeneral to enter upon judgment

a charter." ^ Saturday next ; unlcfs you prevent it by your com*

Notwithftanding this fentence, however, the attor- pliadce in sdl thefe particulars."
ney-general, contrary to the ufual cuilom in fuch cafes, A common-council was fummoned, when the friends
was dircAed to move that the judgment might not Be <^ liberty treated thofe (lavifh conditions aS' they de-
recorded ; being afraid of the confequences. Yet it ferved ; and even declared, that they were ready 10 fa-
was judged that the king might feize the liberties of crifice all that was near or dear to them, rather than
the city. A common-councu was immediately fum* iubmit to fuch arbitrary impofitions : but when it was

moned to deliberate on this exigency. The country
party moved to have the judgment entered j but tliey
were over-ruled by the court-party, who iniifted upon
an abfolute fubmiilion to the king before judgment
was entered ; and though this was in efie<^ a.voluntary
furrender of the city liberties, and depriving them-
fclves of the means of getting the judgment reverfed,
the ad of fubmifiion was carried, by a great majority :
and in a petition from th^ lord-mayor,, aldermen, . and
common-council, they *' acknovricdged their own mif- jefty's pleafure. In the fame manner he appointed or

put to the vote, there appeared 9r majority of . 18 for
fubmiflion.

Thus the king got die government of the city into The kuw
his own hands, though he and his brothers entirely loft breaks hisc-
the affedions of the Londoners. But, not content with P*^«""^^
their fubmiflion, his majefty departed from his promife ;
commanded the judgment upon the quo warranto to
be entered ; and commil&oned f>ir William Pritchard,
the lord mayor, to hold'thttsfame office during his ma-

government, and his majefty's lenity ; begged his

pardon, and promifed conftant loyalty and obedience;

,» and humbly begged his majefty's commands and di-

Conduions teAions." To this his majeily anfwered, that he

•f reconci- would not reje6^ their fuit, if they would agree upon
twcenlh ^^^ following particulars. 1. That no lord-mayor,
Kinjr audi ffieriff, recorder, common ferjeant,. town -clerk, .or cor firanchifes was ordered; .and in fuch a manner and form,

difplaced the other nugiftratcs as he thought proper ;
after which the miniftry, having nothing to fear, pro?
ceeded in the moft arbitrary manner.^

In this fubje6lion to the will of > the court, .the city^priYJiJLsg .
of London continued till the Revolution : but, in 1689, of the citj^
the immediate leftoration of the Londoners to their rcftored.

citjr.

roner, of the city of London-,, or fteward of the bo»-
rough of South wark, (haU be capable of, or admitted
to, the exercife of their refpedtive offices before his
majefty ftiall have approved of them under his fign
manuaL 2*. That if his majefty {hall di^pprove the
choice of any perfon to be lord mayor,, and fignify

as to put it out of the powers of an. arbitrary miniftry
and a corrupt judge and jury to deprive them of their
chartered liberties for the time to come. Accordingly
a bill was brought into parliament, and paiTed, for rfs
verftng the judgment of the quo warranto againft the
city of London, and for reftoring thus fame to its ancknt .

the fame under- his fign manual to the lord mayor, or^ rights^and privileges. Since.that timc'the city^of Lon-^
in default of a lord nuiyor, to the recorder or fenior don hath enjoyed tranquillity ; its commerce hathbeen^
alderman, the citizens fhaU, . within one week, pro- carried to the htgheft pitch; and for the politenefsy

ceed to a new choice : and if his majefty (hall ia like
manner difapprovt the. fecond choice, his majefty may,
if he pleafes, nominate a perfon to be lord mayor for
the year enfoing. 3. If his majefty ftiall„ in like
manner, difapprove the perfons chofen. to-be (heriffs,
^ either of' them, his majefty. may - appoint fherifts
for the. year enfuing. 4* That the lord mayor and
court of aldermen may, with the leave of his majefty,
difplace any alderman,, recorder^ 3cc 5. Upon the

riches, and number of its inhabitants, as well as its ex«^
tent and the magnificence of its buildings, is inleticv
to no city in Europe, if not fuperior.to every, one/

That parti of this immenfe capital which is ^^^^^'^Defcriptlois
guiflied by, the name of The Cityy ftands on the north of the cky^
fiioi;!! of the river, from the jTower to the Temple^
occupying only that fpace formerly encompaifed by the
wall, whu:h- in circuniference meafures but three mile*
and 165 feet. In this .wall there were feven gates by

eledion of an alderman, if the court of aldermen fliall land, .viz. Ludgate, Aldgate, Cripplegate, Alderfgate,
judge and declare the perfon prefented to be unfit, the Moorgate, Bifhopfgatc, which were all taken dowa
ward (hall choofe again ; and upox» a* difapproval of in September 1763 ; and Newgate, the county gaolf
a fecond choice, the court may appoint, another in which was alio taken. dowa iA.i77tS, and a maffive

building

L O N C «40 ] L O N

I.««don, buOding ercftcil n little fouth of it, which bf the twenty iaqueft-men, fcven fcavengerSf
rioters in 1780 received damage to the amount of beffles the officers belonging to St J

aba:

Place. -~It is divided into feven precin^s.

3. Baffyba*i» or Bafinghall loard^ is bounkd <r .
eaft and fouth bv Coletban-ftiiect ward* 01& d^r.'
by part of Cripplegate, and on the weft by p^
the wards of Cheap and Cripplcgate. Oo tht iu.-
it begins at Blackwell-hall % and nuts aortfavst

L. 80,000. On the fide of the water there were Dow-
gate and. Billingfgate, long fince demoliihed, as well
as- the poftern-gate near the Tower. In the year 1670
there was a gate ereded called Temple-Bar, which
terminates the bounds of the city weflward. The
iitertUjf or thofe parts of this gtcat city which are fub-

je£^ to its jurifdidtion and lie without the waUs of London -wall, pulled down fome time ago to t&
London, are bounded on the eaft, in White-chapel, way for new buildings in Fare^ett^ aod fynaik -
the Minories, and Bifhopfgate, by bars, which were feet eaft, and 54 feet weft againft the place what tL
formerly pofts and chains, that were frequently taken wall ftood. This' is a very (mall waird, a&d cnr
away by arbitrary power^ when it was thought pro- ohly of two precinfts : the upper precin^ costis -
per to feize the firanchifes of the city of London : on more, than 66, and the lower only 76 houses. L
the north, they are boimded in the fame manner in
Pick-ax ftreet, at the end of Fan-alley, and in St
John's ftreet : on the weft, by bars in Holborn : at
the eaft end of Middle Row, and at the weft end of

Fleet-ftreet, by the gate called Tempfe-Bar^ already

mentioned z on the louth, we may include the jurif- principal houfe in it, and ftood in the place of £^-

governed by an alderman, four commoa-coasdl c-
of whom one is the alderman's deputy , th?ee -
ftables, feventeen inqueft-men, thf« f ca ve nge- , ^
a beadle. It has its name from Bafin^faail, tk &
fion-houfe of the fiumly of Bafin^s^ which

didion which the cit j holds on the river Thames, and
over the borough of Southwark.

The city, including the borough, is at prefent divid-
^, ed into 26 wards.
Divifioain- !• Alderfgate ward takes its name from a city-gate
10 warde. which lately ftood in the neighbourhood. It is bound-
ed on the eaft by Cripplegate ward ; on the weft, by
Parringdon ward within and without; and on the
fouth, by Farringdon ward within. It is very larger
and is divided into Alderfgate-within and Aldcrfgate-
without. Each of thefe divifions confifts of four pre-
clndls, under one alderman, eight common-council
men, of whom two are the dderman's deputies, eight
conftables, fourteen inqueft-men, eight fcavengers, and
a beadle ; excluiive of the officers belonging to the liberty
of St Martin's le Grand, which contains 168 houfes.

2. Aldgate takes its name alfo from a gate, which
was of great antiquity, being mentioned in king Ed-
gar's charter to the knights of the Knighton Guild
about the year 967 ; and was probably of a much
more ancient foundation, for it wad the gate through
which the Roman Vicinal ^^-ay lay to th^ ferry' at Old-
ford. In the time of the wars betwixt king John
and his barons, the latter entered the city through this
gate, and committed great de^ftations among the
houfes of the religious. Aldgate was rebuilt by the
leaders of the party after the Roman manner < They
made ufe of ftone which they brought from Caen, and
a fmall brick called the Flanders tiUy which Mr Pen-
nant thinks has been often miftaken for Roman. The
new gate was very ftrong, and had a deep well within

well4iall.

4. BUrmgfgate ward is bounded* on the at •
Tower- ftreet ward; on the north, by La^-
ward ; oil the weft, by the ward of Bridge-viL.
and on the fouth, by the river Thames. Theicb-
been many conje£bires concerning the ofigis rf :
name of BMngfgate^ none of wl^ch feems to k < -
well authenticated. It is, for inftance, foppcfe: .
have derived its name from a Brttifh king gc
Belmuif {aid to have been an aflifttot of Bre&rai
of the Gauls at the taking of Rome, and is tSe ^
with the BeS*Maur mentioned in the Wel& Et"-
logietl. The name oi- Luxate is fatd tobeikr
from his fon Lud. — It is divided iftto 1 2 prrc:
and is governed by an alderman, 10 comraoo-c^::
men, one of whom is the alderman *s deputj, 11 r
ftables, 14 inqueft-men, fix fcavengers, andaboi
The fttuation of BiQingfgate^ on the river, gt*?.
great advantages with refpett to trade and raotb:
dize ; fo that it is well inhabited, and is in a ex.
nual hurry of bufinefs at the feveral wharfs or qun

S' Bt/bopfgate ward is bounded on the eaft by A
gate ward, Portfoken ward, and part of theT*.^:
liberty, or Norton-falgate ; on the weft, by Bnad-^
ward and Moorfields ; and on the fouth, by Langbcr
ward. It is very large, and divided into Bi&op^
within and Bifhopfgate- without. The firft cocei'
all that part of die ward within the cxty-wslr'
gate; and is divided into five prccinds ; tbc kc.r
lies without the wall, and is divided into fburpitdr:'
Bifliopfgate-without extends to Shoreditck, tgikzn '

it. In 147 1 this gate was aflaulted by the Baftard of name from one Sir John de Sordich, an enicnU «'

yer much in favour with king Edward III. bod
account of his knowledge in the law, and otir
perfonid valour. In the time of Heary VIII. u*
Barlo, a citizen and inhabitant of this pl»t« ^
named duke of Sboreditcb, on account of his 6dir
archery ; and, for a nudiber of years after, tk fct?

Falconbridge, who got pofleftion of it for a few houra ;
but the portcullis being drawn up, the troops which
had entered were all cut off, and the citizens, headed
by the alderman of the ward and recorder, having
made a fally, defeated the remainder with great /laugh-
ter. In J 606 Aldgate Vas taken down and rebam ;

and many Roman coins were found in digging the belonged to the captain of the London archers. Ti-
foundations.*- The ward of Aldgate is bounded on ^ward is firoverned by an aldetman, two deputies, £?
the eaft by the city-wall, which divides it from Port- within and the other without, 12 common-conscilBff*
foken-ward; on the north, by Bifhopfgate ward ; on feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcavengers, 2::
the weft, by Lime-ftreet and Langboum wards ; and
on the fouth» by Towcr-ftrcet ward. It is governed by
an aldermaui fix common-council Biesy fix conftables^

two beadles. It took its name frofb the gate, vitii
has been pulled down to make that part of tk off
siofc airy and commodious. This gate was buikbf

Erkesv^

L O' N

C H« ]

L O N

kenwald bifli6p of London in 675 t ^nd it u fiud
have been repaired by WflUam the Conqueror foon
er the Norman conqueft. In the time of Henry III.
* Hanfe merchants had certain privileges confirmed
them, in return for which dieywere to fupport
la gate ; and in conlequence of thit they rebuilt it
:g«ntly in^i479. There were two ftatues of biihops,

memory oJF the (bonder and firft repairer; other
'o were aUb put up, which are fuppofed to have
en deiigned for Alfirad and JEUred earl of Mercia,
whofe care the gate had been committed.
6. BreaJyireet ward is cncompafTed, on the north
A north-weft, by the ward of Fardingdon-within ; on
e eaft/byCoidwainer'i ward) on the fouth by Queen*
the-ward | and on the weft, by Caftle-Baynard ward.
: is divided into -15 prednf^s ) and is governed by an
iermen, x 2 common council-men, of whom one is
te alderman's deputy, 13 conftables, 13 inqueft-men,
} fcavengers, and a beadle ; and yet . contains no
ore than 331 houfes. It takes its name from the
icient bread*maricet, which was kept in the place
ow called Brtad^reit ; the bakers being obliged to fell
[leir bread only in the open market and not in fhops.

7« Bridge-^fMxrd within is bounded on the fouth by
lie river Thames and Southwark; on the north, by
^angboum and Bifliopfgate ward ; on the eaft, by
(illingfgate ; and on the weft, by Candlewick and
)owgate wards. It is dirided into 14 preciil^,
[iree of which were on London4>rid(re } and is go*
erned by an alderman, 1*5 common^council men, one
f whom is the alderman's deputy, 14 conftables, 15
3qucft*men, 14 fcavengers, and a beadle. It takes
ts name from its conne&on with London«bridge.

8. Broad^reet ward is bounded, on the north and
aft, by Bifhopfgate ward ; on the fouth, by ComhiU
jid Wallbrook ward ; and on the weft by Coleman*
kreet ward. It is divided into 10 precinds ; andgo-
rcrned by an alderman, 1,0 common-council men, one
^f whom is the alderman's deputy, to conftables, 13
nqueft-roen, eiffht fcavengers, and a beadle. It has
ts name fix>m mt part of it now diftinguifhed by the
tame of Oid Broad^ut ; and which, before the fire of
666, was accounted one. of the broadeft ftreets in
uoadon.

9. CaaMewick- ward^ Candlewkl^reetf er Candfe^
Wright flrea ward as it is called in fome ancient re-
:ords, is bounded on the eaft by Bridge ward ; on the
ibuth, by Dowgate and part of Bridge ward ; on the
veft, by Dowgate and Wallbrook ; and on the north,
)y Langboum ward. It is but a finall ward, confift-
Dg of ^out 2^6 houfes ; yet is divided into feven
i>recin£b. It is governed by an alderman, eight
:ommon-council men, of whom one is the alderman's
ieputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft-men, feven fca-
rengCTs, and a beadle. It has its name ^m a ftreet,
formeriy inhabited chiefly by candle wrights or candle-
makers, both in tallow and wax : a very profitable bu-
fmefs in the times of Popery, when incredible quanti-
ties of wax-candles were confumed in the churches.
That ftreet, however, or at leaft its name, Candkwkiy
is loft Ance the great conflagration, for which the
name Canonrftreet is fubftituted, the candle wrights
being at that time bunt out and* difperfefl through
die city." •

fo. Cafik^B^mard ward is hounded by Queen*
Voi,.X.PartI. ^ ^

hithe and Bread-ftr^ wards on the eaft ; on thefouth> Lonio*'^
by the Thames ; and on the weft and north, by the
ward of Farringdon-within. It is divided into 10 pie*
cinds, under the government of an alderman, zocom*
mon councfl-mea, one of whom is the aldennan't de*
pnty, nine conftables, 14 inqueft-men, feven Ccaven-
fferst and a beadle. It takes its name from a caftle
built on the bank of a river by one Baynard, a fol*
dier of fortune, who came in with iVilliam the Con^
queror, and was by that monarch raifed to great ho-
nours and authority.

1 1. Cheapward is bounded on the eaft by Broadrt
ftreet and Wallbrook wards ; on the north, by Cole*
mao-ftreet, Bafli(haw, and Cripplegate; and on the
fouth, by Coidwainer's ward. It is divided into nine
precinds ; and is governed by an alderman, 1 2 common-
council men, of whom one is the alderman's deputy^
1 1 conftables, 13 inqueft-men, nine fcavengers, and a
beadle. It has its name from the Saxon word chtpe^
which fignifies a market, kept in this divifion of the
city, now called Chea^/ide ; but then known by the
name of Wejkheap^ to diftinguifh it from the maricet
then alfo kept in £aftcheap, between Canon or Candle
wick ftreet and Tower-ftieet.

I2« Coitman-ftrict ward is bounded on the eaft by
Bifliopfgate, Broadftreet, and Cheap wards ; on the
north, by Cripple-gate ward. Middle Moorfields, and
Bifliopfgate ; on the fouth, by Cheap ward ; and on the
weft, by Baflifliaw ward. It is dirided into ^x pre-
cin^ls ; and is governed by an aldermaR, fix common-
council men, one of whom is the alderman's deputy,
fix conftables, 13 inqueft-men, fix fcavangers, and
a beadle. The origin of the name is not certainly
known.

1 3. CordwauifTi ward is bounded on the eaft by
Wall-brook, on the fouth by Vintry ward, on the weft
by Bread-ftreet, and on the north by Cheap-ward. It
is dirided into eight precin6ls ; and is governed by an
alderman, eight common-council men, one of whom
is the alderman's deputy, eight conftables, 14 inqueft
men, eight fcavangers, and a beadle. Its proper
name is Cordwaburi-JIreet ward; which it has from
Cordwainers ftreet, now Bow-lane, formeriy occu-
pied chiefly by flioemakers and others that dealt or
worked in leather.

14. ComhiU ward is but of fmall extent. It is
bounded on the eaft by Bifliopfgate, on the north by
Broad ftreet, on the weft by Cheap ward, and on the
fouth by Langboum ward. It is dirided into four
precin^ which are governed by one alderman, fix
common-council men, of whom one is thp alderman's
deputy, four conftables, 16 inqueft-men, four fcaven-
gers, and abeadk. It takes its name horn the prin-
cipal ftreet 4n it, known from the earlift ages by the
name of Comhilly becaufe the com-maiket was kept
there.

1$. .CrippkgaU ward is bounded x>n the eaft by
Moorfields, Coleman-ftreet ward, Baflifliaw waxd^ and
Cheap wafd ; on the north by the parilh of St LuJce^'sy
Old-ftreet \ on the weft, by Alderfgate ward ; and om
the fouth, by Cheap-ward. It is dirided into 13 pre-
cin<5tis, nine within and four without the wafl ; and is
governed by an alderman, 12 cpmmon council men,
of whom two are the alderman's deputies, 13 conftables,
34 inqueft-iDen» 16 fcavengers, and three beadks. It

H h takes

L O N [ 34« 1 . I- O N

htkdon, takes its name from Cripplegate* which ftood on the fiom f<Msie )imeJLihM tint were fbineilf hkij

' Dorth-weft part of the city-wall. It vrat en old plaia Aear Lime-ftreet«

ftrudurcy void pf all omament^with one poftem | bat tu Puttfikem m^atd ia bounded ontheoiVi

had more the appearance of a fortification than m^ of ^ariihet of Spitalfieldat Stepnef^ and St Gcot^i

the other gates. It was removed in order to widen the efft % on the £Mith» by Towtr^iiil; oitsc^

the entrance into Wood-ilreet» which^ by the nar* by Biihoplji^te' watdy aad oa the wdbyAq
rownefs of the gateway, ypL% too mudh oootraAed
and rendered dangeroul for paficngert and great wag^

gons.

1 6. Dow^ate ward is bounded on the eaft by Candle*
wick and Bridge ward8> on the north by Wallbrook
Wardy on the weft by Virttry ward, and on the fouth
by the Thames. It is divided into eight precinds,
«mder the govemment of an alderman, eight common«>
council meii, of whom One is the alderman *8 deputy,
eight con (lables, 15 inquefl-men, five fcavengefs, and
a beadle. It has its name from the ancient water-^te,
called DourgatCf which was made in the original waD

ward* It M divided. into five prccindi;d^
verned by tn aldermali, five commoa-coaia r^i
of whom is the alderman 'a deputy, five cosilibK^
iaqueft>raen, five feavenccn, and m bcadk. Irn
fignifies iJtit fraiulnft of (he Shtrif gate* Tlus ?rj
was for fome time .a g^itiU f and had kt begk.i
king £dgar» when 13 knigbti^ ** wcll-bdoftc^
king and realm, for krvicca by them dtoe," nn
to have a certain portion of land on the esii jarti
city left defolate and fbrfy^en of the isiute
reajTon of too much fervitude. Theybc&igtiitki
to haveXhis.land» with th« liberty of agmlikrj

that ran along the north fide of the Thames, for the' The king granted their requeft on the foIloF^? :

fecunty of the city againfl all attempts to invade it by
water.

1 7. Farnngiion tvard *mUbln is bounded on the eaft
by Cheap ward and Bayhard-caftleward ) on the nortln
by Aldtfrfgate and Cripplegate wards, and the liberty
of St Martin's le Grand ; on the weft, by Farrtngdon-
without ; and on the fouth, by Baynard-caftk ward,
and the river Thames. It is divided into 18 prectn6k8(
and governed by one alderman, 17 common-couacil
men, of whom one is the alden^an's deputy, 19 con*
ftables, 17 inqiieftomen, r9 icavengers, and two
beadles. It takea ita name from William Faningdon
citizen and goldfmtth of London, who, in 1279, P^'*
c^ed all the* aldermanry with the appurtenances,
within the city of London and fuburbs of the fame,
between Ludgate and Newgate, and alfo fviihout thefe
gates.

1 8. Farrtngdm-^ard wiiioui is bounded on the eaft
Ify Farringdon within^ the "precinct of the late pnory
of St Bartholomew near Smithfidd, and the ward of
Alder fgate ; on the north, by the charter-houfe, the
parifh of St John's Clerkenwell, and part of St Ab«
drew's parifh without the freedom ; on the weft, by
High Holbom and St Clement's parifli in the Strand 1
and on the South by the river Thames. It is governed
by one alderman, 16 common-council men, of whom
two are the^- alderman's deputies, aj^onftables, 48^ in-
<jueft-men ; 24 fcavengers ; and four beadles. It takes
its name from the fame goldfmith who gave name to
Farringdon-within.

49.' Langborn ward is bounded on the eaft by Ald-

fate ward ; on the north, by part of the fame, and
.imeftreet ward ; on the fouth, by Tower-ftreet, Bil*
lingfgate. Bridge,, and Candle wick wards ; and on the
weft by Wallbrook. It is divided into 1 2 precin^s.
It had its name from a rivulet or long bourn of frefh-
water, which anciently flowed from a fpriag near
Magpye aRey adjoining to St Catherine Coleman'a
church.

20. Limeftreet ward ia bounded ^n the .eaft and
north by Aldgate ward^ on the weft by Bifhopfgate |
and on the fouth by Langb.^urn ward. It is divided
into four precinds ; and governed by an aldermad, four
common-council men» one of whom is the alderman's
deputy, four conftables, 15 inqueft-men, four fcaven*
gers^ and a beadle. It is very iinall ; anJd has its name

tiona, fifc. that each of them (hoidd vi^riosdru
plifh three combats, one above the ground, ooca
ground, and tiie third tn the water: and livaU
a certain day» in Eaft Smithfield, they ihouidnci
fpeara againft all comers. All this wasglaiosri
formed ; upon which the king named it ^'J
Crf/t/(/, and extended it fhun iUdgate to t«ji
where the bars now are oa the eaft, and todxTa
oa the fouth^ and as far into the virater atanioa
cottM ride at low water and tiurow his Ipev.

22. \l^iMMH&Me ward ia bonaded on tiK<ci
Dowgate, oa the north by Bread-ftitet aad ^1
wainers wards, on the fouth by the Thaaies^aK^^
weft by Caftle-Baynard waitL It it divided bfl
precinas } and ia governed by one aldermui k^
mon-council men, one of whom ta thesldennni^
ty, and nine conftables. It haa ita name froath:^
or harbour for lar^e boota, barges, aad )i^''^
which, and even for (hipa, it was the toxhfx^f
and the key for ladii^ and unloadii^ ^^f*^
any burden ufed in ancient timea. It has ^^
qunn^ becaufe the qoeeaa of EiwUmd ofv^l^
the tolls and cuftoms of vefiela that unloaded ^
this hithe, which were very confiderable.
- 25. Tower ward^ or Tower-firtei *itard^ tf«^
on the fouth by the river Thames, on the f^\
Tower4kilI and Aldgate ward, on the noitb ^
bourn ward* and on the weft by BilKhgfg*^*'^'
is governed by one alderman, 1 2 common-coaod*

of whom one is the alderman's deputy, "/^r^
13 inqueft men, 12 fcavengers, and one b»*
takes its name from Tower-Jireet^ fo caUed bf^*^,
leads out of the dty in a direa hne totkpn^
entrance of the Tower of London. ^

24. rmtry ward is bonaded on the eafl by ^^
gate, on the fouth by the Thames, on tbe^^

alderman, nine common«couBcil men, ^^ .j.
the alderman 'a deputy, nine oonfUbki, '3 'fj^

men, three fcavengers, and a ^^ — ,
name firom the vintners or wihe-mcrchaflts

deaux, who focmq^ly dwelt m this fart
were obliged to land their wines on this ipot
reUthemta.4od^ tiB the igtk of £<1^ ^'
S

I* O N C HS 1 t O N

5* fVdII-hrook ward Is bounded OQ the eaft by tenniQe any difference that may happen among the li'^ndoo.

igboum, on the fouth by Dowgatc ward^ on the citizensy and to do other buiinefs incident to the office " " v "

i by Cordwainera ward, and on the north by of a chief magiflrate. Once in fix weeks, or eight

;ap ward. It it fmally containing only 306 houfes ; times in the year, he fits as chief judge of Oyer and

is divided into feren precin^, and gOTcmed by an Terminer, or gaol-delivery of Newgate for London
frman, eight common-council men, of whom one and the county of Middlefex. His jurifdi^lon ex-
he alderman's deputy, feven conftables, 13 inqueft- tends all over the city and fuburfos, except fome places
1, fix fcavengers, and a beadle. It bas its name that are exempt. It extends alfo from Colneyditch,
11 the rivulet fVall^brookf that ran down the ftreet above Staincs-bridge in the weft, to Yeudale, or
ihis name into the river Thames near Dowgate 1 Yenflcte, ind the mouth of the river Medway, and up
in prpcefa of time it was fo loft by covering it that river to Upnor-caftle^ in the eaft : by which he
h bridges and buildingB upon thofe bridges, that exercifes the power of puniftiing or corredtng all
channel became a common fewer. perfons that (hall annoy the ftreams, banks, or fifli.
26. The ward of j9rf/{fr^i;iri&ov/ includes the borough For which puipofe his lordihip holds feveral cowtt of
>outhwark,andtheparifliesof Rothei4tithe,NewTag- cmferwuuy in tne counties adjacent to the faid river,
, and Lambeth. It has its name from London- for its confervation, and for the puniOiment of offen-
dge, with the addition of the word cvcfi^^v/, becaufe ders. See the article MAVoaV-^oiirr. 35
\ bridge muft be paflcd in order to come at it. 1^^- The title of dignity, alderman^ is of Saxon original, Aldimca.
ifter is generally reckoned a part of London, tho* and of the greateft honour, anfwering to that of earl (
^er a diilindl government ; and has long been famous though now it is nowhere to be found but in chart er-

the pafaces of our kings, tlic feat of our law hi* ed focietiaj^ And from hence we may account for the

lals, and of the high court of parliament ; all which reafon vv^^the aldermen and commonalty of London

11 be defcribed in their order. were called httront after the conqueft. Thefe magi-

The city and liberties of London are under an eccle- ftrates are properly the fubordinate governors of their

Ilical, a civil, and a military govemm^t. refpe^ive wards under the lor(l-mayor's jurifdi^ion c

As to its ecclefinfiieai government, London is a hi- and they originally held their aldermanries either by

>p's fee, the diocefe of which comprehends not only inheritance or purchafe ; at which time the alderman-

iddlefex, EfTcx, and part of Hertfordfhire, but the ries or wards changed their names as often as their

itiih plantations in America. The bifhop of Lon- governors or aldermen. The oppreflions, to which the

n takes precedency next to the archbifhops of Can- cftizens were fubje^ from fuch a government, put them

bury and York ; but the following parishes of thia upon means to nbolifh the perpetuity of that omce ; ami

y are exempt from his jurifdidtion, bein? peculiars they brought it to an annual ele£^ion. But tliat maa-

dcr the immediate government of the arcnbiihop of ner of election being attended with many inconvenient

interbury; riz. All-hallows in Bread-ftreet, All- ces, and becoming a continual bone of contention

Hows Lombard-ftreet ; St Dionys Back-church, amongft the^citiiens, the parliament, 17 Richard 1 1.

Dunftan in the Eaft, St John Baptift, St Leonard A. D. 1394, enaAed, That the aldermen of I^ondon ^

iftcheap, St Mary Aldermary, St Mary Bothaw, ihould continue in their feveral offices duriug life or

Mary le Bow, 8t Michael Crookc^-lane, St Michael good behaviour. And fo it ftill continues : though

:>ya1,StPancrasSopen-lane, and StVedaftFoftcr-lanc the manner of eleAing has feveral times varied. At

dprecin£^s, under a lord-mayor, aldermen, and com- m the year 1714-5 : and the perfon fo ele^ed is to be

3T1 -council. xetumcd by the lord-mayor (or other returning officer

The mayor, or lord-mayor, is the fuprcme magi- in his^ftead, duly qualiiied to hold a court of wardmote)

ate, chofen annually by the citizens, purfuant to a to the court of lord-mayor and aldeimen, by whom the

arter of King John. The prefent manner of ele^- perfon fo returned muft be admitted and fwom into the

g a lord-mayor is by the liverymen of the feveral office of alderman before he can'*a6l. If the perfon

mpanies, aifembled in Guildhall annually on Michael- chofen refufeth to ferve the office of alderman, he is

as-day, according to an ad of common council in finable 500 1.
• IX 1476, where, and when, the liverymen choofe, Thefe high officers conftitute a fecond part of the

rather nominate, two aldermen below the chair, city legiflature when afiemblcd in a corporate capacity,

10 have ferved the office of (heriff, to be returned to andexercife an executive power in their refpedlive wards,

e court of aldermen, who may choofe either of the The aldermen who have paifed the chair, or ferved the

'o ; bnt generally declare the fenior of the two, fo high office of lord-mayor, are juftices of the quorum ;

turned, to be lord-mayor ele6t. The ele^on be- and all the other aldermen are not only juftices of the

g over, the lord-mayor ele6%, accompanied by the peace, but by the fUtnte of 43 £Hz. intitled, An aS

corderand divers aldermen, isfoon after prefented to for the nRrf of ibe poor^ ** every alderman of the city

e lord-chancellor (as hia majeffy's reprefentative in of London, within his ward, (hall and may do ana

e city of London ) ibr his approbation ; and on the «i^eciAe, in every refpe£i, fo much as is appointed and

h of November following is iwom into the office of «llowed by the faid ad to be done or executed "by one

ay or at Guildhall ; and on the day after, before the or tnuo juftices of peace of any county within this

irons of the exchequer at Weftminfter ; the pro- realm." They every one keep their wardmote^ or

fHun on which occafion is exceedingly grand and courts for choofing ward-officers and fettling the affairs

agnificent. of the ward> to redrefs gtievancesi and to prefent all

The lord-mayor fits every morning at the manfion- ^ defaults found within their refpefUve wards.
)Ufe, or phcevhere be keep^ hia>maToralty, to de- The next branch of the legiibtive power in this

H h ii city

L O N

I a44 1

L O N

LwiJoiu city 18 the cemmon^cotmcH* The mariT inconveniences
^- 'J. that attended popular afTemblies, wiiich were called
Confoioii. foliin^^^i detennined the commonalty of London to
council. choofe reprefentatives to a£l In their name and for their
intereft» with the lord-mayor and aldermen^ in all
affairs relating to the city. At firfl thefe reprefenta*
tives were chofen out of the feveral companies : but
that not being* found fatisfaflory, nor properly the
reprefentatives of the whole body of the inhabitants, it
was agreed to choofe a certain number of difcreet men
•ut of each ward : which number has from t.fme to
.time increafed according to the dimenfions of each
ward : and at prefent the 25 wards, into which Lon*
don is divided, being fubdivided into 236 precin6b»
each precin£l fends a reprefentative to the common-
council, who are ele6^ed after the fame manner as an
alderman, only ynxh this difference, that as the lord«
mayor prefldes in the wardmote, and is judge of •the
poU at the election of an aldern>an, fo the alderman
of each ward is judge of the poll at the dedlion of a
common-council man.

Thus the lord-mayor, aldermen, and common*
councO, when affembled, may be deemed the city par-
liament, refcmbling the great council of the nation.
For it coniifls of two houfes ; one for the lord-mayor
amd aldermen, or the upper-houfe; another for the
conu&oners or reprefentatives of the people, commonly
called the common^oundl men. And they have power
in their incorporate capacity to make and repeu bye-
kws \ and the citizens are bound to obey or fubmit to
thole laws. When they meet in their incorporate ca-
pacity, they wear deep-blue (ilk gowns: and their
aflemblicf are called the couri of ammon^mtndl^ and
their ordkiances a9t of common council. No a£i can
be performed in the name of the city of London with-
out their concurrence. But they cannot aflemble with-
out a fummons from the lord-mayor ; who, neverthelefs,
is obliged to call a common-council, whenever it (hall
be demanded, upon extraordinary occafions, by fix
reputable citizens and members of that court. '

This corporation is aflifted by two (heriffs and a
lecorder* The (heriflBs are charteVed officers, to perform
cectain fuits and fervicts, in the kingvs name, within
the city of London and county of Middlefex, chofen
by the liverymen of the feveral companies on Midfum-
mer day. Their ofike, according to Cambden, in ge-
neraly is to colled the public revenues within their fe-
veral jurifdidions ; to gather into the exchequer all
fines belonging to the crown ; to ferve the king's writs
of procefs ; to attend the judges, and execute their or-
ders s to impannel juries ; to compel headftrong and
obftinate men by the poffi comHahu to fubmit to the
decidons of the law; and to take care that all condemned
criminals be duly punifl^d and executed. In particu-
lar, in London, they are to> execute the orders of the
common-council, when they have refolved ta addrefs
his (aajefty, or to petition parliament.

The (herifGs, by virtue of their office, hold a court at
Gu'ldhaU every Wednefday and Fridby, for a£kions
entered at Wood-flreet Compter \ and on lliurfdaysv
and Saturdays for thofe entered at the Poultry Comp-
ter ; of which the (heriffs being judges, each has his
adlftaat,, or deputy, who are caUed the judges of thofe
courts ; before whom are tried adions of debt, tref-
^sSsy, covenant^ 5cc, and where the teftimony of any

Sberin.

abfent wltnefs in writing is allowed to be good t^
dence. To each of thefe conrts bdong !b ir attcrxr^
vHiQ, upon their being admitted by the court c^ a'd?-
men, have an oath adminiftered to them.

To each of thefe courts like wife bdong a fecon^
a clerk of the papers, a prothonotary, and four citu-
fitters. The fecondary's office is to allow and rcr.-
all writs brought to remove clerks out of the ^
courts ; the clerk of the papers files and copies &
declarations upon anions ; the prothonotau-y draws 21.
ingroffes aU declarations ; the clerk-fitters enter &>
tions and attachments, and take bail and Terdi^s. 7;
each of the compters, or prifons belonging to do:
courts, aj^pertain 16 ftijcants at mace» with a jci-
man to each, befides inferior officers, and the ^'jr
keeper*

In the ilieriifs court may be tried adlions of czt.
cafe, trefpafs, account, covenant, and all pcrfoo^- «.-
tions, attachments, and fequeilrations. When ss r-
roneous judgment is given in either of the ilierii
courts of the city, the writ of error to rcvcifc :i:
judgment mud be brought in the court of huRaig» J^
fore the lord mayor ; for tliat is the fiiperior cc-j-.
The (heriffs of London may make arrefts and kr:
executions on the river Thames.

We do not read of a recorder till the 1 304, a'j
by the nature of his office, feems to hare been intrn:..
as an affiilant to, or affeffor with, the lord-maycr, .:
the execution of his high office, in matt en of jdLc:
and law. He is chofen by the lord-mayor and luiz-
men only $ and takes place in all courts^ and is tkc
common-council, before any one that hath notbfii
mayor. Of whom we have the following dekriptu
in one of the books of the chamber. ** lie ihaDbc
and is wont to be, one of the moft (kilful and viitoo.
apprentices of the law of the whole kingdom ; "^'t
office is alwrays to fit on the right hand of the nuyis.
in recording pleas, and paffing judgments ; and :-
whom records and proceffes, had before the kii
mayor and aldermen at Great St Martin's, ought totn
recorded by word of mouth before the judges affigac
there to correal errors. The mayor and aldermea kz>?
therefore ufed commonly to fet forth all other hzr
neffes, touching the city, before the king and ^~
council, as alfo in certain of the king's couits^ by ^i'
Recorder, as a chief man, endued with wifiiom, 22:
eminent for eloquence. "-^-Mr Recorder is look;^d ii>
on to be the mouth of the city, to dehver all addit£s
to the king, &c. from the corporation ; and he i$ ti?
firft officer in order of precedence that is paid i
fidary, which originally was no more than 10 L Sta-
ling per OHfttimy with fome few perquifites ;. but it ha
from time to time been aufpnented to 1000 L /ero-
num^ and become the read to preferment in the hv-
This office has fometimes been executed by a dqtatj.

The next chartered officer of thia corporation is&:i
chambedaia ;. an office of great repute and truft, tad J
is in the choice of the h'very annually. This officcc.
Uiough chofen annually on Midftanmec-day, tancRr
difplaced during his life, except fome very great criae
can be made out againfl him. Hehas thc\eepii^ d
the moneys, lands^ and goods, of the city-orphan«t ^
takes good fecurity for the payment thereof vrhen the
parties come to age. And. to that end he is decsied
in the law a fole corporation^ to hun« and his tocair

fcn,

L O N

[ 445 1

L O N

forsy for orphans I and therefore a bond orarecoe-
Dizance made to luxn and his fuccefTorciy is recoverable
by his fucceiibrs. This officer hath a court peculiarly
belonging to him. His office may be termed a public
treafury, coltc^ng the cuftoms, moneys^ and yearly
revenuesy and all other payments belonging to the cor-
poration of the city. It was cuilomary for goyemment
to appoint the chamberlain receirer of the land tax ;
but this has been difcpntinued for feveral years paft.

The other officers under the Tord-mayor arc, i/The
common ferjeant. He is to attend the lord-mayor and
court of aldermen on court-day s, and to be in council
with them on all occafionsi within or without the pre«
cin6ls or liberties of the city. He is to take care of
orphans eflates, either by taking account of them, or
to fign their indentures, before their paffing the lord-
mayor and court of aldermen. And likewife he is to
lety fet, and manage the orphans eftatesy according to
his judgment, to the beft advantage. 2« The town*
clerk ; who keeps the original charter of the citv, the
books, roils, and other records, wherein are regiilered
the a^s and procei^dings of the city ; fo that ne may
not h% improperly termed the city»regifter : he is to
attend the lord-mayor and aldermen at their courts,
and figns all public inftrumencs. 5* The city-remem-
brancer; who is to attendthe k>rd-mayoron certain days,
his buiinefs being to put his lordfhip in mind of the fe-
le£t days he is to go abroad with the aldermen, &c.
He is to attend daily at the parliament-houfe, during
the feffions, and to report to the lord-mayor their tranl-
a^kions. 4« The fword-bearer ; who is to attend the
lord-mayor at his going abroad, and to carry the fword
before him, being the emblem of juftice This is an
ancient and honourable office, reprefenting the ftate
and princely office of the king's moft excellent majefty,
in his reprefentative the lord-mayor ; and, according to
the rule of armory, ** He mull carry the fword up-
right, the hilts being holden under his bulk, and the
blade dire^ly up the roidft of his breaft, and fo forth
between the fword-bearcr's brows." 5. The common-

of the chamber j a feijeant of the channel : four yeo* l^qndca*^
men of the water-Cde'; an under water-bailiff; two
yeomen of the chamber; two meal-weighters; two yeo-
men of the wood wharfs ; a foreign taker; city-mar Aals.
There are beiides thefe, feven gentlemens men ; as, the -
fword-bearer*s man, the common-hunt's two men, the
common crier's man, and the carver's three men.

Nine of the foregoing officers have liveries of the
lord-mayor, viz. the fword-bearer and his man, the
three carvers, and the four yeomen of the water-
fide. All the reft have liveries from the chamber of
London. «

The following officers are likewife belonging to the
city ; farmer of the markets, auditor, clerk of the
chamber, clerk to the commiffioners of the fewers,. '

clerk of the court of confcience, beadle of the fame
court, cl^k of the city«works, printer to the city,
juftice of the Bridge^yard, derk^omptroller of the
Bridge-hottfe, fteward of the Borough, bailiff of the
Borough.

There is alfo a coroi&er, called fo from corona^ i. e.
a erowttf becaufe he deals principally with the crown^
or in matters appertaining to the imperial crown of
England* See the article Coronbr.

Befidea thefe officers, there are feveral coiuts in this
city for the executing of juftice, viz* the court of hu-
ftings, lord-mayor*8 court, &c. In the city there are
alfo two fubordinate kinds of government. One exe-
cuted by the alderman, deputy, and common-council'
men, and their inferior officers, in each ivanT; under
.which form are comprehended all the inhabitants, free
or not free of the ctty. Every ward is therefore like '
a littk free flate, and at the fame time fubje^l to the*
lord-mayor as chief nxagiftrate of the city. The
houfekeepers of. each ward ele6l their reprefentatives, t

the common-council, viho join in making bye-laws fot
the government of the city. The officers and fervants
of each vrzrd manage the affairs belonging to it, with-
out the affiftance of the reft ; and each has a court call-
ed the tuardmotCf as has been ah'eady defcribed, for

hunt ; whofe buiinefs it is to take care of the pack of the management of its C\\'n affairs. The other, by the

hounds belonging to the lord-mayor and citizens, and
to attend them in hunting in thofe grounds to which
they are authorifcd by charter. 6; The comraon-cricr.
It belongs to him and the ferjeant at arms, to fummon
all executors and adminiftrators of freemen to appear.

mafter, wardens, and cobrt of affiftants, of the inaoi>
porate companies ; whofe power reaches no further
than over the members of their rcfped^ive guilds or fra-
ternities ; except that in them is invelled the power to
choofe reprefentatives in parliamenC for the city, and all

and to bring in inventories of the perfonal eilates of tho/e mn^iilrates and officers elected by a common

freemen, within two months after their deceafe : and

he is to have notice of the appraifements. He is alfo

to attend the lord-mayor on fet days, and attke couito

held weekly by the mayor and aldermen. 7. The

water-bailiff; whofe office is to look after the prefer-

vation of the river Thames againft all encroachments ;

ball; which cohipanies are invefted with diltfn^
powers, according to the tenor of their ref^£live
charters. 4^

l^ht nuBiary govemxhent o£ the city^is lodjged'ih ^MAitkrjf
lieutenancy, confiftinfi^ of the lord-mayor, aldermen, 8°^"^'""
and other principal citizens, who receive their autho- '"''''

ra»

mcQt.

and to look after the fifhermen for the prefervation of rity by acommiffion from the king.. Thofe ha^'cun-

the* young fry, to prevent the deftroying them by un- der their command the city trained bands, confifting

lawful nets. For that end, there are juries for each of fix regiments of foot,, diftingui/hed by the names of

county, that hath any part of it lying on the fides or the whiter orangey yeUow^ Blue f grceny^^^^ r^^/, each con-

fliores of the (aid river ; which juries, fumnioned by tainmg eight companies of 15:0 men, amounting in all

the water-bailiff at certain times, do make' inquiry of to 7200. Befides^thefe £ix regiments, there is a corps-

all offences relating to the river and the fiih, axid make called the artillery company j from its being, taught the

their prefentments accordingly. He is alfo bound to militaiy exereife in the artillery-ground. This com^

attendthe lord-mayor on fet days in the week.-^-Thefe pauy is independent of the reft, and confifts of 700 or

(even purchafe .their places ; except the town-clerk, 800 volunteers. All thefe, with two regimAts of foot

%b() is chofen by the livery. of 820 men each conunanded by the lieutenant of the-

Theni are aUb three ferjeant-carvess ; three ferjeants T9 wer of London, make the \^ole militia of this city ;;

which,,

L O N

I.ond«n which y exduTive of Weilminftcr and the borough of
' Soutliwarkt#xnount8 to about lOyOOO men.

Tradicff '^^^ troA^part df the city of London is divided

coaipames. iQto 89 compauieat though fome of them can hardly be
called fb, becaufe they have neither charter^ halls, nor
liveries. Of thefe 89 companies 95 have each a hall
for tranfa6linff the bufmefs of the corporation ; and
thta confifts ota mailer or prime warden, a. court of af-
Aftants, and Hvery.-*»Twelve of thefe companies are
fuperior to the relt both*in antiquity and wealth ; and
of one of thofe 1 2 the lord mayors have generally made
themfelves free at their election. Thefe companies are
the mercers, grocers, drapers, fifli-mongers, goldixniths,
Ikinners, merchant-taylors, haberdafhers, falters, iron-
mongers, yintneis, and cloth workers*— The principal
incorporated focieties of the merchants of this city are,
the Hamburgh Company, the Hudfon*s Bay Com-
pany, the Ruflia Company, the Turkey Company,
the £aft India Company, the Royal African Compa-
ny, tlie- South Sea Company, and fome Infurance
Companies. The moil of thefe companies have ilately
boufes f<H* tranfa^ling their buiindfs, particularly the
£ail India and South Sea companies. See Company.

The ftreets and publk buildings in London and its
liberties being far too numerous for a particular de-
fcription in this work, we ihall only fde£l the moil
remarkable, beginning with London-Bridge as the moil
ancient, and proceeding in our furvey through the
.^ wards into which the city is divided.
Hemark- . I. RemarkabU hmildingt^ &c. in the C/rr.—- The ori*
able ftreets ginal bridge, which ilands in Bridge-ward, was of
ani bmld- ^^q^^ and appears to have been iiril built between the
years 993 and 10 1.6; but being burnt down about the
year 1 136, it %va8 rebuilt of wOod in 1 163. The ex-
pences, however, of maintaining and repairing it be-
came fo burdenfome to the inhabitants of the city,
that they refolved to build a ftone^bridge a little weft-
Mrard of the wooden one. This building was begun in
1176, and finiflied in 1209 ; and was 915 feet long,
44 feet high, and 73 feet ' \ride ; but houfes being
built on each fide, the fpace betweeft was only 23
feet.

This great work was founded on enormous piles
driven as clofely as polfible together : on their tops
were laid long planks 10 inches thick, flrongly bolted;
and on them were placed the bafe of th^ pier, the
lowermoil Hones of which were bedded in pitch, to
prevent the water from damaging the work : round
all v^'ere the piles which were called the JUr lings ^ de-
iigned for the preiervation of the foundation piles.
Thefe contra^ed the fpace between the piers fo great-
ly, as to occafion at the retreat of every tide a fall of
live feet, or a number of temporary catara6U« which

in^i with-
in the

44
liondoQ

kridge.

•c

246 ] L O N j

fince the foundation of the bridge have oceal:s^.-i
lofs of many thoufand Uves, x he nuiftber of « . I
was 19, of unequal dimenlionsy and greatly ddrr
by the flerlings and the houfes on each ild£, t*
overhung and leaned in a moii tcnitic razoc^. ^
moll places they hid the ardies, asd nothing a^^-^^
but the rude piers. Within t^ollcAioD, fe:
arches of ftrong timber crofTed the iireet from tht J^
of the houfes to keep them toj^elher, and froia &li:
into the river (a). Nothing but ufe could pr>.
the quiet of the inmates, who foon grvw deaf ic '
Qoife of the falling waters, the clamours of wietc^
or the frequent ihrieks of dronvning wretdiEs. n
one part had been a drawbridge, ufeful either br i
of defence or for the admiilion of /hips into the
part of the river. This was proteded by a ?-i;
tower. It ferved to repulfe Fauconbrijlge xht 3lv
in his general aifault on the city in 147 1, wi!k;
of banditti, under pretence of refi:;uing the uflfortsa
Henry, then confined in the Tower. Sixtr h -i
were- burnt on the bridge on the occafion. I'.l.)
ferved to check, and in the end annihilate, the ik'
du£ledinfurre6lion of Sir Thomas Wyat, in the r::
of Queen Mary. The top of this tower, in ik 1
and turbulent days of this kingdom, ufed to be .
ihambles of human fie(h, and covered with be^
quarters of unfortunate partizana. Even io\xt7at
year 1598, Hentzner, the German traveller, vidGc
mau accuracy, counted on it above 50 haik T.
old map of the city in 1597 reprefents them in 13
horrible duller. — ^An unparallelod calamity hmp:
on this bridge within four years after it was bi^
A fire began on .it at the Soutliwark end ; rnoltiu-
of people niibed out of London to extinguitK it; vn
they were engaged in this charitable defignfthcx
feized on the oppofite end, and hemmed in the a^-
Above 3C00 perfons perifhed in the' flames, or^
drowned by overloading the vefTels which wer« k:
enough to attempt their relief*

The narrowneis of the paifage on this bridge to
occafioned the lofs of many lives from the num&c'''
casriages continually palling ; and the ilraitndsci''
arches, with the enormous fize of the iierliugi» f^
occupied one-fourth part of the water-way, having-
occaiioned frequent and fatal accidents, as is^'
mentioned; tlie magi Urates of X.ondon in rj^^"
tained an adl oi parliament for improring and ^^*
itig the palFage over and through .the hiidgt^ ff^*-'
granted them a toll fey; every carriage and horfc ^-
over it, and for eVei7 vefl'el witli goods paffingthrffi'J
it : but thefe tolls proving infufficicnt, were ilw.i*;
by an a£l made in 1758 for explaining, amending) 1^
rendering the fonner a^ more effe^uaJ; and for gi>^''
ing the city of London money towards carryrag *

(a) The gallant a^>ion of Edmund Ofborne, anceftor to the duke of Leeds, when he was apprtntice

William Hewet cloth-worker, may not improperly be mentioned in this plaoe. About the year i53^>,*:^

his mailer lived in one of thofe tremendous houfes, a fervant-maid was playing with his only daugMcr (3 ^

rms in a window over the water^ and accidentally droptthe child* Young Oihome, who waswitnefstotK

arms

tnisfortune, indantlj fprang into tlie river, and, beyond all expedation, broug^ her fide to tlie ttt
mily 1 S^eral perfons of rank paid their addreifes to her when (he vi^s marriageable, among others the (^
^rewfbury j but Sir William gratefully decided in favour of Ofbome : OJbome^ fays he, fvoed ^» ^ ^
JbaUmjwf her. Id her right he pofleffed a great fortune* He became dieriflF of London in 1575) ^ ^
mayor in 1582* ~ «^

L a N

L O N

.[ 247 3

(.oadon. thttwoA* In con&quenceof thefeaA«-6fp«r]kiiMnt» her defence. The two figures behind aie ^i^/ and l^ dotu

""^ » temporarr wooden bridge was built, and the houfes Fortitude g the former with a coronet^ and the Utter ^""^

on the old bridge were taken down. Inftead of a with a reined lion ; and Under the royal pavement lies

tiarrow ftreet S3 feet wide, ther^ n now a paiTage of £nvy9 gnawing a heart, and incefTantly emitting pefti*

3 1 feet for carriages* with a raifed pavement of iione ferous fumes froqi her mouth. On the plinth the re-

9umci*U

on each fide 7 feet broad for the ufe of foot pa(ren-
gers. The fides are fecured hj ftonr baludrades, en-
tightened in the night with kraps. The paflage thro'
the bridge is enki^i^ by throwing the two middle
arches into pne, and by other alterations and Jmprove-*
meats; notwithftanding whichf however, it is iliU

conftruAion of the cfly is repreiented by builders and
labourers at work upon houfes. On the north, fouth,
and eaft (ides, are infcriptions relating to the deftruc-
tion occafioned by the conflagpratioh, the regulations
about rebuilding the city» and ere^ing the monument;
and round it is the following one : — *^ This pillar was

greatly fubje6l to its former inconveniences. — Under ,iet np in perpetual remembrance of the moil dreadful

the firft, fecohdy and fourth arches, from the north
fide of the bridge^ and nowlikewife towards the fou-
thern extremity, there are engines worked by tlfe Huz
and reflux of the river, the water of which they raife to
fuch a height as to fupply many parts of the city«
Thofe engines were contrived in 1582 by one Peter
Monoe a Dutchman, and are caUed L^mUm-'bridge
boater luorks* /

Near the north fide of London bridge (lands the
Monument^ a beautiful and magnificent fluted column
of the Dodc order, built with Portland ilone, and e*
reded in memory of the conflagration i666. It was
begun by Sir Chriftopher Wren in i67i» and finifh*
ed by him in 1677. Its height from the pavement is
ao2 feet ; the diameter of the (haft, or body oCthe
ccdnmn, is 1 5 feet ; the ground-plinth, or lowefi part
of the pedcftal, is 28 feet fquare ; and the pedeftal is
40 feet high. Over the capital is an iron balcony en-
compaffing a cone 32 feet high, which fupports a bla-

buming of this Prpteilant city, begun and carried on •

by the treachery and malice of the Popifli fa^kioa, in ,

the beginning of September, in the year of our JLord

1666, in order to their carrying on their honid plot

for extirpating the Proteftant religion and old EngU/b

liberty, and introducing Popery and flavery.'' Dr

Wendebom, in his account of London, obferves, that

th^ monument, though not much above 100 yciirs old,

bears vifible marks oi decay already ; and it will not

probably be long before it miifl be pulled down. Some

are of opinion that this is occafioned by the fault of

the architect others by the continual (baking of the

grotrad by coaches; but the Doctor inclines to the

latter opinion. ' ^$

Eaftward of the bridge and monument (lands the The Towc^
ToweTf which gives name to another ward. It is the
chief fortrefs of the city, and fi^pofed to have been
originally built by William tiie Conqueror. It ap-
pears, however, to have been raifed upon the remains

aing urn of gih brafs. Within is a large ftaircafe o£ of a more ancient fortrefs, eredled probably by the Ro-

black maible, containing 345 fleps, each 10 inches
and a half broad, and fix inches thick* The weft fide
is adorned with a curious emblem in alt-relief, denoting
the deftrudtion and refloration of the city. The firft
female figure reprefents London fitting in ruins, in a
languifhing pofture, with her head deje(^ed, her hair
'difheveUed, and her hand carelefsly lying on her fword.
Behind is Time,, mdually raifing her up: at her fide
IS a woman touching her with one hand, whilft a wing-
ed fceptre in the other dire^s her to regard the god*
defTes in the clouds; one with a cornucopia, deno-^
^^ng Plenty i the other with a palm branch, the emblem
of Peace* At her feet is a bee-hive, (bowing, that by
Induftry and Implication the greateft misfortunes are to
be overcome. Behind the figure of Time are citisehs
exulting at his endeavours to reftore her; and beneath,
in the mtdft of the sums, is a dragon, who, as the
fi4>porter of the city arms, with his paw endeavours, to
preferve the fame. Oppofite to the city, on an ele-

mans: for in 1720,. in digging un the fouth fide of
what is called Cafar'e 'Ch^pel^ there were difcovered
fome old foundations of ftone,. three yards broad, and
fo ftrongly cemented that it \vas with the utmoft dif-
ficulty they were farced up. The firft work (accord-
ing to Mr Pennant) feems to have been fuddenly flung
up in I c 66 by the Conqueror, on his taking poffeffion
of th<;- capital; and included in it apart of the ancient
wall.

The great fquare tower, caDed the IVhite To*tver^ was
eredled in the year 1078, when it arofe under the di-
rections of Gundulph bifhop of Rochefter, who was a
great military architedl. This building originally ftood
by itfelf. Fitzftephen gives it the name of Arx Pd"
latituMf " the Palatine Tower;" the conunander of which
had the title of Palatine befto^\tui on him. Within
this tower is a very ancient chapel for the ufe of fuck
of our kings and queens who wifhed to pay their de-
votion here. In IC92 a violent tcmpeft did great in-

-vpted pavement, ftanda tlie king, in a Kx>maa habit, jury to the Tower; but it was repaired by WilUani

with a laurel on his head, and a truncheon tn his
hand ; and approachfng her, commands three of his
attendants to defcend to her relief, ^i'he firft repre-
fents the Scifnces with a winged head and circle of
.naked boys dancing thereon ; and holding Naiure in
her hand, with her numerous breafls, ready to give
affiftance tq, all. The fecond is ArehUe&ure^ with a
^lan in one hand, and fqiiase and a pair of compafles
4nthe other; and the third is Liberly^vnsitig^ a hat in
4ke air, (howing her joy at. the pleafing profpe£l of the
city's fpeedy recovery. Behind the king ftaads his
4irother the duke of York, with a garland in one hand
Ab crown thcrlfii^ city, and a fword in the other for

Rufus and his fuecelTor. The firft added another ca-s
ftellated buiUing on the fouth fiJe between it and the
Thames, wluch was afterwards called St Thomases
Toitffr,

The Tower was firft inclofed by William I^rong^
champ, bifhop of Ely and chancellor of England, u»
the reign of Ridiard L This haughty prelate having
a quarrel with John, third brother to Richard, under
pretence of guaj'ding againft his defigns, furroundcd
the whole with walls embattled, and made on the out-
fide a vaft ditch, into which, in after times, ^he 'water
from the Thames was introduced. Different princea
added other works. The prefent contents within the

wallc

L O N C 248

CoftiMi. iirallf sre xj tem and 5 rodt» the cireuit on the out-
fide of the ditch 1052 £eet. It wm agaxa indofied
with a mtul-wall hj Henry III* thu was pbced at a
diftanoe from the ditch, and occafioned the taking
down part of the cit^«wall» which was refented by the
•dtizeos ; ¥dio» pufling down thia precinft of mudt
were poniflied hj the king with a fine of a diodand
"flierKS*

The Lhfu. Tpwer was built by Edward IV. it was
Originally caOed the Bulwark^ but receiTed the former
tiame from its ufe. A menagery had very long been
a piece of reffal ftate t Henry L had his at his manor
-of Woodftocky where he kept lions, leopards, lynxes,
porcupines, and fcreral other uncommon beafts. They
were afterwards removed to the Tower. Edward II.
commanded the (herifis of London to pay the keepers
of the king's leopards fixpence a day tor the fuftc-

]

L O N

qoented by thetadiesjn the fommcr ; it bei^b;
in the infide with a row of lofty treesy and vkb: j
delightful pro^pe^ of the fhipping whli Wzi

IS a

fing and repaffing on the rirer Thamies. YsLiir
this line by ftone fteps, and being once 1^ :t
may walk almoft round the walls of the TonofSL
interruption*

The principal entrance into the Tower is by 1^
to the weft, lai^ enough to admit coaches asdbr
carriages; but thefe are firft admitted throi^ 2s:
ward gate, fituated without the ditch upon tL; :
and muft pafs a ftout ftoHe-bridge buQt overtlKdL
before they can approach the main entnixx. r:r
is, befides, an entrance near the very foudi-vdr^^
of the Tower outward wadl, for perfonf on btr..
the draw-bridge already mentioned to the ^z\
There is alfo a water-gate, commonly caQcd "itx

nance of the leopards^ and three halfpence a day for gate^ through which it has been cuftonuiy to

the diet of the keeper out of the fee-farm of the city.
The royal menagery is to this day exceedingly weQ
fupplied.

In 1 758 the ToWer-ditch was raSed all round. New
barracks were fome years ago erected on the Tower-
wharf » which parts it from the river; and upon the
wharf is a line of 61 pieces of cannon, which arc fired
upon fUte holidays. On this fide of the Tower the
ditch is narrow, and over it is a draw-bridge. Parallel
to the wharf, within the waQs, is a platform 70 yards
in length, called the Ladkt Lme^ becaufe much fre-

traitors anaother ftate-prifonera to or from theTwt
and which is feldom opened on any other occHi
but the lords committed to the Tower in n;td
publicly admitted at the ma£n entrance. Orcrtb;:^
is a regular building, terminated at each vAVr
round towers, on which are embrafuses lor p:
cannon. In this building there are the infinisr :
mill, and the water-woiks that fupplythe Toic".
water. i

In the Tower (the curiofities of which are j
particularly defcribed in the note (b), axt \i^^

(b) In examining the curiofities of the Tower of London, it will be proper to begin with tholi;«
-outfide of the principal gate. The firfl thing a ftranger ufually goes to vifit is the wild beafts ; which, fnxE -
fituation, firft j>refent themfelves : for having entered the outer gate, and paiTed what is called the fpQH*
the keeper's houfe prefcnts itfelf before you, which is known by a painted lion on the wall, and asotb^-
the door which leads to their dens. By ringing a bell, and paying fixpence eadi perfon, yon maTO&V:
admittance.

The next place worthy of obfervation is the Mint, which comprehends near one-third of the To«f *
contains houies for all the officers belonging to the coinage. On paifing the principal gate you fee th^^-
Tower, built by WilUam the Conqueror* This is a large, fquare, irregular ftone building, fitiutedr-
in the centre, no one fide anfwering to another, nor any of its watch-towers, of which there are four 1^^
top, buih alike. One of thefe towers is now converted into an obfervatory. In the firft ftory arc two t
rooms, one of which \i a fmaH armoury for the fea-ferrice, it having various forts of arms, ver)' coxvs^i^V'
lip, for above 10,000 feamen. In the other room are many clofets and preflcs, all filled with wariikcoir'
and inftruments of death. Over this are two other floors, one principally filled with arms ; the otbtr <^^
arms and other wariike inftruments, as fpades, (hovels, pick-axes, and chevaux de frize. In the upp^^j
are kept match, (heep-ikins, tanned hides, &c. and in a little room called Julius Caefar*8 chapel, are d^^j
fome records, containing perhaps the ancient ufages and cuftoms of the place. In this buiMingarei^r
feryed the models of the new-invented engines of deftrufiiop that have from time to time been prcfot-»J
the government. Near the fouth-weft angle of the White Tower is the Spanifh armoury, in which ^f;^
pofited the fpoils of what wat vainly called the Invincible Armada ; in order to perpetuate to lateft p '
the memorv of that fignal viflory obtained by the En^ih over the whole naval power of Spain intbc^
4>f Philip Al. , ' . . »r ^

You are now come to the grand ftore-houfe, a noble building to the northward of the White To»<^'
extends 245 feet iu length and 60 in breadth. It was begun by king Jfames II. who buik it to thesm^^.
but it was finiftied by king William III. who «reded that magnificent room called the N^eworStau' j
moury, in w^ch that prince, with queen Mary his contort, dined in great form, haring all the 'W^^
mep and labourers to attend them, drefled in white rioves and aprons, the ufuaA badges of ^ ^ u'
fonry. To this noble room you are led by a folding door, adjoining to the eaft end of theTovef^'ri
which leads to a grand ftair-cafe of 50 eafy fteps. On the left fide of the uppermoft landing-pa^^," .
work-fhop, in which are conftantly employed about 14 furbifhers, in cleaning, repairing, and acw-phci^^
arms. On entering the^ armoury, yoa fee what they call a wildernefs of arms, fo aitfully difp<^7 ^
cne view you behohl arms for near 80,000 men, all bright, and fit for ferrice ; a fight wkidi it i> "^T^
to behold without afiomftuneot \ and befide tho(e expofed to view, there weie, before the late v**! ^^'^
^ KM»7- X ^

L O N I H9 1 L O N

ftidtm, the offices of ordnance and of the mint» thofe of the a conftablci a lieutenant, andadepvtty-lieutetttitt* Be* , I'ffi^*^

keepers of the records, of the jewel-office, of the longing to this fortrefs are eleven hamlets ; the militia ' ■ •

Spanish armoury, the horfc armoury, and the new or of which, confifting of 400 men^ arc obliged, at the ,

fmalT armoury ; with barracks for the foldiers of the command of the conftablc of the Tower, to repair •

rarrifon, and haadforae houfes for fcvcral officers who hither, and reinforce the garrifon, 4; -

refide here. The principal officers of the Tower are. On Litde Tower-hill is the FiQualitft^-oJice for the ViauallSog
Vol. X.- Part L * li r.a^r)^ Office.

(hut up, each cheft hblding about loco mufkets. The arms were originally difpoTed by Mr Harris, who con*
trivcd to place them in this beautiful order, . both here and in the guard chamber of Hampton-court. He was
a common gunfmith ; but after he had performed this work, which is the admiration of people of all nations,
fce was allowed a pcnfion from the crown for his ingenuity.

Upon the ground floor, under tlie fmall armoury, is a large room of equal dimcnfions with that, fupported
by 20 pillars, all hung round with implements of war. This room, which is 24 feet high, has a paflage in
the middle 16 feet wide. At the fight of fuch a variety of the moft dreadful engines of dcflrudion, beforo
whofe thunder the moft fupeijb edifices, the nobleft works of art, and numbers of the human fpecics, fall to*
gether in one common and undiftinguiflied ruin ; one cannot help wiftiing that thofe honible inventions had
ftill lain, like a falfe conception, in the womb of nature, never to have been ripened into birth.

The horfc armoury is a plain brick-building, a little to the eaftward of the White Tower 5 and is an edi-
fice rather convenient than elegant, where the fpedlatbr is entertained with a reprcfcntation of thofe kings and
heroes of our own nation, wiUi whofe gallant aftions it is to be fuppofed he is well acquainted ; fomc of them
equipped and fitting on horfeback, in the fame bright Ihid fhining armour they were ufed to wear when they
performed thofe glorious adlions ^hich gave them a diftinguiflied place in the Britifh annals.

You now come to the Une of kings, which your condudor begins by rcverfing the order of chronology ;
fo that in following them we muft place the laft firft-

In a dark, ftrong ftone room, about 20 yards to the eaftward of the grand ftorehoufe, or new armoury,
the crown jewels arc depofited. i. The imperial crown, with which it is pretended that all the kings of
England have been crowned fince Edward the ConfcfTor in 1040, It is of gold, enriched with diamonds,
rubies, emeralds, fapphires, and pearls : the cap within is of purple velvet, lined with white taffcty, turned
tip widi three rows of ermine. They are, however, miftaken in (homing this as the ancient imperial diadem
•f St Edward : for that, with the* other moft ancient regalia of this kingdom, was kept in the arched room
in the cloiftcrs in Wcibninfter Abbey till the civil war j when,* in 1642, Harry Martin, by order of the
parliament, broke open the iron cheft m which it was fecured, took it thence, and fold it, together with the
robes, fword, and fceptre, of St Edward. However, after the RefVoration, king Charles 11. had one made
in imitation of it, which is that now fliown. 2. The golden orb, or globe, put into the king's right hand
before he is crowned ; and borne in his left hand, with the fceptre in his right, upon his return into Weftmin*
fter-hall after he is crowned. It is about fix inches in diameter, edged with pearj, and enriched with pre*
cious ftones. On the top is an ametkyft, of a violet colour, near an inch and an half in height, fet.with a
rich crofs of golid, adorned with diamonds, pearls, and precious ftones. The whole height of the ball and
cup is 1 1 inches. 3, The golden fceptre, with its crofs let upon a large amethyft pf great value, garnifhed
round with table diamonds. The handle of the fceptre is plain, but the pummel is fet round with rubies, eine*
raids, an(i fmail diamonds. The top rifes into a JUur de Vu of {\%, leaves, all enriched with preciotzs ftones,
from whence iffiies a mound of ball, made of the amethyft already mentioned. The crofs is quite covered
with precious ftones. 4. The fceptre, with the dove, tke emblem of peace, perched on the top of a fmall
Jerufalem crofs, finely ornamented with table diamonds and jewels of great value. This emblem was firft ufed
by Edward the Confeifor, as appears by his feal } but the ancient fceptre and dove was fold with the. reft of
the regalia, and this now in the Tower was made after the Reftoration. * 5. St Edward's ftaff, four feettfeveil
inches and an half in length, and three inches three quarters in circumference, all of |)eaten gold, which is
carried before the king at his coronation. 6. The rich crown of ftate, worn by his majefty in parliament s-
in which is a lai^e emerald feven inches round ; a pearl eftcemed the fineft in the world ; and a ruby of incftt*
mable value. 7. The crown belonging to his royal h^hnefs the prince of Wales. The king wears hii crown
on his head when he fits upon the throne \ but that of the prince of Wales is placed before him, to (how that
he is not yet come to it. 8. The fete queen Mary's crown, globe, and fceptre, with the diadem fhe wore
at her 'coronation with her confort king William III. 9. An ivory fceptre, with a dove on the top, mada
for king James II.'s queen, whofc garniture is gold, and the dove on the top gold enamelled with white*
10. The curtana^ or fword of mercy, which has a blade of 32 inches long, and near two broad, is without
a point, and is borne naked before the king at his coronation, between the two fwords of juftice, fpiritual
and temporal. ii. The golden fpurs, and the armillas, which are bracelets for the wrifts. Thcfe, though
very antique, are worn at the coronation. 1 2. The ^mpulhj or eagle of gold, finely engraved, which holds
' the holy oil the kings and queens of England are anointed with ; and the golden fpoon mat tho htifaop ponri
the oil into* Thefe are two pieces of great antiquitr. The golden eagle, including the pedeftal, it about
nine inches high, and the wing^ expand about feten inches. The whole weighs abont tenouneetw The head
^ the eagle (crews off about the middle of the neck, which is made hollow, for hokiing the holy oil ; and
when, the king is anointed by the bifhop, the oil is poured iatO'the fpoon out of the bird's biU, tj. A rick

. < . iakfelkar

Xjmkmhi*

4>
Qiiftom-

Trinity
Houfc

L O N f «5o ] ION

Aswy. It ia^ feparated from Tower-hiQ-by a wall and themat!«al cfaSdren of Chnft's faofpitalyandtlbes:!:
gate, and contains houfes for the ofiicersy flaughtcx*
houfet^ ftore-roomS) a brew-houfcy a falting-houfey
and a barrelliag^houfe ; under the dircdUon o£ fevea
commiffioners and other inferior ofEcers.

In Tower ward i» alio the Cuflom houfe^ a large,
kandfome, and conunodious building' of bnck and ilone.
It Hands i^on the bank of the Thames, and is ac-
commodated with large wharfs, keys, and ware-houfes.
On this fpot is the bufy concourfe of all nations, who
pay their tribute towards the fupport of Great Bri-
tain. About the year 15591 the lofs to the revenue,
by collet Bg it in different parts of the city, was fir 11
difcovered, and an adl paffed to compel people to land
their goods in fuch places as were appointed by the
conunifiioners of the revenue ; and this was the fpot
fixed on : A <^illom-houfe was ere^cd ; which, being
deftroyed by the great fire, was rebuilt by Charles II.
In 1 7 1 8 it underwent the fame fate, and was reilored
in its pitfent form. Before the cuilom-hoafe was
eftablifhed here, the principal place for receiving the
duties was at Billingfgate. In 1268 the half year's
cudoms for foreign merchandife in the city of London

came only to L.75 : 6 : 10 ; the annual produce of the Mhtoriesy from fome poor ladies of the
the cuiloms, ending in April 1789, amounted to ~ ^" - _ —-

L. 3,71 1,136.

In Water4ane, a little to the north-weft of the
cuftom-houfe, is<he Trtnity4>oufe ; a fociety founded in
1 5 15, at a period in which the Britiih navy began to
aflame a fyflem. The founder was Sir Thomas Spert
comptroller of the navy, and cdmmaader of the
great ihip Henry Grace de Dieu. It is a corpora*
tion, confifting of a mafter, four wardens,, eight af*
fiftontv and eighteen elder brethren ; fele^ed from
conunanders in the navy and the merdiants fein^ice ;
and now and then a compliixient is paid to one or
two of our firft nobility. They may be confidered as
guardians of our ihipt> military and commerctaL
Tbcir powers are very extenfive : they examine the ma«-

of hi»majefty'sihip8 \ they appoint pilots for tk :-
Thames ; fettle the general rates of pilotage; r:
Itght-houfes and fea-marks; grant ircen:.-^:u:
feamen, not irtt of tlie city, to row on Ui T^:
prevent foreigners from ferving on bjatrd oa- :
without licence ; punifh feamen for muiiny ar.^ i
tion; hear and determine complaints of oSx^l
men in the merchants fenrice, but liable to ap--;
the judge of the court of admii-alty , fupcTititi:
deepening and cleanfmg of the river ThasrsE
Iiave under their jurifdittion the baflaft-oSc: ; l
powers to buy lands, and receive donation fu: -
table ufes ; and, in confequence, relieve aacuaSr-
thoufands of poor feamen, their widows, anJ^rii
It is in this houfe the buiinefs of the infl'tj-..
carried on : but the mothcr-houle is at Deptfiri.
corporation being named, '* the mailer, wanker
affillants of the guild or fratemily of the mod ^-.
ous and undivided Trinity, and of St Clesic
the parlfh of Deptford Strond, in the cjj::t
Kent.*'

Between Aldgate and the Tower is tbc (bct.i

O.J'

St Clare, or minorcfles. They had been ui..:/.
I^ondon by Blanch queen of Navarre, and vnfc icl
mund earl of Laucafler, who founded a coot^i:
them in 1293. On the fupprcfiion of the mo: -
it was converted into a dweUing-houfe forfam:
nobility, and is now in the pofTeifion of the Drj:--
family. Till of late years, the Minories wr^ ' .:
de^icable ftreet ; but have now been cxaLc l
built, and are as elegant as any in the city.

On the weil fide cftbe city- walk at thispbcr,.:-
the houfe of the Crutcbed or Cfoffed Friarij an t
infUtuted at Bologna in 1169, and of which a b-
fettled in England in 1244, where they were acv-'-
Inodated with an houfe in this place by two ott:^
named Ralph Hofier and tVUUam SaberneUf wlio \scsf

fidtfefler of ftate, in form like the fquare White Tower, and fo. exquiiitely wrought, that the woiicat^
of modem times is in no degree equal to it. It is of gold, and ufed only on the kxngfs table at the ccrtt^
tion. 14. A noble fibrer font, double gilt, and elegantly' wrought^ in which the royal &mily are chritir^
15. A large fiKer fountain, pcefented to king Charles IL by the towa of Plymouth, very cuWouHy vro^^r
but much' inferior in beauty to the above. Befides thefe, which are commonly fhown, there are in tbc je^ '-'■'-
all the crown jewels worn, by the princes and princeffes at coronations, and a great variety of curious old pi*'-
The record office confiftaof three rooms, one above another, and a large round room, where the i^-'^
kept. Thefe are all haodfomely wainfcottcd, the wainfcot being framed into prefles rouod each i^-*
within whicb are flielnes and repofitories for the records ; and for the eaiier finding of them, the year o> ^-
veiffn isinfcribed on* the inikfe of thefe preiTes, and the records placed aocordingly^ Within tiie& P^^
which amount to 56 in number, are depofited all the rolls, from the firft year of the reign of kiog Jo^ ^ '-^^
beginning of the reign of Richard III. but thofe afrer thislaft period are kept m thcRolh Chapel. Tb< ^*
in the Tower, among other things, contain the foundation of abbeys and other religious hoofes ; the ad^
tenures of att the lands in England^ with a-furvey of the manors ; the original of laws and ftatptes; p^^
iflgs of the courtaof common law and equity^ the rights of England to. the dominion of the Britiib^
leagues and treaties with foreign. princes; the atchievements of England in foreign, wars; the. ^^^^^^^
Ireland, as to law and dominion^ ; the forms o£ fubmiffion of fome Scottifb kings for territories bddio^
land ; ancient grMits of our kings to: dieir £ubje£U ; privileges and immunities granted to cities and c«i^
tioos during the period above mentioned \ inrolments of cMrters and deeds made before the ^^ L
bonndaof all the forrfts in England, with the feveral refpedive rights of the inhabitaAts to^commoA j^
and many other important records, all regtdarly difpofed, and reflOTed to in near a thoufaod folio >^
This office is kept open, and attendance conftantly given, from fevea o'clock till one, except in ^ '"^
of December, Januaryt and February, ^en it ia open only from eight to .ooCf. Sunday t and i^^i*
ccptcd* A fearch bere ia half a guiaei^ for whipb 70a i&ay perofc any one fubjed a year.

L O N

C 45t 3

L O IJ

netnbcn of their order, Henry VI IL glinted their chefter baiie, meal, and wool. Adjoining to Leaden* totiitiH*

loufc to Sir Whoma» Wyatt the elder, who built a
fiandfome nuinfion on part of the ground where it
ft.ood« This manfion became afterwards the rcfidcncc
of John Lord Lumley, a celebrated warrior in the
time of Henry VIIL In procefs of time, it was con*
verted into a nary-office : but thia office being remo-
ved to Softierfet-houfej the India Company have erec-
ted in Jt3 place a moft magnificent warehoufe, in form
of an oblong fquare of about 250 feet by i/5o, inclo-
fin^ a court of 150 by 60 feet, the entrance to which
ts by an arched gateway.

Billingfgate ward is diftinguifhed by its marhL
JBtUingJgate was a fmall port for the reception of fhip-
{>ing, and for a coniiderable time thcr moll important
place for the landing of almoil every article of cpm-
tnerce. In the, time of King William, Billingfgate
be^n to be celebrated as a fifh-market. In 1699 ^^
V as by aft of parliament made a free port for fifh to
be fold there every day Except Sunday ; but Mr Pen-
nant informs us, that the obje6l of this has long been
frail rated, and that fifh are now no longer to be had

hall is a market, thence called LeadenhaH markety con-
fiding of five coniiderable fquares or courts, and rec*'
koned one of the greatefl markets in Europe for flefli
and other provifions', as well as for leather, green hides^
and wool. A little to the eadward is the India-Jmufe^ TIs IimIu«
built in 1726, on the fpot occupied by Sir William W®**^**
Craven, mayor in 16 ID. According to Mr Pennant,
this houfe " is not worthy of the lords of Indoflan." 55

In liroaddreet is the Bank of England^ a floncbuild-' Bank of
ing, which occupies one fide of Three-needle ftreef, England,
The centre, and the building behind, were foimded
in the year 1733 ; ^^ architeft George Sampfon.
Before that time the bufinefs was tranfa^Sled in Gro-
cers-haD. The front is a fort of veflibule \ the bafe
ruflic, the ornamental columns above Ionic* ^ Within
is a court leading to a fecond elegant building* which
contains a hall and offices, where the debt of above
250 millions is pundually difcharged. Of late years
two wings of uncommon elegance, defigncd by Sir
Robert Taylor, have been added, at the expence of
a few houfes, and of the church of St Chriftopher's

theie in perfe^ion. The fame author gives a lift of le Stock 3« ''The name of the proje6lor of this national

tli<? fifh which in the time of Edward III. were
brought to the London market ; the monarch himfelf
having condefcended to regulate the prices, that his
fuhJeSs nught not be impofed upon by thofe who
fold them. Among thefe ^'ere the conger-eel and
porpoifc, neither of which is now admitted to any
table. A pike at that time cofl 68. 8d« ; whence our
'author concludes, that it was an exotic filh, and brought
over at a vaft expence. Some fifhes^re mentioned in
his lift with which this xlaturalift owns himfelf unac*
qnamted, vt%» the barkey^ 6ran, hatriky croplingf and
rumd. In Archbifhop NeviU's great feaft is mention-
ed alfo a fifh named thtrle'pooley unknown at prefent. *
Seals were formerly accounted a fifh j and thefe^ toge-
ther with the fturgeon and porpoife, were the only frefh
fifh permitted by the 33d of Henry VIII. to be bought

dbry (fays Mr Pennant), was Mr James Paterfon of
Scotland. This palladium of our country was in
1780 faved from the fury of an infamous banditti
by the virtue of ita citizens, who formed fuddenly a
volunteer company, and over-awed the mifcreants;
while the chief magiftrate fkulked, trembling in his
manfioR-houfe, and left his important charge to its
fate. This important building has ever fince been
very properly guarded by the military \ who, in paf-
fing through the city, have often given offence to
many bufy charadlers who would ftrive to prefervc the
city rights at the expence of the national deftru^on*
A lord mayor was the laft who interefted hijpfelf by
applying to Mr Grenville, who gave him to under*
(land, that if the guards were not quietly permitted

to difchaige their duty, the bank would be removed
of any ft ranger at fca between England, France, Flan* to Somerfet-houfe." j^

ders, and Zealand. At the extremity of Three-needle ftreet ia Mer» Merchant^

1. Limeftrcet ward is remarkable for a very large build- ehani-Tayiart HaU* In this ftreet alfo is the South'Sia X*?/^
ing,. of great antiquity, called /.Au&iiia//, with flat ^w»^, firft eftabliftied in 171 1 for the purpofe of an^*^»^
battlements leaded on the top, and a fpacious fquare -exdufive trade to the South Set, and for fupplying
in the middle. In 1309 it ^s thehoufe of Sir Hugh Spanifh America widi negroes*

'^ ' "^ ■ Near the jundion of Throgmorton flrect with

Broad*ftreet ftood a magnificent houfe built by Crom«
well earl of EiTex ; after whofe fafl, the houfe and
gardens were bought by the Dn^rs company. The
houfe was deftix>yed in the great fire, but rebuilt for
the* ufe of the company in a magnificent manner. ^^

Mr Pennant informs us, that St Gile**f ebunb in the St Giiei's^

Nevil knight;^ in 1384, of Humphry Bohun Earl
of Hereford; in 1408 it became the property of the
celebrated Whittington, who prefentcd it to the mayor
and commonalty of London ; and in 1419, a public
granary was erefted here by Sir Simon Eyre, a ci-
tizen and draper, who built it with ftone in its pre-
fent form. This granary was defigned as a prefcrva-

tive againft famine, and to be kept always full of fields, and a few houfes to the weft of it, in the year

corn which defign was for fome time happily anfwered.
Thehoufe came to be ufed for many other purpofes be*
fides that of a granary ; as for keeping the arriUery and
arms of the city. Preparations for any kind of pageantry
or triuipph were alfo made here; and from its ftrength
the place was confidercd as the chief fortrefs within
the city in cafe of any popular infurredtion, and was
likewife the place from whence alms were diftributed.
In this edifice are warehoufes for the fale of leather, Col«

1600, was barely feparated from Broad-ftreet. The
church is fuppofed to have belonge({ to an hofpital for le-
pers, founded about the year 1 1 1 7, by Matilda queen to
Henry I. In ancient times it was cuftomary here to
prednt to malefadtors, on their way to the gallowt
(which, about the year 141 3, was removed from
Smithfield, and placed between St Giles's high-ftreet
and Hog-lane (c), a great bowl of ale, as the laft re-
frcfhment they were to receive in this li&. On

I t 2 the

the

I^BdOR

WinchcAer

59
Crelhaoi

Escife-
Office.

c)uoge«

L O N [ 25

tKe* dotr t« -the church-yard is a curious piece of
fculpturci rcprefenting the lail day, containing an '
atnazing number of Ggurcsy fct up about the year
1686. This church was rebuilt in 1625. By the
amazing raifing of the ground by filth and vari-
ous adventitious matter, the floor in the year 1730
waa eight feet below the fuiface acquired in the
intervening time. This alone made it necefiary
to rebuild the church in the prefent century. The
firft ftone was laid in 1730; it was finifhed m 1734,
at the cxpcncc of io,oool.-^In the church-yard is a
great fquare pit, with many rows of coffins piled one
upon the other, all expofed to iight and fmell, tho lat«
ter of which is highly ofFenfive if not dangerous.

On the weft fide of Broad-ftreet flood the houfe of
the AuguftineSi founded by Huniphrey Bohun Earl
of Sonrkerfet in 1253, for friars and hermits of the
Auguftine order. On the difTolution of the mo-
naftcries, great part of the houfe was granted to
William Lord St John, afterwards Marquis of Win*
chefter, and Lord Treafurer, who founded a mag-
nificent houfe named Winchejler-houfe* The welt
end of the church was granted in 1551 to John a
Lafco for the ufe of the Germans and other fugi-
tive Proteftants, and afterwards to the Dutch as a
place for preaching. A part of it was alfo converted
into* a glafs-houfe for Venice glafs, in which the ma*
sufad^ure was carried on by artifts from tliat cityi
and patronifed by the Duke of Buckingham. The
pbce was afterwards converted into Pmnert'haU^ be-
longing to the company of pin-makers.

To the eaftward of Winchefler-ftrcet flood the houfe
of that very eminent merchant Sir Thomas Crefhham»
afterwards known by the name of Grejbam college : ( Soe
Gresham.) It has been puUed down not many years
ago ; and th^ Rxclfe Office^ a moft magnificent and
at the fame time fimple building, rode in its place.
Mr Pennant infomis us, that from the 5th of January
1786 to January 5th 1787, the payments into this of-
fice amounted to no lefsthan L.5,531,114: 6 : lOx-.

The Roys! Exchange<t which is the meeting-place of
the merchants of London, flands in the ward of
Comhill, and is the finefl and fbrongcil fabric of
the kind in Europe. It was founded in the year
1566. Sir Thomas Grefham, merchant in London,
made an offer to the lord mayor %nd citizens, to build,
at his own cxpence, a commodious edifice for mer-
chants to meet and tranfa^ bufinefs, provided the city
would find him a convenient fituation for the fame*.
Mr Pennant informs us, that one Richard Clough a
.Wclfhman, originally Sir Thomas's fervant, firfl put
him on this dcfign by a letter from Antwerp, in which
ke reproached the London merchants with having no
lace to tranfafl their bufinefs, but walking about in

le rain, n^ore like pedlars than merchants. The ci-

J 3 L O N

tizens, in compliance with Sir Thomas*9. defire, pr
chafed, for the fum of L. 3532, 80 hoaCes id tbetso'
alleys called New Si Chriftopbir\ and Swaa^aJiy^ki^
ing out of Cornhill into Three-needle flrcct. Va
materials of thofc houfea were fold for Lr« 478, autit*;
ground, when cleared, was conveyed to Sir Thocoi
GrCiham, who, accompanied by feveral aklcrmen, lu
the firfl brick of the new building on the 7th of Jir^
that year. Each alderman alfo laid hia brick, m
left a piece of gold for the wcH-kmen ; who fct aki^
It with fuch affiduity and refolution, that the vb It
fabric was roofed by the month of November 15^",
and was fooa after completed under the name of i^t
Btrfe. This building was totally deftroy/?d by vt
fire in 1 666 ; and in its place the prefent magaiict^
flrudure was ere6led at the ezpence of L. 80,0::
which flands upon a plat of fl;round 203 feet in Inp
and 171 in breadth, contaimng an area in the mid>L<;
of 61 fquare perches, f unrounded with a fubtbrtiL
and regular flone building, wrought in niflic- It b
two fronts, north and fouth, each of which is a pii;
za ; and in the centre are the grand entrances ix'
the area, under a very lofty and noble arch. T^t
fouth front in Cornhill is the principal ; on each £::
of which are Corinthian demi-columns* fuppOTtIr.f 1
xompafs pediment ; and, in the intercolumniatioa >:«
each fide, in the front next tlie flreet^ is a niche, w.v
the flatues of King Charles I. and II. in Roman b
bits, and well executed* Over the aperture, on :::
cornice between the two pediments, 2ure the kl^'i
arms in relievo : on each fide of this entrance i> a
range of windows placed between denii-columns, aii
pilaflers of the v:ompofite order, above which ns^ i
halufbade* This building is 56 feet high : and frci
the centre, in this frontj rifes a lanthom and Iilts
178 feet high, on the top of which is a fane of eu:
brafs made in the fhape of a grafshoppcr, the or-
of Sir Thomas Grefham's arms. The north front 1
Three-needle-ftreet is adorned with pilaflers of tU
compofite order $ but has neither columns nor flatus
on the outfide ; and has triangular, inftead of con:-
pafs, pediments. The infide of the area is alfo V£-
rounded with piazzas, forming ambulatories for me^
chants, &c. to fhelter tkemfelves from the wearisr.
.when met there upon bufinefs. Above the aroa
of tliis piazza is an entablature with curious omi-
ments ; and on the cornice a range of pilaflen wiift
an entablature extending round, and a compafs pedi-
ment in the middle of the cornice of each of the io3
fides. Under the pediment on the north fide are tbe
^iag's arms $ and the fouth, the city's arms ; on tk
eafl. Sir Thomas Grefham's arms ; and on the wtS*
the mercer's arms, w^ith their rcfpe6live enrichmecu.
In thefe intercolumns are 24 niches, 20 of which ait
Ell^'d with the flatui^s of the kings dgd queens of £i^-

la»^

tlie gentle Mortimer fini^ed his days, here, the Elmt : but the original at \aTn as <h# prefent name was TV
houme ; not from tye and lurn^ as if it were called fo from the manner of capital punifhments ; but from hamtp
the Saxon word for a ** brook," and Tye the name of that brook, which joined gave name to a manor bcfort
liie conqueft. Here was alfo a villiage and church denominated St John the, Evangellft^ which fell to decar,
and was fucceeded by that of Mary bourne^ corrupted into Mary^la-honne, In 1626, Queen Henrietta
Maria was compelkd by her priefts to take a walk by way of penance to Tyburn. Whather cfifence «^i
we are not told ; but Charles was fo difguiled at^this infolepce, that he fooo after fcnt them 99^ all her aa«
Jefty's Fretch fi:rvaot8 out of the king<doau.

t O N

t J5S 1

L O N

nfi« Under thede "piarzzaiy within the artas are 28
^cHes» all vacaat but that in which Sir Thomas Gref*
ajTx^ ftatue is pbced ia the ' north*wefl angky and
^SL% in the fouth-weft, where the ftatue of Sir Joho
» a.r x\ard was placed in his lifetime by his fdUow-citi-
cna to cxprels their fenfe of his merit. The centre
f t:Hi9 area al(b is ornamented with a ftatue of King
^KarlesII. in a^ Roman habit, ftandlng upon a marble
«<de(lal about eight feet high, and encompaifed with
ron rails ; -which pedefbal is enriched on the (buth
:<le with an imperial crown, a fceptre, fword, palm-
•ra.nckes, and other decorations, with a very flattering
B^cription to the king. On the weft fide is a cupid

<nit in relief} ffefting his rk^ht hand on a (hield with
the arms of France and England quartered, and hold-
ing a rofe in his left hand. On the north iide is
another cupid fupporting a (liield with the arms of
Ireland ; and on the eali fide are the arms of Scot-
land, with a' cupid holding a thiftle ; all done in re-
lievo : the whole executed by that able ftatuary Mr
Gribbon.

In this area, mercliants, and fuch as have bufinefs
with them, meet every day at change hours ; and for
the more regular and readier difpatch of bufincfs, they
difpofe of themfelves into feparate walks, according^
to the following plan.

jLondan.

North.
Threadneedle-ftrcet.

£aft country . Irifh

walk. walk. _

Clothiers Hamburgh
walk. walk.

Scotch Dutch and
walk. Jewellers^

•

«^

Salters
walk.'

Silkmens
walk.

Turkey
walk.

Grocers
and

Broken t^ ..
of Stock, .y,

&c.w»lk. ^'^^*

Virginia
walk.

Jamaica
walk.

Spanifh
walk.

Jews
walk.

Comhill.
South*

tn building this expeniive ftrudure there was an eye ' In Walbrook ward is the Manfion-houjef for the re- The Marn^
not only to magmficencc, and to accommodate the fidencc of the lord-mayor. This edifice was begun in fi«*i*omp^
merchant?, but alio to reimburfe the expence. For 1739, and fini(hed in 1753* It is built of Portland
this reafon a gallery was built over the four tides of ftone, with a portico of fix fluted columns, of the
the royal exchange, Tliis was divided into 200 fhops, Corinthian order^ in the front. The bafement ftory-
\i'hich were let out to ha^erdafliers, milliners, &c. and is very maffy,, and confifts of ruftic wovk; in the centre

which for feveral years were well occupied. But thefe
ftiops have now for a long time been deferted, and the
galleries are let out to the Royal Exchange Aflurance-
office, the Mcrchant-feamens office, the Marine So-
ciety, and to audioneers, &c. Under the whole area
there are the fineil dry vaults that can be found any
where, which arc fct out to the Eaft India company to
dcpofit their pepper. In the turret is a good clock
with four dials, which is well regulated ever day, fo
that it becomes a ftandard of time to all tlie mercan-
tile part of the town ; and it goes with chimes at

of it is the door, which leads to the kitchens, cellars,
and other offices. On each iide rifes a il^ht of fteps,
leading up to the portico, in die middle of which is
the pnncipal entry. The ftone baluftrade of the ftairs
is continued along the front of the portico, and the
columns fupport a large angular pediment, adorned
with a ^up of figures in has relief, reprefenting
the dignity and opiuence of the city of London. It
is an extreme heavy building, of an oblong form, and
its depth is the long fide, having fevend magniflcent
apartments, which are not, however, well lighted, on

three, fix, nine, and twelve o'clock, playing iipon> ^account of the houfes that furround it.

twelve bells. The outfide of this grand fabric fuffers
veiy much in its elegance £-om the fhops that furround
it, and are built within its walls; and which are occu^
pied by bookfellers, toymen, cutlers, hofiers, watchr
makers, &c.
£outh of the Royal-exchange, and near the weft
ce. extremity of Lombard-ftrect^ is liie General Poft Office^
which is a kaadjCbmc and commodious building.

64^

Behind the manfion4ioufe is St Stephen** ri^rifr, StStephen>
in Walbrook, juftly reputed the mafter-piece off theC^»«^
celebrated Sir Chriftopher Wren, and is laid to ex*
ceed every modem flrufhire ib the world in propor*
tion and elegance.

The numfion-hottie, and many adjacent biiildlngSy.
itiEmd on the place where the Stocks market odccl
ftood. Thifl.toQi^ iu name fnun apair of ftocks ejpec-

tc*

L O N

t 454 3

r. O N

l^nd<ir. ted near the fpot in 1281 ; and was the ^at noarkct
of London for provifiona during many centuries.

In this ward is fituated one of the moll remarkable
pieces of antiquity in London. It is a great ilone»
now {landing in a cafe on the north fide -of Canon-
flreety clofe under the fouth waD of St Swithiu'^t
church*. It is called Londtm'fiont ; and was formerly
pitched edgewayt on the other fide of the ftreet, oppo-
^te to where it now ftandS) fixed deeply in the ground*
and ftrongly faftened with iron bars ; but for the con*
▼eniency of wheel-carriages it was removed to its pre-
\lept fituation. This fione is mentioned fo early at
the time of Athelftan» king 6i the Weft Saxons, and
lias been carefully prcferved from age to age. Of the
original caufe of its ere6^ion no memorial remains ; but
it is conje^uredy that as London was a Roman city^
^his ftone might be the centre^ and might fenre as
an obje6l from which the diftancc was computed to
the other condderable cities er ftations in the |>fo<-

McrchanC-
Tjylors ,

▼mce.

15t Mary le
9ow.

In Dowgate ward is a noted academy, caled Mer^
chant^aylon School^ from its having been founded by
the merchant-taylors company, in the year 1561. It
was deilroyed by the fire of London in 1666, but was
rebuilt, and is a very large ftru£ture> with commodi-
ous apartments for the mailers and ufhers, and a fine
'b'brary. Sir Thqinas White, lord mayor of this city,
having founded St John's college in Oxford in 1557,
appomted this fchool as a feminary for it, and eila-
;bliihed at Oxford 46 fellawfhips for fcholars ele6led
from this fchool.

The church of St Mary h Botv^ in Cordwainers-
ftreet ward, is the moft eminent parochial church in
the city. It was originally built in the reign of Wil-
liam the Conqueror $ and being Jthe firft 'chureh-the
ftceple of which was embellifhed <with flone arches or
bows, took thence its denomination of le Bow. It
was burnt down in the fire of 1666, but foon after*
wards rebuilt. The ileeple of this church is reckoned
the moil beautiful of its kind in Europe.

in 700 by Wythred king of Kent ; and, ^ ^

year 10569 rebuilt and <;hiefly endowed b^ [j^.
and Edward, two noble brothers. In ic68, ;ir.'
eonfirmed and made independent of every other :&
fiaftical jurifdifHon, even that of the pepe )ua!cti r
excepted ; and its privileges were confirmed by facer.
ing monarchta It was governed by a deu, sr i
number of fecidar canons. In this jurifdicUon a ?:-
nificent church was ere^led, but pulled down a::.
when the college was. furrendered ; after wh-di:,
vem was eredlcd on the ipot.

A litde to the weftward of Mary-le-Bov ckr
fin the adjoining ward}, flood the Croft andOi
in the middle of the ilreet. The former was be- :
Edward I. in 1290, in memory of his queen Els:-
whofe body was refled on tliat fpot in its vit fc
buried. Originally it had the (bitue of the q^n
full length, refembling exa^ly that at Nortb^:-,
Having at length fellcn to decay, it was rekl
WH-i by John Hutherby mayor of the citr, at tbe-.
pence of feveral citizens, being now omamcDtd ^ .
various images, as thofe of the Refurrcdion, tk: ^ '.
gin Mary, &o. As the magnificent proceffiossi
this road, it was new-gilt at every pubbc entry. Avj
the Reformation, the images gave fo muchoS:::!
that it was thought proper to fubilitute that oiJk\
in place of the Virgin Mary.. This howcw, ^
refented by Queen Elizabeth, who offend iwA
for the difcovery of the oficnders. As Ac imp.
that a crofs, the fymbol of the Chrilkian it^ .
could not juftly give ofience to any profelfari;/::;
Teligrion, ihe ordered a crofs to be placed on the L-
mit, and gilt ; but in 1643, the parliament orAcnr.
demolition of all crofies and other marks of Re:: i
fuperftition.

Splendid tournaments were held between tk }
and Sopers-lane in the year 1331 ; but as Qucear!
lippa and a great number of other ladies, drefltrd brA
attire, were fitting on the upper fcaffolding tobeholiii|
fports, the feat gave way, and they fuddcnly idi' '

In Cheap ward is GtdldbaJl^ or the town-houfe of among the knights and others who Rood &tkf^

London. This was originally built in 141 1, but fo
damaged by the great fire already mentioned, as to
be rebuilt m 1669. The front has a Gothic appear-
■ance ; and this chandler is alfo due to the two gigan*
^ic effigies which ftand within the hall. The hall is
1 53 feet long, 50 broad, and $^ high, adorned with
'the royal arms, and thofe of the city and its compa-
4iie8, as well as with feveral portraits of Engliih fbye-
reigns and judges. In this building are many apart-
ments for tranfa6ling the bufinefs of the city, befides
one for each of the judicial courts, namely, that of the
'KingVBench, the Common-Pleas, and the Exche-

dieav'fi<^e.

many of whom were grievoufly hurt. The carpttt^j
were faved from punifliment by the interccJUon d'^
queen ; but the king, to prevent accidents of the ^J
nature, ordered a building of flone to be orectedss)
Bow-church, from whence the queen and othCT^^j
might behold fuch fpedUck-s in fafety. Thisfi
ufed for the fame purpofe till the year 14/0, if-
Henry IV. granted it to certain mercers, vrho est
verted it into (hops, warehoufes, and other p!««5f^
ceifary for their trade.

A fmall diilance e^ward from the Crois ftood -
Conduit, which fcrved to fill the leiFer ones wti «*
ter brought by pipes from Paddington.— This ft*
on the fpot where the old conduit was fituatd, w*^
was founded in 1285, conflrudled of ftonc lined «i!J

<iuer.

}n the year 1246 Cheapfide was an open field,

named Crovfn^lc/9 from an inn with the fign of the j,

crown. At that time, and even for 2cx> years after- lead, and rebuilt in 1479 by Thomas IlanoncoftJ

wards, none of the ftreets .of London were paved ex- ihenfFs. On fome grand occafions, thefe coik^i^

cepting Thames-ftrcet, and from Lu<^te-hdl to Cha- have been made to run with cbuct } as at the corosi'

^ fing-Crofib
Goldihnths Goldfmitbs Hall Hands in Foiler-lane, which opens
Halt. into ^e weil end of Cheapfide. — In this lane alfo is

-St MartinU*^^ Martin's le Grand, xfrhlch. though furrounded by
Jc Grand. ^^ city, was yet fubjedl, near three centuries, to
Wcftminfter-Abbey* A fine jCoUege was built here

tion of Anna BuUen.

On the north fide of Cheapfide ilood thcff^«
of St Thomas of Acm^ founded by Fitz-Thcob^'
Helles, and his wife Agnes, filler to the famous ij^
mas a Becket. The h'olpital was biiilt 20 years ^
the murder of Thomas \ and fuch was hrt rep«^f

X O N! C 2SS I L O N

r' lanAity) dot it was dedicated to him even l)efore he any longer aflbciatcd with their ancient brethren^ ba- I>on<ioQi

=15 canonized, and that in c'anjun<^on with*the Vir- ving obtained a feparate charter, and built themfelves ' « ' '

n Mary herfelf. The whole was granted by king a new hall in the Old Bailey. ^^

ktrnry VIII. to the. company of mercers. It wars Farringdon-ward Within, is diftinguifhed by theStVaul'»

'ilroyed by the great £re in 1666 ; but rebuilt by moil magnificent ProteJlant church in the world, the Oifcbednd*

kc mercers con^ny, who have their hall here.-*— Im- cathedral of St J^aui* The beft authority we have for

mediately to the eail is a narrow ftreet called the Oid the origin of this church, is from Its great reilorer Sir

^e^zary, which took its name from a great fynagogue Chriftopher Wren. His opinion that, there had beea

htch flood here till the Je^ys were expelled the king- a church on this fpot, built by the Chriflians in the

:>m in 1291* After them an order of friars named time of the Romans; was confirmed : when he fearch*

raires dejacca 9 or defienitentiay took 'poStSk>ii of the ed for the foundations for his own deiign, he met

•iragogue j and in 1 305, Robert Fitzwalter, the great with thofc of the original frejhyieriumf or femicircu- .

inner-bearer of the city, requefted that the friars, lar cliancel, of the old church. They confifted only

ig^ht a£Bgn it to him \ the reafon of which probably of Kentifh nibble-ftone, artfully worked, and confoli*

a !^, that it flood near to his houfe, which was fit u- dated with exceedingly hard mortar, in the Roman

ed in the neighbourhood of the prefent Grocers-halL manner, much excelling the fupcrflrudure. He ex«

lie chapel was bought by the. grocers from Fitz* plodes the notion of there having been here a temple

alter in 141 1 for 320 marks. ' of Diana> and the dllcovery of the horns of animab

In Baififhaw or Bafing-haD ward, is Blacinuell or ufed in the fecrifices to tliat goddefs, on which the

^aJketoell hail^ which adjoins to Guildhall, and is the opinion had been founded, no fuch having been dif-

reatefl mart of woollen cloth in the world. It was covered in all liis fearches.

urchafedof King Richard IK by the city; and has ever The firfl church is fuppofed to have beea deftroyedi
nee been ufed as a vTeekly market for broad and nar- in the Diodefiai^ perfecution^ and to have been re-
:>vr woollen cloths^ brought out of the country. For* built in tbe reign of Conflantine. This was agaiii
lerly proclamations were ifFued to compel people to demolifhed by the pagan Saxons ; and reilored, in-
uring their goods into the haU, to prevent deceit io 603, by Sebert, a petty prince, nding in thcfe 'parts, .
he manufaSures, which might be produ6live of dif- under £thelbert king of Kent, the firfl Chriflian
redit in foreign markets, and likewife be the means monarch of the Saxon race ; who, at the inflance ofT
»f defrauding the poor children of ChriU's ho^atal of St Augufline, appointed MeUtus the firfl biihop of
>art of the revenue which arofe from the hallage of London. Erkeiiwald, the foa of king Offa, Tourth
his great magazine. It fuffered the general devafla- in fucceffion from Melitus^ omazneated his cathedraL
ion m 1666 ; but was rebuilt ia 1672, and is now very highly, and improved the revenues with his own<
L fpacious edifice, vdth a» done front adorned with co* patrimony. He was mofl defervedly canonized : for.
umns. the very htter, in which he was carried in his lafl iQ-

Cripplegate*wapd is remarkable for a college, called nefs, continued mtoy centuries to cure fevers by the»

^ion-^hgfy fiounded in 1627, on the fite of ElOng- touch; and the very chips, carried to the fick, reflo-

iofpital (i>) or priory^ by Dr Thomas White vicar of red- them to health i

>t Dunflan's in the Wefl^ for the improvement of When the city of London was deflroyed by fire, in.

he London clergy ; and with aIms4ioufes, under their 1086, this church was buHt; the bifhop Mauritius.

are, for 20 poor perfons,. 10 men and 10 women. In, began to rebuild it^ and laid the foundations, which

he year J 63 1, a charter was procured for incorporating remained tiU its fecond deflruflion, from the famcv

he clergy of Loadon^^by which they were conflituted caufe^ in the lafl century: Notwithflanding Mauri-

ellows of the collega ; and out of the incumbents are tins lived twenty years after he had begun uiis pious»

innually eleded, on Tuefday three weeks after Eafler, wOrk, and bifhop Beauvages enjoyed the fee twenty

I prefident, two deans, and four alfiflants, who are more, yet fuch was the grandeur of the defign, that

10 meet quarte^y^ to hear a Latin fcrmon, and after- it remained unfinifhed. The firfl had the ruins of",

arards be entertained^ dinner in the coUege-hall at the Palatine Tower beflowed on him, as materials f^r '

rhe expence of the foundation. John.Simpfi>n rcdor the building; and Henry L bellowed on Beauvagca

>f St Olaves, who. ft^esintendcd the building, added, port of the ditch belonging to. the Tawer, which,s

It his own expence^for the ufe of the ftudious part of with purchafes made by himfelf, enabled him to in-

hfi London, clergy, a library 120 feet long^ and amply clofe the whole with a wall. The fame moiiarck..

illed with books. granted, . befidest that every fhip which iirought flone

In this ward is a haO which belonged to the com- for the church, fhould be exempted from toll ; he

pAny of barber-furgeons, the profeflions of batber. and. gave hifii alfo all the great fifh taken in his precinfls,..

rurgeon being formerly exercifed by. the. fame perfom except the tongues.; and, .lafily> he- fecnred to him

Lt waa buik by the celebrated Inigo Jones, and the and his fuccefTor the delicious tythes of all .his. venifoa .

apper end it formed out of one (^ tlie towers or. bar- in the county of £&x.

bicans of London wall. The anatomical theatre is The flyle.of the ancient cathedral waa-a jmoft beau-i

lUiptieal, and. very, fmely contrived; This liall is now. tiful Gothic^ dvet thf eail end was an elegant cir-

sa&ed £aricrt HiM; ikt furgeon$,,who diCiained to be cular window ;^alteratioei were made. in the ends o£

the.

(a) This was founded by WilUain Effing mercer in 1329 (on the fite of t decayed nunnery), for the fup*
sort of 1 00 UiAd men. He afterwards changed it into a prioryi and became faimiielf the fiift prior^ who witk)
Mr canoD9-rcgubr were to fuperintcod the. mSerablfc obje^s^

L N

i?.onc2on.

tlic two traniepts, fo that their farm la not dcUverod
down to U8 in tlie ancient plans ; and from the central
tower rofc a lofty and moft giaceful fpire. The dimen-
fions, as taken \\\H 509, wcxe thefe : The lepgth fix
hundred and ninety feet ; the breadth a hundred and
twenty } the height of the roof of the weft part, from
the Door, one hundred and two ; of the caR part, a
hundred and eighty-eight ; of 'the tower, two hund-
red and fixty ; of the fpire, which was made of wood
covered with lead, two hundred and feventy-foiir. The
whole fpace the chuvch occupied was three acre» and
a half, one rood and a half, and fix perches.

We may be aftonilhed at this amazing buUdtngt and
iraturally inquire what fund could fupply money to
fupport fo vaft an expence. But monarchs refigoed
tlieir revenues refulting from the cufloms due for the
materials, which were brought to the adjacent wharfs ;
tliey furnifhed wood from the royal forefts : prelates
^ve up much of their revenues ; and, what was more
than all, by the pious bait of indulgences, and remif-
fions of penance, brought in from the good people of
this realm moft amazing fums. Pope Innocent III.
in 1 25 2, gave a releafe of iixty days penange f the
archbifhop of Cologne gave, a few years before, a re-
laxation of fifty days ; and Boniface, archbilhop of Can-
terbmy, forty days.

The high altar dazzled with gems and gold, the
gifts of its numerous votaries. John king of France,
whenprtfoner in England, firft paying his rcfpe^s
to 8t Erkenwald's fhrine, offered four bafens of
gold : and the gifts at the •bfequies of princes, fo-
reign and BritiH), were of immenfe value. On the
day of the converfion of the tutelar faint, the chari-
ties were prodigious, firfl to the fouls, when an in-
dulgence of forty days pardon was given, verefieni»
ieniUfUjf contritu et cctrfeffis ; and, by order of Hen-*
ry III. fifteen hundred tapers were placed in the
/church, and fifteen thoufand poor people fed in the
<hurch-yard.

The holihefs of this place did not prevent thieves
and profligates of all denominations from llirking w*ithtn
the precindts, and committing, under the favour of the
aight, murders and every fort of crime. Edward I.

C ^s^ ]

L O K

gave the deaa imd canons pennifioB to vai^^
whole wiliiin a wall; and to have gates tole^
every night, to exclude sU diforderiy people. Vj
thefe waUs, on thetior^-^cft fide, wastk:*^
palace. Froiffart teus us, that after theg»£-j
nament in Smithficld^ ^g Edward III c
queen lodged here, on occafion of their DQsdij 1
-—In 1 56 1, the noble fpire was totally bum b.i
ning, and never reflored«

In confequence of the refolutions taken is i$r^
James I. to repair the cathedral, the cekb^iei j
Jones was appointed to the work. But it mm
tempted till the year 1635, when Laud izidzfi
flone, and Inigo the fonrth. That grtst sd
begun with a moft notorious improprietr, |b{
the weft end a portico of the Corinthian or^. 3
tiful indeed, to this ancient gothic pile; asc-
ends of the two tranfept gothic fronts in a e&.I
rible ftylc. The^ great fire made way iFortk;ei
of this magnificent pile in its prefent nobie h
Sir Criftophcr Wren,' an arckite^ worthy of -q
a defign.

It IS built of fine Portland ftone, in form c^ii
On the out fide are two ranges of pUafters, ed
of an hundred and twenty each ; the lower iq
the Corinthian order, and the upper of the cod
The fpaces between the arches of the wnkr\
the architrave of the lower order, are ilkd 1^
great variety of curious enrichments, as aieal i
above. On the north fide is a portico, tk ttl
which is by twelve fteps of black. marble, aod&d
fiipportcd by fix very large columns. Ovrrtkj
is a pedinient, the face of which is engravci n
royal arms, regalia, and other omamenti. i'\
fuuth is a portico, the afcent to which i&bytA
five fteps, and its dome fupported by fix cois:^>
refponding with thofe on the north fide. 1^*'
front is graced with a moft magnificent poiti&l
ported by twelve lofty Corinthian columns :o»5^
are eight columns of the compofite order, v^-i
port a noble pediment, crowned with iti acrots:^
m this pediment is the hiftory of St Panl icor:^
boldly carved ia has retief. The afcent to tb f ^

(e) Before this cathedral was the famous PauPt Crofsf a pulpit formed of wood, mounted f^^
ftone, and covered with lead, in which the moft eminent divinei were appointed to preach v^trj ^^
the forenoon. To this place, the court, the mayor, and aldermen, and principal citizens, xM Kfi
The greateft part of the congregati6n fat in the open air ; the king and his train had covered galiei' <
the better fort of people were dfo protefted from the injury of the weather^ but the far grcato p«^-|
expofed in the open air : for which reafon the preacher went in very had weather to a pbce cal^ '
Shrouds ; a covered fpace on the fide of the chuixrh, to protect the congregation in inclement itiks^ '<
fiderable contributions were raifed among the nobility and citizens, to fupport fuch preachers as were 2^^
often the cafe) called to town from cither of the univerfitics. In particular, the lord mayor andaM^'
dered that every preacher, who came from a diftance, (IiOuld be freely accommodated, during fi^ ^, '^
fwe^t and convenient lodgings, fire, candle, and all neceftarios. And notice was given by the biiiuip^^^
don, to the preacher appointed by him, of the place he was to repair to.

We hear of this being in life as e^ly *« the year 1259. It was ufed, as Mr Pennant obferKS, wt^-"'
the inftru£lion of mankind by the do^ne of the preacher, but for every purpofc poHtieal orecckfisiW'
giving force to oaths, for promulging of Jaws, or rather the royal pleasure, for the emiffion of p^ '
for anathematizing finners, for benedioions, for expofing of penitents (inder cenfure of the churcb, ^^ ^
tions, for the private ends of the ambitious, and for the defaming of thofe who had incnrred tk &b^^'^
crowned heads. .

It was demolifhed in 1643 ^ <^^ of parliament, executed by the wiOii^haadsof Ifim PcB>i*P
fanatical loid mayor of that year^ who died ia the Tower a co^i^ed regkidr.

L O N

r 2J7 1

L O N

I^B^n. i» by a flight of ftcp* of black inarble» extending the the pcrfpeAivc ; and the columns are heavy and clumfy, Lnnd«n-
whole length of the portico ; and over each corner of rather incumbering the profpcA than enriching it, ~ "

the weft front is a beautiful turret. A vaft dome, or
cupola^ rifes in the centre of the building. Twenty
feet above the roof of the ' church is a circular range
of thirty-two columns with niches, placed exactly
Bgainft others within. Thefe are terminated by their
entablature, which fupports a handfome gallery, adorn-
ed with a ftbne ballufbade. Above the columns laft
mentioned is a range of pilafters, with windows be-
tween them : and from the entablature of thefe, the
diameter of the dome gradually decreafes. On the
fummit of the dome is an elegant balcony, from the

St Paul's occupies an area of fix aci|p, and is
railed all round with iron baluftrades, each about
&v€ feet and an half high, fixed on a dwarf wall of
hewn ftone. In the weft end of this area is a marble
flatue of Queen Anne, holding a fceptre in one hand,
and a globe in the other, furrounded with four emble-
matical figures reprefcnting Great Britain, France*
Ireland, and America.

Befides very large contributions for carrying on this
edifice, the parliament granted a duty on fea-coal^
which, at a medium, produced 5000 1. a -year ; and

centre of which runs a beautiful lanthorn, adorned the whole expence of the building is faid to have

with Corinthian columns. The whole is crowned
with a copper ball, fupporting a crofs, both finely gilt.
Within, the cupola ftands on eight ftupendous pillars,
curioufly adorned : the roof of the choir is fupported
by fix pillars, and that .of the church by two ranges,
-confifting of twenty more. The roof of the church

amounted to 736,752 1. 2 8. 3 d.

On the eafl fide of the cathedral is Si PauPs Schoof^
founded in 1509 by Dr John Collet dean of this
church, who endowed it for a principal-mailer, an un«
der-mafler, a chaplain, and 153 fcholars.

In Warwick-lane, in the fame ward, flands the Co/- Qq\^^ ^e
and choir is adorned with arches and Tpacious periphe- lege of Phy/icidm^ ereftcd in 1682 by Sir Chriflopher phyfidans.
ries of enrichments, admirably carved in ilone. Quite Wren. It is built of brick, and has a fpacious ftone
''*'*' '"' ' "' ' '*" frontifpiece. Near the fouth extremity of the Old

Bailey, on the eaft fide, is the hall of the Company of
Surgeons, with a theatre for difTeftion.

Adjoining to Chrift- church in Newgate-ftreet is
Chrijes^Hofpitaly which, before the difTolution of mo- H^Jf'^i
nafteries by Henry VIII. way a houfe of grey- friars.

round the iniide of the cupola, there is a whifpering
iron balcony, or gallery, the top of which is richly
painted by Sir James Thornhill.

The firft ftone of this fuperb edifice was laid on
June 21, 1675 ; and the building was completed in
1710 ; but the whole decorations were not finifhedtill

80
Chrift'f

1723. It was a moft lingular circumftance, that, not- The hofpital was foundid by King Edward VI. for

withftanding it was 35 years in building, it was begun fupporting and educating the fatherlefs children of

and iinilhed by one archite6l, and under one prelate poor freemen of this city; of whom 1000 of both

Kenry Compton bifhop of London. The church of fexes are generally maintained in the houfe or out at

St Peter's was 135 years in building, in the reigns of nurfe, and are likewife cloathed and educated. In

19 popes, and went through the hands of twelve archi- 1^673, a mathematical fchool was founded here by

tefis. It is not, as often miftaken, built after the mo-
del of that famous temple : it is the entire conception
of our great countryman , and has been preferred in
fome refpefis, by a judicious writer, to even the Ro-
man Bafilica. Its dimenfions are lefs. The compa-
rative view is griven in the Parentalia, and copied in
London and its Environs. The height of St Peter's,

Charles II. endowed with L. 320 a-year ; and a wri-
ting'fchool was added in 1694 by Sir John Moor, an
alderman of the city. After the boys have been feven
or eight years on the foundation, fome are fent to the
univerfity and others to fea ; while the reft, at a pro-
per age, are put apprentices to trades at the charge of
the hofpital. At firft their habit was a^ruITet cotton^

to the lop of the crofs, is 437 feet and an half; that but was foon after changed for blue, wKjch has ever
of St Paul's 540 feet ; fo that, from its fituation, ii is fince continued to be their colour; and on this account

lofty enough to be feen from the fea. The length
of the firft is 7 29 feet ; of the latter, 500. The great-
eft breadth of St Peter's is 364 ; of St PauPs, 180.
In' the reigns of James I. and Charles I. the body

the foundation is frequently called the hhie<oat ho/pita!*
The affairs of this charity are managed by a prefident
and about 3:^0 governors, befides the lord-mayor and
aldermen. The fabric, which is partly Gothic and

of this cathedral was the common refort of the poll- partly modern, was much damaged by the fire of 1666,

ticians, the news-mongers, and idle in general. It but was foon repaired, and has been fince increafed

was called PauPs wallf and is mentioned in the old with feveral additions. The principal buildings, which

plays and other books of the times. form the four fides of an area, have a piazza round

Notwithftanding the magnificence of this noble pile, them with Gothic arches, and the walls are fupported

however, it is remarked to have many defers. Its by abutments. The front is more modern, and has

fituation' is fuch, that it cannot be viewed at a diftance. Doric pilafters fupporfed on pedeftals. '

Thc^divifion of the porticos, and the whole ftrufture
into two ftories on the outfide, certainly indicate a like
divifion within, which is acknowledged to be a fault.
The dome, it has alfo been obferved, bears too great a
proportion to the reft of the pile, and ought to have
been raifed exa6Uy in the centre of the building ; be-

In Caftle-Baynard ward is a large ftrufture called ,

DoSon^Commons, It confifts of feveral handfome paved Cotomoiii-
courts, in which the judges of the court of admiralty,
thofe of the court of delegates, of the court of arches,
and the prerogative court, with the doAors that plead
caufes, and the proi^ors of the place, all live in. a col-

fides that, there ought to have been two fteeples at the legiate way ; and from commoning together, as in
eaft end, to correfpond with thofe at the weft. On other college^, the name of Doctors-Commons is de-
entering this church, we infbmtly perceive an obvious rived. Here courts are kept for the trial of civil and
deficiency, not only of elevation but length, to afiift ecclefiaftical caufes under the archbifhop of Canterbury
VouX.PsrtL Kk and

L O H

C 258 ]

L O N

JLondon. and the bifhop of London. The collefi^e has an excel«
lent library, every bilhop at his conlecration giving

Co!)(rgc of
HcrJds.

L. 20 orJL. 50 towards purchafi ng books for it.
Bo<

Near Bo£lors-Commons, on St Bennet's Hill, is the
College of Heralds^ who were incorporated by King
Richard III. Befides the chief omcer, who is the
earUmarfhal of England, here are three kings at arms,
v/k. Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy, with fix heralds,
four purrui>-ant6, and eight prodlors. Garter attends
the inftalments of knights of that order, carries the
garter to foreign princes, regulates the ceremonies at
coronations, and the funeral of the royal family atid
nobility : Clarencieux direfts the funeral ceremo*
nies of thofe under the dcgreCof peers fouth of Trent;
and Norroy performs the like office for thofe north of - *

Tirnt. This building was originaUy the houfe of the ^y^^h Henrv VIlI. refouaded it, and

earl of Derby. It is a fpacious quadrangle, built of with 500 mcrks a year, oa condition that tht cc-
brick, and has convenient apartments. Here are kept P^°^^ P^^ >^^ ^*^« ^^^ anttually for the rdicf«i

IV^ Smkbfield* In this ward it aft aro toci
three acres of ground, called in old record iv
Pond or Horfe^Pool^ it having becft fomxn^rsn
place for horfea. It was in ancient timet tbc cu
place of execution ; and at the fouth-wtftoore
Wa9 a gallows called the Ehns^ frofti a minbcai
trees that grew in the neighbourhood. It -n-
wife the fcene of public jufts akad toomamcBU, ]
been a marketplace for cattle above 500 yem.

On the fouth-fide oi this area* and
ChrjiVs hofpital, is St Bartholmmw'i Hoffitd.
originally founded foon after tlie aoceliooof
by Habere the king's jefter* aa an iv&mank
priory of St Bartholomew the Great, which tka
near the fpot* But upon the diffolutloD of :

«3

Bridewell.

84
Blackfriars

Bridge.

records of the coats of arms of all the families and
names in England, with an account when they were
granted, and on what occafion.

In Farringdon-ward Without is a large building;
called Bridewelly from a ipring formerly known by the
name of St Bridget's or St Bride VWcIL It was ori-
ginally a royJ palace, and occupied aU the ground
from Fleet-ditch on the eafl to Water-lane on the weft.
That part of it now called SaliJbury<owrt was given to
the bifhops of Salifbury for their town-i«(idence ; and
the eaft part, which was rebuilt by King Henry VIII.
is the prefent Bridewell. It was granted to the city
by Edward VI. as an hofpital; and he endowed it for
the lodging of poor travellers, and for the corre£lion
of vagabonds, flrumpets^ and idle perfons, as well aa
for finding them work. In one part of the building
20 artificers have houfes; and about 150 boys, di-
ftinguifhed by white hats and blue doublets, are put
apprentices to glovers, flax dreffers, weavers, &c. and
when they have ferved their time are intitled to the
freedom of the city, with Lm i o towards carrying on
their refpe£live trades. ^Ilie other part of Bridewell
is a receptacle for diforderly perfons, who are kept at
beating hemp and other hard labour.

Near Bridewell is St Bride's Churchy a (lately fabric
III feet long, 57 broad, and 41 high, with a beautiful
fpire 234 feet in altitude, and has a ring of 12 bells
in its tower.

Oppoiite to Fleet-ditch, over this part of the river,
ftands Blackfriars Bridge; a moft elegant fbru6lure
built after the defign of Mr Robert Mylne. The fi*
tuation of the ground on the two Ihores obliged the
architeA to employ elliptical arches ; which^ however,
have a very fine effe6t. The number of arches is nine ;
of which the (rentre one is 100 feet wide, llie whole
length is 995 feet : the breadth of the carriagt-way is
28 feet, and that of the two foot- ways 7 each. Over

lame and inErm patients. The endowmcrj af -.
charity have fince been fo much enlar^ dk:
receives the diftreifed of all denominatioos. k :
a beautiful frontifpiece was ere^led towards Si
adorned with pilafters, entablature, and a pdictc
the Ionic order, with a fiatue of King Henrr V.
flanding in a niche in full proportioa, aod ihoTe:
cripples on the top of the pediment over it. h -
a plan was formed for rebuilding the reft of lV>
pital, in confequence of which a ttagniiiccnt (.
has been ereded.

Among many other privileges granted by He-
to the prior and canons of the monailery of S::
tholomew the Great, and to the poor of the iobx-
was that of keeping a fair in Smithfield od 6: j
day, and morrow, of St Bartholomew. Thi^-J
called Bartholomew-fair^ has been held anniuli r 1
iince; and by the indulgence of the magtib:^ '
London, to whom the privilege of keeping it diva ■
upon the difTolution of the priory, it ufed to cast,
a fortnight. A great number of bojths »•» ff"^J
in it by the a£lors of the theatres, for the tA^-
of dramatic performances of various kinds; tndi:*
came at length a fcene of fo much licentioofiKii i;
riot, that Sir John Barnard when lord-mayor of L
don reduced the time of the ialt to its origioai h
tion of three days. This laudable eiampk hu^
followed ever fince ; and the magiilrates bare ^■
prohibited all public exhibitions which had been :
merly accompanied with fo much difordcr.

In a ftreet in this ward, called the OUBdi^"^^
hall named Jujlue^jall^ at the S^ffum's-houfe, wi»^
court is held eight times a year by the iin^'f ^
miiiion of dyer and terminer for the trial of criorv
for offences committed within the city of Loo^^^
county of Middlcfex. The judges of this coar*'''
the lord-mayor, thofe of the aldermen that ba« fe^*

each pier is areccfs; an apology for the beautiful that ofhce, and the recorder, who arc attcsdcdfir-

(heriffs and by one or more of the national judgw- ,
In this ftrcct is alfo the great criminal prison, t'^',
built in a much more convenient fitiiatioa> aQ^^'
more enlarged plan than the former prifoa, ^
Newgate f by which name it is iUii diiliag*^^'
Here the mifortunate debtor wiU no long" ^^
noyed by the dreadful rattle of chains, or hj ti^^^
horrid founds iiTuing from the lips of thofc '^^^
beings who fct defiwicc to aH laws divific ifli ^*^'
6

Ionic pillars which fupport them, and which have a
mofl beautiful efFeft from the river. This bridge was
begun in 1760; and finifhed in 1768, at the expence
of L. 152,840, to be difcharged by a toll upon the paf-
fengers. It is fituated almoll at an equal diftance be-
tween thofe of Wellminfter and London, commands a
view of the .Thames from the latter to Whitehall, and
difcovers the majefty o£ St Paul's in a very ^ftriking
t^anner.

L M E 359 T ION

liere alfo tHc offender, whofe crime la not capital, account of that ;mpUnt grudge, he was oommanded l^vH^^n*

Y enjoy all the benefits of a free open air, not to quit tdwn till farther orders. In confequence, — v— -*

'n this ward Is like wife a prifon called tlie Fleet' he lodged five or fix years in this gateway, which he

o^> from a fmall river named the Fleet which for- rebuilt ; and to pacify hia eniinencc, adorned- the front

rly run by it : this building is large, and reckoned with the cardinal's cap, badges, cognifance, and other

bell in the city for good rooms and other conve- devices of this butcher'^ fon ; fo low wpre the great

noes. It has the benefit of a lag^e yard, which is nien obhged to ftoop to that meteor of the times !

lofed with a very high wall. This prifon is as an* Each temple has a good library, adorned with paint-

nt as 'the reign of Richard L and belongs to the uigs and well fumiihed with books. An aflcrably,

irt of chancery, &c, caDcd ^ parliament f in which the affairs of the fociety

In Chancery-lane, in this ward, is an office confift- of Uic Inner-Temple are managed, is held there every

* of a houfe and chapel, called the office and chapel term. Both Temples have one church, firft founded

the Rolls f from bemg the great repofitory of the in u 8^ by the Knights-Templars; but the prefcnt

.dem public rolls and records of the kingdom. This edifice is fuppoied to have been built in 1420. It is

Idi&g was originally the houfe of an eminent Jew; fupportcd by neat (lender pillars of SuiTex marble, and

: being forfeited to the crown. King Henry III. in is one of the moil beautiful Gothic fbni(fturcs in Eng-

: year 12^3 converted it into an hofpital for the land. In this church are many monuments, particu^

eption and accommodation of Jewifli and other pro- larly of nine Knights-Templars cut in marble in full

^^C8, In 1577, Edward III. granted this hofpital proportion, fomc of them fevenjeet and a half long j'

1 its chapel to Wilb'am BurfUU mafter of the rolls, fi^ sire crofs-legged, and therefore fuppofed to have

' whofe fucceflbrs in that office it has ever fince be- heen engaged in the crufadcs. The miniflcr of this .

iged. Round this office there is a fmaU diftrid church, who is ufually called the maflcr of the Temple^

hlifting of about 2co houfes, called xkit Liberty of " appointed by the benchers or fenior members of both

Rolls y over which the magiilrates of X«ondon have focieties, and prefented by a patent from the crown.

'' authority, it being under the government of the Shakefpeare (whether from tradition or hillory) makes

ifter of the rolls. the Temple garden the ^lace in which the badge of the

In this ifvard are fevcral Inns of court and chancery, white and red rofe origmated; the diitin6tive badge of

'rticularly the Inner and Middle-Temple, SearjeantV the houfes of York and Lancafter, under which the

n, CliffordVInn, BarnardVInn, StaplcsJnn, and refpeftive partiaans of each arranged themfelvcs in the

irnivalVInn. fatal quarrel which caufed fuch torrents of Englifli

The Temple received its name from being originally hlood to flow,
unded by the Knight's-Templars, who Fettled here Near the Temple-bar is the Dtvd Tavern^ fo called

1 185. It was at firft called the New Temple^ to ^rom its fign of St.Dunftan feizing the evil fpirit by

ftinguifti it from the former houfc of the Knight's- ^he nofe with a pair of hojt tongs. Ben Jonfon has

emplars, which flood in Holborn near Chancery- immortalized it by his Leges Convhia/esy which he

le. wrote for the regulation of a club of wits held here in

The original building was divided into three parte ; a room he dedicated to Apollo ; over thie chimney-

e Inner, the Middle, and the Outer Temple. The PJ^ce of which they are prefervcd. The Uvcm wasfn

iner and the Outer Temple were fo called, becaufe his days kept by Simon Wadloej whom, in a copy of

»e was within and the other was without the Bar ; verfes over the door of the Apollo, he dignified with

»d the Middle derived its flame from being fituaud the title of King of Skinkers.

tween them. Upon the diflblution of the order of Serjeant* s-Inn is a (mail inn in Chancery-lane, where '9*

nights-Templars, the New Temple devolved to the the judges and ferjeants liavc chambers, but not houfes, ^^?f ' '"**•

nights-Hofpitallen of St John of Jerufalem, who *« ^^^y had in another imi of this name in Fleet-ftreet, ^ '°* '

;<^anted a.leafe of it to the Undents of the conunon which they abandoned in 1730; but in ^ch of them

: w, and converted that part of it called Inner and ^^^^ i« a hall and a chapel. Clifford* s^Inn is an inn of

liddle Temple into two inns of court for the fludy chancery belonging to the Inner-Temple. ]X was ori-

ad pradice of the common law. The Outer Temple g*°^y a houfie granted by Edward II. to the family

ccame a houfe for the carl of Eflejt. <^f the Cliffords, from which it derived its name ; but

, The buildings of the Temple elcaped the fii^ in ^^ afterwards let upon Jeafe to the ftudcnts of the

,(i66i but were mofl of them deftxoyed by fubfequent ^w» ^d in the reign of £dw«rd IIL foki to thf mem-

res, and have fince been rebuilt. The two Temples hers of this fx>ci€ty. Bernards s^lmn is likewife an inn

re each divided into feveral courts, and have pkafant ^^ Chancery belonging to Cray's-Inn. It ftands in

ardene on th^ banks of the Thames. They arc ap- Holborn, and was the houfe of John Mackworth dean

ropriated to diftinft focieties, and have feparate halls, ®^ Lincoln, who gave it to the profefiors of the law.

/here tb^ members dine in common during term-time* Sta^**-lnn belongs aUo to GrayVInn, and is ikuated

The Inner^Temple hall is faid to have been built in *° Holborn. It was once a ball for the merchants of

be rci^n of Edward III. and the Middle-Temple hall, fhc ftapk for wool, whence it derives its name ; b«t

yhich IS a magnificent edifice, was rebuilt in 157^ in »* was purphafed by the benchers of Gray's-Inn, and

orm of a coTlege-halL The Middle-Temple gate, has been an inn of chancery fince the year 1415.

Mr Pennant informs us, was eredked by Sir Amias Fumival's-Inn is an inn of chancery belonging to Lin-
?owlet on a finguhrr occafion. It fcems th^t Sir A-* cokVInn, and was once the houfe of tne family of

nias, about tlie year 1501, thought fit to put Cardi- the Furnivals, by whom it was let out to the profef-

lal Wolfcy, then parfon of Lymington, into the flocks, f^rs of the law. It is a large old building, with a hall

ta 1 515, being fent for to London by the cardinal on and a pleafent garden.

Kk2 la

JkorKlnn/

Bethlrhrm

Hoi] ital.

L O N [ a6o 1 L O N

In Colman-ftreet ward, on the fouth-fide of a large pendent of the city of London : but, la coc£crt I
fqiiarc called Afo0/^/e£r, Hands i9r/A^^fm-^0|^//a/, found- of the inconveniences anfingr from the efapc^-J

ed in 1675 by the lord-mayor and citizens of London
for the reception and cure of poor lunatics. It is a
noble edifice, built with brick and ftone, and adorned
with pilaiiers, entablatures, and fculpture ; particularly
with the figures of two lunatics over the grand gate,

lefadors from the great capital into this pbce
in 1327 granted by Edward III. to the ciiy ojv
ment of L. 10 annually. It ^vas then calkd th: i
of Southwark ; it was afterwards ilyled the L:' -.
Southwark, and the mayor and commonalty ofl

which are well executed. This building is 940 feet , don appointed the baililF. This ^wcr, hoTs.-vr

long and 40 broad, exdufive of two wings of a later

eredion, intended for the reception of fuch lunatics as

are deemed incurable. This hofpital contains a great

number of convenient cells or apartments, where the

patients are maintained iind receive all medical affift-

ancc without any other expence to their friends than

that of bedding. The flrudure is divided into two

ftories, through each of which runs a long gallery from

one end of the boufe to the other. On the fouth fide

are the cells, and on the north the windows that give

light to the galleries, which are divided in the middle

by haodfome iron-gates, to keep the men and women

iieparate. I'his hofpital being united to that of Bride- greater part of a fourth parifh. For the cityd

well, both are managed by the fame prefident, gover- the lord'mayor by his fie ward holds a court ofn

nors, treafurer, clerk, phyfician, furgeon, and apothe- every Monday at the feffions-houfe on St Marp

being fufficient to remedy the evil, a mort ic -
connexion was thought neceflary ; and in tkf r;\
Edward VI. on a valuable con federation piid t -
crown, it was formed into a 26th ward, by tl.z-..
Brid^i'lVard JVilhout ; with a rcfcnration cf . -^
privileges enjoyed there by the archbifhop of C*r-
bury and fome other ecclefiallics. In confeqcc:/
this, it was fubjeded to the lord-mayor of L. :
with the ileward and baiUff. But Southwark .•
divided into two parts, this is to be underftiwd i:
divifioff called the Borough Liberty^ whicii c<^
three of the parilhes belonging to the town,

94
8t LakeV

Hofpital.

Dififrent
Mvketf.

cary ; but each has a ileward and inferior officers pecu-
liar to itfelf

Oppofite to Bethlehem-hofpital flood that of St
Luke^ a long plain building, till of bte appropiated to
the fame purpof<:s, but wholly independent of the for-
mer. It was founded on the humane confideration
that Bethlehem was incapable of receiving all the mi-
ferable objedls which were offered. Of late years the
patients were removedibfrom the old hofpital to a new
one creded under the fame name in Old-flreet, on the
plan of the former, extending in front 393 feet. The
old hofpital is now pulled down, and replaced by a
handfome row of houfes. Uiicured patients may be
taken in again, by a very liberal regulation, on the
payment of ik\t. fhiUings a week : fo that their friends
may, if they choofe, try a fecond time the force of me-
dicine on their unhappy relations or acquaintances.

Befides the three markets already mentioned at

Hill in this borough for all debts, damages, aad
pafTes, within the limits of his jurifdi£lion. — ^Thc . .
divifion is called the 67/V/i, or the Mofior ofS-^:*^:
and is fubdivided into the Great Liberty, the G..
hsdl, and the King's Manor \ for each of wfalcb :.'.
vifions a court-leet* is held, where the conllabic*,.
conners, and flcHi-taflers, are chofen, and other:.
nefs of this kind tranfadled. A co}}Tt'houk, a.
Union'Hallf has lately been buDt in the nc^r
called Umon-jlreet^ which leads in a dircd liat 6"
the high-ftrcet in the Borough to Great Surr)-^
Blackfriars-road. The Clink liberty is under tbt
rifdidion of the biihop of Winchcfter, who, boii
court-leet, keeps here a court of record on the £**
fide near St Saviour's church by his fteward os k-
for pleas of debt, damages, and trefpafies. l^^'
leets are alfo kept at Lambeth, Bcrmondfey, asd ^
therhithe, three fmall diftrids adjoining to the Bore.

Smithfield iiorcattle and hay, at Leadenhall for butcher's — ^There is a counter for the imprifonment of*t

meat„ wool, hides, and Colcheller baize, and at Bil-
lingfgate for fifh ; there are in this city the following
other markets, which are all very confiderable, nnx.
Honey-lane, Newgate, and Fleet-market, chiefly for
flefh, though with feparate divifion s for fifh, butter,
eggs, poultry, herbs, and fruft ; and the Three-Cranes
market, for apples and other fruit. The pnncipal corn-
market is held in a neat exchange fituated in Mark-
lane, an4 that for flour at Queenhithe. In Thames-
fbeet, near BiUingfgate, there is an exchange for deal-
ers in coals and mafters of veflels in that trade to tran-
fa£l their bufinefs.

ders in the bailiwick, and another for the Ciiflii^
to which may be added the Surry workhoiife tcr«
grants. Beiides thcfe, there is the Marfhalfca-jwi;
which is the county-gaol for felons, and the adnxJ-'^
gaol for pirates ^g); in which is a court fii^ cri--
for trials of caules between the king's domeflics <»" ^•
nial fervants, of which the knight-marfhal is prdJ*^
arxl his fteward judge, to whom belong four couufej-
and fix attorneys ; and the court is held every Fn^!
by him or hia deputy, for debt, damages, aod n^*
pafies, in caufes for 1 o miles round Whitehall, ei«; •
ing London. — In 'this quarter is alfo the King'^'^

II. The Borough of Sou^HWAitK. It was caUed by • prifon, the rules of which are above two milf*"'^'

.^e Saxons Suth^ or the ^* South work," in refpe^
to feme fort or fortification bearing that afpedl from
London. It was alfo called the Borough^ or Burg^
probably from, the fame reafon. It was long inde-

cuit, and comprife the grreatefl part of St Gea*^^

Fields. Here was committed Henry prince ^^"^^

afterwards King Henry V. by the fpiritcd andlw««

judge Gafcoigne, for llriking or infultinghimon^^

(g) In 1377 this prifon was broke open by a mob of failors, who murdered a gentleman confined id ^
killing one of their comrades, and who had been pardoned by the court. It was again broke open by •
Tyler and his followers in 1381. It efcaped in the infamous riots of 1780; while the KingVBcnch.
Borough-prifooi and the CUiok-prifon, were nearly at the fame inflant facrificed to their fury.

L O N

r 4<fi 1

liOndan. bench. In this prifon the aUowanee is fomewhat bet-
ter than that of the commons prifons ; for which rea-
fon, many debtors remove themfeives hither by habeas
corpus* It is properly a place of confinement in all
cafes triable in the King s-bench court. — The firll

an amufement for pcrfons of the firft rank ; our great, I^en^^JJ*
if not good, Elizabeth caufed the French ambaffadors ^
to be carried to this theatre, to divert them with thcfc
bloody fpedlacles.

Not hrfroiti thefc fcencs of cruel paftime was the ^pi^^ 3^^^^^

time that Southwark is mentioned in hidory is on oc- bordello or Steivs^ permitted and openly licenfed by
cafion of Earl Goodwin's failing up the river to at-' government, nnder certain laws or regulations. They

PariH?

es.

tack the royal navy of 50 (hips lying before the palace
of Weilminftcr : this was in 1052, when we are told
he went ad Suthweorccy and flayed there till the re-
turn of the tide.

Southwark confids of the parifhes of St Olavc,
St Saviour, ^t George, and St Thomas; the pari fh of
Chriil-church, though contiguous to the borough, is in
the county of Surry.

The principal church in Southwark is that of St
Saviour^ which was formerly a priory of regular ca-
nons. Being dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and fl-
tuated near the bank of the Thames, it was called
St Mary Over Ree^ or Overy^ by which appellation it is
commonly known. This church is built in the man-
ner of a cathedral, with three aiHes from eafl to wefl,
and a crofs aifle. It is reckoned the largefl parifh-
church in England, the three aifles iirit mentioned
meafuring 269 feet in length, and the crofs aifle 109
feet. The height within is 47 feet, and it has a tower
with four fpires 150 fvct high.

Not far from St George's church ilood the magni-
ficent palace of Charles Brandon duke of Suffolk, the
dcferved favourite of Henry VIII. After his death, in
1545, it came into the king s hands, who eflablifhed

were farmed out. Evei> a lord-mayor did not difdain
to own them ; but rented them to the Froeiy that is
** the baAvds,'* of Flanders. Among other fingular
regulation , no flewholder was to admit married wo-
men ; nor were they to keep open their houfes on
Sundays; nor were they to admit any women who had
on them the perilous infirmity of burning. TheTe in-
famous houfes were very properly fuppreffed in the
reign of Henry VIII.

The bifhop of Winchefler had formerly a palace •
here with a park (the fame that is now called South'
wari'-fari)f w^hich is fince c^verted into warehoufes
and tenements, held by leafe from the biihops of that
fee.

Befides feveral altns-houfea, there are here 1^/ ^Thoptas^s m
and Guy*s hofpUalsj two of the nobleil endowments in fiT?*?"^''^
England. The former was firft ere Aed in 1215 by ^'P*^***
Peter de Rupibus bifhop of Winchefler, who endowed
it with land to tlie amount of L. 343 a year ; from
which time it was held of the abbots of Bermondfey^.
one of whom in 1428 granted aright to the mafler of
the hofpital to hold all the lands it was then in poffef-
fion of belonging to the faid abbot and convent, the
whole revenue of which did. not exceed L. 266 : 17 : 6

here a royal mint. It at that time was osM^d South- P^^ annum* In the year 1551, Jifter the citizens of

nvark Placty and in great meafure prcfcrved its dig- London had. purchafed of Edward VI. the n^anor of

nity. Edward VI. once dined in it. His fiflcr and Southwark and its appurtenances, pf which this hof-

fucceffor prefented it to Heath archbi/hop of York, pi^ was a part, they expended L. i J 00 in repairing

as -an iun or refidence for him and his fucceffors when- ^^^ enlarging the edifice, and immediately received

ever they repaired to London. As to the mint, it ij^to it 260 patients; upon which the king in 1553

became a fanduary for infolvent debtors ; at length incorporated this hofpital with thofe of Chrift-church

becoming the pefl of the neighbourhood, by giving 8"^ Bridewell in the city of London. The building

(hclter to villains of every fpecies that awakened the being much, decayed, three beautiful fquares adorned

100
Ancient
places of
▼erfioii.

attention of parliament ; which, by the flatutcs 8 and
9 Will. Ill, 9 George 1. and 1 1 George I. entirely
took away its abuHve privileges.

In the parifh of Chrill-church, near the water on
Bankfide, flood Paris^gardetiy one of the. ancient play-

with colon^des were ere£led by voluntary fubfcription
in 1693, to which in 1732 the governors adde4 a mag-
nificent building, confiiting of feveral wards with pro-
per offices. The annual difburfements of this hofpital
have for many years amounted to L. 8000. The houfc-
^lsMs of di* j^^guf^g of our metropolis. Ben Jonfon is reproached ** divided into 19 wards, and is faid to contain 474
by one Decker, an envious critic, with his ill fuccefs. beds.

on the flage, and in particular with having performed Adjoining to St Thomases iksLnds Guy^s hojpitalf per- 113
the part of Zuliman at Paris-garden.. It feems to haps the mofi extenfive charitable foundation that ever pf^y'**^^
have been much frequented on Sundays. This pro- was eflablifhed by one man in private life. The foun- ^'
fanation (Mr Pennant obfervea) was at length fully der of this hofpitil was Thomas Guy, a bookleller in
punifhed by the dire accident which befel the fpe6la^ Lombard-llreet, London, who lived to fee the edifice
tors in 1582, when the fcaffolding fuddenly fell, and roofed in; and at his death, in 1724, left L, 238,2929
multitudes of people were killed or miferably maimed, i^s- including the expence of the building, to finifh
The omen feems to have been accepted ; for in the ^^^ endow it. . This hofpital confiils of two capacious
next century the manor of Paris-garden was ere^ied fquares, containing 12 wards and 43 5 beds. It was
into a parifh, and a church founded under the name of incorporated by charter from parliament, and the firft
Chrifl's. governors were appointed in 1725.

Beyond this place of amufement were the Bear-gar- In St George's Fields, weflward of the King's-bench
den and place for baiting of bulls, the Brlti/h c'trci : prifon, is the ii/j|^</fl/«i i^o^i/fl/ for the reception of pc-
** Herein (fays Stow) were kept bearcs, bulls,. and nitent proflitutes ; a little farther is fituated the Afy-
other beafls to be bay ted; as alfo maftives in feveral ken- lum for orphan girls ; and not far diflant is the Weft-
ncls nourifhed to bayt them. Thcfe beares and other minflcr Lying-in hofpital : Inftitution{-, of which the
beafls arc there kept iy plots of ground fcaffolded following feeling and animated account is given by^
about fox the beholders to ftand fafe." This was then Mr Pennant.

^ «« The

'LMIuOD*

114

The Afy.
lum.

T15
The Maj^-
AzXtn Ho-
rfpiuL

tl6

Xiofpital.

X N r 46*

"** The yf/ylum 13 an inftitution of a moft hcayenly
nature, calculated to favc from perdition of foul afid
body tht bdghtcr part of the creation; fuch on whom
Providence hath beftowed angelic faces and elegant
forms, defigned as bleilings to mankind, but too often
debafed to the vileli ufes. The hazard that thefe in*
nocents conftantly are liable to from a thoufand temp-
tat ion% from poverty, from deatlh of parentB, from the
diabolical procurefs, and often from the ftupendous
wickednefs of parents themfelves, who have been kno^n
to fell their beauteous girk for the purpofe of profti-
tution, induced a worthy band to round in the year
175S the Afylum or Houfe of Refuge. Long may
it flourifli, and eternal be the reward ofthofeinto
"whofe minds fo amiable a conception entered!

" To afford means of falvation to thofe unhappy

L O N

recommrnd. And of both defcriptions upwards of X^ndon 1
4000 have experienced its falutary effeft/' ^

St George^s Fields are now almoft covered with fi^
new-ere6^ed buildings, from the ditch at the end of St Gcorgc^r
Great Surry-ftrect, or Burrow's building^, to the Filh- fi«ld»i
mongers almOioufes^ in one diredtion ; and from the
Marfhalfea-prifon to the Dog and Duck, in the other
dire^ion ; with fereral irregular indentions in its cir-
cumference : And where the principal roads meet an
obelifk has been erefled, pointing out the diftance ft
ilands-from different parts of London> Wefbrninfler^
and Blackfriars bridges. Among the buildings which
ferve to embellifh and improve this entrance to Lon-
don, Chatham fquare^nd Bridgeilreet Blackfriars may-
be particularly fpecified

At Lam&eU}, the archbifhops of Canterbury have uy

beings who had the ill fortune to lofe the benefits of had a palace. According to Mr Pennant, it was in Lambeth

this divine institution, the Magdalen HofpUal was in-
iflituted foi^ the reception of the penitent proftitutes.
To fave from vice, is one great merit. To reclaim
and reftore to "the dignity of honeit rank in life, is
'Certainly not lefs meritorious. The joy at the return
•of one finner to repentance is efteemcd by the higheft
authority worthy of the heavenly hoft. That ecftafy,
I trufl, this inflltution has often occafioned. Since its
foundation in the fame year with the former, to De-
ttcmber 25th, 1786, not fewer than 2471 have been
admitted. Of thefe (it is not to be wondered that
long and evil habits are often incurable) 300 have been
difcharged, uneafy under conflraint 5 45 proved luna-
tics, and afflicted with incurable fits ; 60 have died ;
52 never returned from hofpitals they were fent to;
338 difcharged for fault j and irregularities. How to
be dreaded is the entrance int« t^e bounds of vice,
fince the retreat from its paths is fo difficult! Finally,
1608 prodigals have been returned to their rejoicing
parents ; or placed in reputable fervices, or to honelt
trades, banes to idlenefs and fecurities againft a future
relapfe." — Into this charity, every woman who has been
feduced (and is not pregnant or difeafed), whether re-
commended or not, may apply for admiflion to the
committee, who meet for that purpofe on the firft
Tifefday in every month.

Akin to thofe charities is that of tlie Lytng4n Ho-^
fpital : which is not intended merely for the reception
of " the honeft matron who can depofit her burden
with the confcioufhefs of lawful love ; but alfo for
the unhappy wretches whom fome villain in the un-
^arded moment has feduced, and then left a prey
to defertion of friends, to poverty, want, and g^ilt.
Leil fuch • may be driven to defpair by fuch cbmpli-
cated mifery, and be tempted to deftroy themfelves
and murder their infants,' here ^"as founded in 1765
this humane preventative the Weflmrnfter New Lying-
in Hofpital, in which every aiiiftance and accommo-
dation requifite in fuch fituations are provided in the
mofl attentive and liberal manner. To obviate all ob-
jedlion to its being an encouragement to vice, no one is
taken in a fccond time : but this mofl excellent charity
is open to the worthy diflrclTed matron as often as nccef-
fity requires. None are rejc^ed who have friends to

the earlier times a manor, poffibly a royal one ; for Pala«i
the great Hardiknut died here in 1042, in the midft
of the joUity of a wedding dinner j and here, without
any formality, the ufurper Harold is faid to have
fnatched the crown and placed it on his own head.
At that period it was part of the eftate of Goda, vrife
to Walter Earl of Mantes, and Euftace Earl of Bou-
logtve ; who prefented it to the church of Rochefler,
but rcferved to herfelf the patronage of the church.
It became in 1197 the property of the fee of Can-
terbury, by exchange tranfa6led between Gknville
Bifhop of Rochefter, and the Archbifhop Hubert
Waker. The building was improved by Langton
the fucceffor of Walter ; but it vi^s afterwards neglcd-
ed and became ruinous. ** No pious zeal (fays Mr Pen-
nant) reflorcd the place, but the madnefs of prieftty
pride: Boniface, a wrathful and turbulent primate,
elected in 1 244, took it into his head to become a vi-
fitor of the priory of St Bartholomew, to which he
had no right. The monks met him with reverential
refpedl, but affured him the ofRce did not belong to
the bifhop. The meek prelate rufhod on the fub-
prior, knocked him down, kicked, beat, and buffet"
ed him, tore the cope off his back, and flamped on
it like one poifefTed, while his attendants paid the
fame compliments to all the poor monks. The people
enraged at his unprieilly conduct would have torn
him to pieces ; when he retired to Lambeth, and, by
way of expiation, rebuilt it vi4th great magnificence.
— ^At a fubfequent period it was very highly improved
by the munificent Henry Chichely, who enjoyed the
primacy from 141 4 to 1443- I lament to find fo
worthy a man to have been the founder of a building
fo reproachful to his memory as the Lollards tower,
at -the cxpence of n*ar L. 280. Neither ProtcfUnta
or Catholics fhpuld omit vifiting this tower, the cruel
prifon of the unhappy followers of Wickliffe. The
vafl ftaples and rings to which they were chained be-
fore they were brought to the flake, ought to make
Proteftantt blefs the hour which freed them from fo
bloody a religion." During the civil wars of the laft
century, this palace fuffered greatly ; but at the rcflo-
ration, the whole was repaired by Archbifhop Juxton.
The parifh church of Lambcth^H ) , wliich is at a fmall

diflance

(h) In dcfcribing this church, Mr Pennant takes occafion to mention the fad example of fallen majef^ ia
tlie perfon of Mar}- d'Efte, the unhappy queen of James II.; who flying with her infant prince from the

xttia

L O N I 2

ze firom the palace» has a plain tower ; and the
(fdlure 18 of the gothic of the time of Edward IV*
( Teiy tittle remarkable in it, except the irgure
>edlar and his ^dog, painted in one of the win*
; and tradition (ayS) diat the parifh was obliged
s man for the bequcft of a piece of land, which
the name of the Pailar*! Acn. In the church-
Is the tomb .of old Tradefisant. Both father and
ere great travellers ; and the former is fnppofed
ire vifited Rufiia and moft parts of Europe, Tur*
Greece, many of the eaftera countries^ Egypt,
^arbary ; out of which he introduced multitudes
ints and flowers, unknown before in our gardens*
monument is an akar tomb ; embellished with
rmatical (culptures; and bearing the following
ption, which is both lingular and hiftorical :

>.iow, ftrangcr, ere thou pafs, beneath this ft one

.ye John TraJefeant, g^ndfire, father, fon ; '

'he lad dy*d in his f,)ring ; the other two

.iv*d till they had travtli'd Art and Nature threugh,

i« by their choice collc(5lion<> may appear,

M what is rare» in Utid, in fca, in air ;

V^hilft ihcy (as H<^mer*t Iliad fn a ntit)

k world of wonder* in one clolrt Ihut :

.^hcfe famous Antiquariansi that ))ad been

loth gardeners to the RnTc and Lily Queen,

Traulplanted now thcmfelve.*, ilcep here ; and when

\n)iels (hall with their trumpets wake men, '

iitd fire (hall pur^e the world, thefc henoe iluJl rife,

vnd change this garden for a ))fti adife.

om Lambeth, eaftward along the river fide, was
a long tra6t of dreary marfli, and ftill in part*
i Lamheth^marjb ; about the year 1560, there was
a houfe on it ftx>in Lambeth paiace as far as
hwark. In a ftreet called Narrow-wall (from
>f the ancient embankments) is Mrs Conde*6 noted

63 ] L O N

mamifadory of artificial ft one (i)} And at a fmall I«ondoo.
diftance, ^iei^. Beaufoy*s great work for making wines • -T,
(K)y and that for making vinegar (l).

This ground* fo profitable to the proprietors, and -, '*'
fo preduAive of revenue to the ftate, was within me-n^'^^l^l
mory the fccne of low diilipation. Here Hood Cuper's
garden, noted for its fire^works, and the great rcfort
of the profligate of both fexes. This place was orna-
mented with feveral of the mutilated ftatucs belonging,
to Thomas Earl of Arundel, which had been for that
purpofe begged from his tordfliip by one Boyder Cu»
per, a gardener in the family. The great timber*
yards beneath which thefe antiquities werefound, are
very well worthy of a vifit. One would fear that the
foreils of Norway and the Baltic would be cxhaufted,
to fupply the want of our overgrown capital, were
we not alTured that the refources will fucceffively be
increafing equal to the . demand of fvcceeding ages.—*
In this parilh are alfo the vaft diftilleriesi till of late
the property of Sir Jofeph Mawbey ; where are iel-
dom lefs than 2000 hogs conftantly grunting,, and
kept entirely on the grains. •

III. C'Uy ami Lthriies rf IVMSTAiii^trsit. The city IM
of Wcilminller derives its name from a mhtjer^ or ab* h ^"7 *"?
bey, and wefi^ on account of its fituation with refpeft^Sjr'^bSiii^^
to St Paul's cathedral, which was formerly called £^*{kiu^
minfter. In ancient times this diilridl Itood upwards
of a mile from the city of London, and contained only
two parifhes, which were thofe of St^ Mai^aret and
St John, with two chapels of cafe, but at prefent it
has feven other parochial churches; viz. St Clement's
Danes, St Paul's Covent-garden, St Mary's4e-Strand,
St Martin's in the Fields, St Anne's, St James's, and
St George's Hanov4;r-fquare.

Weftminfter

impending over their houfe, after eroding the Thames from the abdicated Whitehall, took flicker be-
i the ancient walh of this church a whole hour, from the rain of the inclement night of December 6th,.
\, Here (he waited with aggravated mifery, till a common coach, procured from the next inn, arrived,.
conveyed hef to Gravcfcnd, from whence fhe failed, and bid an eternal adieu to thefe kingdoms.
) Her repofitory confifts of feveral very large rooms filled witii every ornament which can be ufcd in
tenure. The ftatue, the vafe, the urn, the rich chimney-pieces, and, in a few words, every thing
h could be produced out of natural ftonc or marble by the moll elegant chiXel, is here to be obtained at

afy rate.

:) <« Where (fays Mr Pennant) the foreign wines arc moft admirably mimicked. Such is the prodi<-
y and luxury of the age, that the demand for many forts exceeds in a great degree the produce of the
e vinepfds. We hate fkilfVd fabricators, who kindly fupply our wants. It has been cftimated, tliat
of the port, and five-fixths of the white wines confumed in our capital, have been the produce of our

naterials for the rich Frontiniac, to the more elegant tables ; the Maderia, the Calcavella, and the Lif-

into every part of the kingdom.**

.) «• There is a magnificence of bufihcfc (our author remarks) in this «cean of fweets and fours, that
ot fall exciting the greateft admiration : whether we confider the number of vefiels or their ^z^. The
.ed tun at Heydelberg does not furpafs them. On firft entering the yard, two rife before you,
i-ed at the top with a thatched dome ; between them \a a circular turret, including a winding ftaircafe,
:h brings you to their fummits, which are above 14 feet in diameter. One of thefe coiiiervatories is full
iveet wine, and contains 58,109 gallons, or J,8t5 barreb of Winchefter meafure. Its fuperb aiTociate
U of vinegar, to the amount of 56,799 gaDons, or 1,774 harrcls of the fame iiandard as the former^.

famous German vcffel yields even to the bft by the quantity of 40 barrels. — Befides thefe, is an avenue
flcr veflTels, which hold firom 32,500 to 16,974 gallons each. After quitting this Brobdignagian fcene,^
)afs to the acres covered with conwnon barrels \ we cannot diminifti our ideas io fuddenly, but at firiiv
oiagined' we couM quaff them off as eafily «s GuBitcr did th« little hogfhcads of the kingdom of i^illl£uuV *

I.«ndoa*

Govern-
mcnt of

fter.

ON [a

anciently called Thorny-iflandt

Weft mm fter was
from Its having been covered with thorn-bu(hes, and
encompaffed by a branch of the Thames, which is faid
to have run through the ground now called St James V
park, from weft to eaft, and to have rejoined the river
at Whitehall.

Till the general diflblution of religious houfes, Weft-
minfter was fubje£t to the arbitrary rule of its abbot
and monks ; but in 154I9 upon the furrender of Wil-
liam Benfon the lafl abbot, Henry VIII. not only
turned it into an honour, but created it the fee of a
bifhop, and appointed for a dipcefe the whole coun-
ty of Middlelex, except Fulham, which belonged
to the bifhop of London. This bifhoprick, how-
ever, foon after its inftitution, was dilTolved by Ed-
ward V I.

The city of Weftminfter Is governed by a high
fteward, an officer of great dignity, who is ufually one
of the firfl peers in the realm ; and is chofen for life
by the dean and chapter of the collegiate church of
St Peter. There is alfo a deputy fteward .and a high
bailiff, who alfcf hold their offices for life ; being no-
minated by the dean and chapter, and confirmed by
the high fteward.

The dean and chapter are invefted with an ecclefisl-
• ftical and civil jurifdi^ion within the liberties of Weft-
^ minfter, St Martin 's-le-Grand, near Cheapfide, in the
city of London, and fome towns in EfTex, which arc
exempted from the jurifdi6tioa of the bifhop of Lon-
don and the archbifhop of Canterbury.
144 St Margaret's church was founded by Edward the

Churclica. ConfefTor, fince which time it has been frequently re-
built. In the eaft end of this church is a window cu-
rioqfly painted, with the hiftory of the crucifixion,
and with the figures of feveral apoftles and faints fine-
ly executed. It formerly belonged to a private cha-
pel at Copt-hall, near Epping in EfTex, and was
purchafed by the officers of this pariih fome years
ago for 400 guineas. In this church the houfe of
commons attends divine fervice on flate holidays.

The church of St jfohn the Evangellfi was eredled in
1728, and having funk confidcrably whilft it was
building, occafioned an alteration of the plan. On
the north and fouth fides are magnificent porticoes,
fupported by vaft ftone pillars, as- is alfo. the roof of
the church ; at each of the four corners is a beautiful
ftone tower and pinnacle, which were added with the
view of making the ^^•hole ftruAure fink equally. The
parts of this building are held together by iron bars,
which run acrofs even the ailes.
i»S The moft remarkable ftru6lure in Weftminfter is

Wdbnin- the ahhey<hurch of St Peter. On its fitc ftood once a
^*d'>*^*' * temple of ApoDo, which according to tradition was
chapels. thrown down by an earthquake in the time of Anto-
ninus Pius ; and from the ruins of which, Sebert king
of the Weft Saxons ralfed a Chriftian church, which
was ruined by the Danes. It was rep'aired by Ed-
ward the Confeflbr, and given to a few monks ; and
this fpot he chofc for his burial-place. Henry III.
160 years after, took down this fabric of Edward's,
and erc6led a new church, which was 50 years in
building. It fufFered much by fire in 1274, but was
repaired by Edward I. Edward II. and the abbots.
In 1 700 this church being much decayed, the parlia-
ment granted money for repairing it, and has fre-
N^i87.

64 ] L O N

qucntly repeated the bounty fince thit tk^ -

form of the abbey is that of a long crofs: jb*^

length is 489 feet, and the breadth ofthewdr

(i(^ feet ; the length of the crofr aile is 189 k.

the height of the roof 92 feet. Atthcwcic.^

two towers : the nave and crofs aile are fuppr^

50 Hender pillars of Suffex marble, exdufi^c ai v

fters. In the upper and lower ranges theit v,\

windows, all which, with the arches, roofs, ardi-i

are in the Gothic taftc. The infidcof thictj

is much better executed than the outfidc-.sslj

perfpecUye is good, particularly that of the gnicLi

The choir, from which there vi an tfccnt by in

fteps to a fine altar-piece, is paved with biriii

white marble ; having i^ Halls on the north, t:n

number on the fouth, and eight at the wdeii \\

altar is made of a beautiful piece of marbk, 'ki

of Queen Anne, inclofed by a curious biluk&.q

upon a pavement of porphyry, jafper, LT<k j

ferpentine ftones, laid in the Mofaic ftyle, atii

pence of abbot Ware, A. D. 1 272 ; and is to: . 1

one of the moft beautiful of its kind iatbeid

On each fide of this altar a door opens into ^tj

vwird's chapel ; round whicif are 10 other cip^J

ranging from the north to the fouth croft aOcs, r:.:

dedicated, i. To St Andrew, 2. To & Mi-

3. To St John Evangelift. 4 Iflip*s chapel. '

St John Baptift. 6. To St Paul. 7. Henry Y.l

pel. 8". To St Nicholas. 9. To St Edmund, i: '

ot Benedi^.

In St Edward's chapel arc ftill to be fecn tk rtt
of his ihrine ; which, though now in obfciinty!^
robbed of all its riches and luftre, was once (k
the glory of England, fo far as art andn'chesf^
make it. Here are the tombs of Kine Edward 1. 1:
veral other kings and queens of En^id; and bc?i^
is (hown the famous chair in which the kin§^«^^
land ufed to be crowned at Scoon. Henry V.'sdd
is divided from St Edward^sby an iron fcrecnit^^
iiSR of which are ftatues as big as lifc.-^t hM
chapel, which is next the north crofe, and the s^ '
which furround the* choir, arc crowded with tli«-
numents of noble perfonages, worthy the atteatv i
the curious. — At the comer of St BcncdicTicSr^
an iron gate opens into the fouth crofs aile; «*-J
from the number of monuments ere6^cd thcnrinw^^^
brated Engliih poets, has obtained the namec4^
Poeti comer : though here we find a moft map'^

monument cre^cd at the fouth end in memoT

ii\

late John duke of Argyle and Greenwich ; anetlif ^
William Camden the antiquarian \ and othcrj to ■•*
celebrated divine Dr Ifaac Barrow, to Thonas i-^
who died at the age of 153 years, &c.— Tht'^*
aile is adorned with 19 curious monumcnti ofift'V
ous, the brave, and the learned j and turnings^'
ward from the weft door, we view s gr«*' ""^^

more.

On the eaft of the abbey, and which, \)cf^ ^
rate from the otlier chapels in the choir, lc«^
be one and the fame building with the abbey, f^
the chapel of King Henry VII. which tbatkia^^
ded in the year 1502, and was at that timt "fW^
wonder of iU worU,\ and is now one 0/ t}\i ^ .
penfive remains of the ancient Engliih tsfte*^"^
nificence. There is no looking upoa it ^^^ . j,."

I. O N

t *5i 1

I. O N

mlratiofi ! it eonveyj an idea of die 6ae tafte of Go-
tlxi^ atdiiteftare in that age: auid the tnfidie is fo
noblct majeflk» and of fudi cdriout vorknkanfliip,
that it would take a Volume to defcrfbe each part with
juitide and propriety*

Its origin^ inienlton was to be a donmtolry for the ' ing aoo feet loQg» 70 broad« and 90 kigh, fop-
royal blood : and fe 6r the wHl of the fonnder has ported only by bottreflea. Th^ roof is of timb(T|
been obferved; that none have been interred therein ~"^ "" -n - . -.

On the north^aft fide of the abbey itao old ($0** tAMi*
thic building called Wefmmjhr^a!!, firft buUt by Wil- """"^J^
Uam Rnfus as an addition to a royal pahice» iind after- Wcftmiik^
wards rebuilt by JUchard IL in the year 1397. Itftcr-haM.
is reckoned one of the largeft rooths in Europe, be-

l>ut fuch as have traced their defcent from andeat
kings. The tomb of King Henry VII. is moft fdagnt-
ficentt inclofed with a fcreen of call brafs» moft admi-
rably dcfigaedy and as well eaecutedk Within the rails
are the figures of that king ^d his royal ^onfort, in
their robes of (bite» on a tomb of black marble : and
at the head of this tomb lie the remains of Etlward VI.
In different parts of this chapd lire the monutfients of
L.ewi9 Stuart duke of Richmond, Geosve Villarsduke
-of Buckingham, John Sheffield duke of Buckinghattu
Charles Montage marquis of HaOifaiu Edward V. and
his brother Richard \ the vault of James I. and his
queen Anne and daughter Manr, on which is a fmall
tomb adorned with the*fi|;ure or a ehild ; a lofty mo*
mument of Queen Ehtdbeth, tod another of Mary
"Queen of Scots ; the monuments for Maigaret Douglal
liaughter of Margaret t^ueen of Scots, Margaret coum;

and was fome years ago flated^ the old covering of lead
being reckoned too heavy. It is paved wiA ftohe*
In this fpatious room the kings of England have ge-
neraOiy hdd their coronation tod other folemn feafts;
and it is ufed for the trial of peers. Since the reign
of Henry III. the three great courts of Chancery^
King's Bench, and Common Pleas, have been held in
feparate apartments of this hall ; and the cotirt of £j(*
chequer above ilairSi

Adjoining to.th^ fouUi«ea4 angle of Weftmlnftef- ^^'^
hall is a building formerly called St Stefhen** CIh^ Comm^ii^
from its having been dedicated to diat uint. It was
founded by King Stephen \ add iii 1^47 was rebuilt
by King Edward llh who converted it to a colle-
giate church ; but fince it was furrendered to Ed-^
ward VI. it has been ufed for the affembly of the re*
prefentatives of the eommons of Engtaddi and is now
generally called the Houfe of Commtmt. The benches*

tefs of Richmond mother to Henry VII. the viuk of which afcend bdiind one another as in a theatre, are

oyal periokaget are theit effigies (except
prince George) ih wainibot prette^t made of wax tb
Irefemble Kfe, and drelted in their coronation h>bdh
And at the comer of the great eaft window, in another
^xrainfcot prefs, ftands the effigy of Mary duchefs of
Richmond daughter to James duke of Richmond and
Lenox, drefled m the very robes ihe wore at the coro«
nation of Queen Anhe. On leaving the aifle, you are
Ihown anothet* prefe, Containing the effigy of general
Monk, who, on account of his loyalty, and the part he
took in the reft oration of King Charles II. had a vault
appropriated to him and his family amongft the royal
blood.

In a fine vault under tienrjr the VI I. 's chdpel, is
the burying-placc of the prefcnt royal family, eref^ed
I5iy his late majcfty king George II. Adjoining .to
the abbey are the cloyfteni, built in a quadrangular
form, with piax2as towards the court, where fevcral
of the prebendarieii have ihtir houfesi

Near the abbey church is the King's fchool, ufusdly
caned WefinwiJItr School* It was originally founded in
^'^'•tc^and a fccond tjWby Queen Eh'aabcthin 1560,

It in

gers are often permitted to fit and hear the debates. no

On the fottth M^ of the hall is the Houfi of Lordt^ Houfe Jt
fo called from being the place where the peers pf l-^fdi.
Great Britain afTemble in parliament. It is sin oblong
rooni, not quite fo large as the houfe of commons ;
and is hung with fine old tapeilry, reprefenting the
defeat of the Spanifli Armada in 1588. The defign
was drawn by Cornelius Vroom, and the tapeftry exe-
cuted by Francis Spiering. It was not put up till
the year 1650, two years after the entinAion of mo-
narchy, when the houfe. of lords was ufed as a com-
mittee-room for the houfe of commons. The heads
of the naval heroes who commanded on the glorious
day form a matchlefs border round the work, anima-
ting pofterity to emulate their illuftrious example*
Here ^s a throne for the king, with feats on the right
and left for fuch peets of the realm as are of the
blood royal. Before the throne are three broad feats \ .
on the 'firft dif which, next the throne, fits the Lord
Chancellor, or keeper of the great feal, who is fpcaker
of the houfe of peers ; and on the other two fit the

whence it is fometiines called the ^een*s College ,• and judges, the mafter of the rolls, or the matters in chan
is at prefent one of the greateft fchools iii the king- cery^, who attend occafionally to ^ve their opinions

dom. The learned antiquary Mr Cambden whs once
mailer of it, and Ben Jonfon one of his fcholars.
Dr Bttlby, who was mafttr upwards of 50 Jrears,
greatly contributed to keep up. its reputation, formed
its mufeum, and improved both the tnafter's and his
prcbcndal houfe. — ^I'his fchool, inftea'd of One mafter
and one ufher as at firft, has now an upper and under
mafter, and five uftiers, who have about 400 youths
under their tuition. A plan was fet on foot when
the prefent archbiftiop of Vprk was mafter, for build-
ing a college for the ufe of the ftudents, but this did
not fucceed.
Vt)l. X. Part I^

»4

V ^

fjc

on points of law. The two afchbifhops fit at fome
diftanoe from the throne on the right hand, and tjhi
other bifhops In a row under them. All the bbn^hes
are covered with red cloth ftiiffed with wooL Herd
likewife, by a hite order of the houifc, a gallery for
ftrangers has been ereftcd. '

Adjoining to the houfe of lords is the Prmce^s^^^^**
Chamber^ where the king is robed when he comes to ^^"^^h
the parliament. On the other fide is the Painted ^*
Chamber^ which is faid to have been Edward the Con-
feiror>8 bed-chamber, and the room in which the par-
Eamcnts were anciently opened. Here conference^

LI at«

■«3»

X O N I 266

taa^9. 9re often bcU between the two houfel« or theif com-
mittees* Contiguous to thofe is an apartment caUed
tlie Court of RequeJIs^ whjre fuch as have buiinelis io
either houfe may attend.

tN. ar thefc buildings is a bridge, over the Thanes^
called lyejlm'mfter^r'uigf^ accounted one of tbe^ nioll
complete aniT elegant ftr natures of the kind in the
known world* It is built entirely of ilone, and exr
tends over tlie river at a place vvl^cre it is 1223 feet
broad.;, which is above 300 feet broader than- at Lon-
don bridge. Op ea(;h fide is a fine balluihade of
fLone,. with, places of /belter from the rain. The width
of the bridge is 44 feet, having on (;ach fide a fine
Xoot-way for paflengers. It confills of 14 piers^ and
13 large and two fmall arches, all femicircular, that
in the centre being 76 feet wide, and the rcll decreap
fing.four feet each from the othcrf fo that the two
leail arches of the 13 great ones are each 52 feet;
It is computed that the value of 40,000!. in ^flonc
and other materials is always under .water. This
magniticeut ilruCture was begun in 17399 and finilhed
i<i 1750, at -the expence of 389,000!. defrayed by
tjie parllnment. It was built after the defign of
^Tonf. Labelye, an ingenious archited, . a native of
Vrance.
* On the bank of the Thames, at the eaft confines of
St Margaret's pari(h, was a palace called IVbitehaU^
originally buiU by Hubert de Biurgh eai'l of Kent, be-
fore the middle of the 13th century. It afterwards
devolved to the archbifhop of York, whence it recei-
ved the tiame of Tork Place^ and continued to be the
city refidence of the archbifhops till it was purchafed
by Henry VIII. of cai-dinal Wolfey iu 1530. At
this period it became the reiidence of the court ; but
in 1697 was deflroyed by accidental fire, all except
the banqueting-houfe, which had been added to the
palace of Whitehall by James I. according to a deiign
of Inigo Jones. This is an elegant and magnificent
l^fu6lure of hewn ilone, adorned with an upper and
lower range of pillars, of the Ionic and Compofite or-
ders ; the capitals are enriched with fruit and foliagesi

133
'WhiunalJ

3 Z O n

from one' end to ti|e otiher. - The wa3 befm i!« i
court has been lately built in an cl<tgant manctT, lA
each fule o£ the gate is ornam^Dted wxth&rJc.
blems» Beiides- a hall, and other public apaitea.
here are fpacioushoufjes for feven commii&a&cn c: u;
admiralty.

At a little diilanoQ from tlK- admiralty, who-s tWj
capital ftreets termioatCr is a luxge opening <:L}
Qharlng-crofh, from one of the crofFes which La^ I: ]
ward I. caufed to be erected in memory of hii qi .:-, I
£lcanor, ^x\6, Clmring the name of a village ia wl.:
it was built. The crofs remained till the civil itli^
the leign of Charles I. when it u'as deflroyed br ui
fanatics, as a monument of popiih fuperllitioii ; \i
after the Refloration, an equetlxian iiatne of Ciisne- L
was fet up in its (lead. This, which is of bnfs, tii
finely executed, continues to be an ornament t; :^
place. It was made in 1633, at the expence of >.
Howard-Arundel fiunily. The parliament fold h :»
a brazier in Holborp, with flri<^ orders to brc^k 1:
to pieces ; but he concealed it under ground ti'il u
Relloration, when it was fet up in 1678.

At the well end of tlie Mall, in St James's Pii
which begins near Charing^rofs» fburds the ^r.
Palace* It was originally knovirn by the name dh- \
Ungton-houfe ; but being purchafed by the late dukt ';'
Buckingham's father, who rebuilt it from thcgrvii-
iu 1703, it was called Buck'mgham^ouft^ till the )tr jj
1 762, when it was purchafed by his majcfly for -• ^
royal refidence. It is built of brick and flonc, \xk:
in the front two ranges of pilailers of the ConiuJii^
and Tufcan orders. It has a fpacious court-yard, r
clofed with iron rails, fronting St James's Park, vfiii
offices on each fide, with two pavilions, feparatcdfc
the manfion-houfe by colonades of the Tufcan, Dj-
ric, and Ionic orders. His majeily has here biiik i
fine library, in an odagonal form, belides fcvcnloik
additions. , I

Eailward of the queen's palace ftands Si Jomiu' '
an old building, which, till the former was purcbaJr^ j
by the crown, had been the town-refidencc of the rvr- 1

and between the columns of the windows. The roof al family fince the burning of yThitehall in 169:

llorfe.

guards-

is covered with lead, and furrounded with a baluflrade.
The building chiefiy confifts of one room of an oblong
form, 40 feet high, and a proportionable length and
breadth. The cieling is painted by the celebrated Sir
Peter Paid Rubens. It is now ufod only as a chapel-
royal, and the other part of the houfe is occupied
with ftate-ofiices.

Oppofite to the banqueting-houfe Hands the Horff
guardsyio called from being the ftation where that
part of his majefly's troops itfually do duty. It is a
itrong building, of hewn flone, confining of a centre
and two wings. In the former h an arched paflage
into St James's Park; and over it, in the middle,

This palace was built by Henry VIII. and obiaiiid
its name from an hofpital which fonnerly flood oott?
fpot. It is an irregular building, of a mean i^peanac^
without, but contains frveral magnificent apirtmenu.
Here the court and levees are Hill kept, and moftat
the perfons belonging to the houfliold have their ra- .
dence. The ckapel of the hofpital was converted »
the ufe of the royal family, as it now remains, aw/-' J
a royal pecidiar, exempted from all epifcopai J«f"**f'
tion. When this palace was built, it abutted in tte^- j
fouth-weft upon an uncultivated fwampy trafi « ,
ground, which the king inclofed and converted ^^ 1
a park, called from the p^kce St Jameis Pari* ^^ '

rifes a cupola. In a part of the building is the War- *alfo laid it out into walks, and cplleded the watetiow

V >35

A4miralt7<

ICC

office. Near the Horfe-guards is the Treafury ; a
large building, which fronts the Parade in St James's
Park ; and where the board of treafury is kept.

EaUward of the Horfe-guards is the ^dmralfy^ffict%
a large pile, built with brick and flone. The front
towards Whitehall has two deep wings, and a lofty
f ortico fupported by four large flone .pillars. A
piazza^ confifling of beautiful columns, runs almoft

one body. It viras afterwards much enlarged and f-
proved by king Charies II, who planted it ^^^
trees,, and formed a beautiful viJia, near half a mile ^
length, called the Mall, from its being adapted to^

play ^ bowls didinguifhed by that name*

Hcal^

ibrmed the water into- a canal xoo feet broad
280a feet bng ; and furnlfhed the park witi a W
and other pond for watcrHfowl j but dioft ba'« ^^

b.vo

t O N I a67 ] . t O N

%>een ddbroyed* on acoouat of tHc unwhokfome y^ in building and furniture, have contributed to render Londoifc

{>our9 which «they excUcd. - this houfe the larg^eft and moft magnificent inXon- ' * " '*

In a line with St Jaxses's palace, on the eafl fide, don. It contains a gallery of ic6 feet long by 26

is M'ariborougk Houfi,, which belongs ho the duke of wide moft fuperbly funiifhed. 14%

Nlarlboroiigh* aad is a large brick edifice^ oniameoted A ihort way eaflward, on the fame iide». ftood Z)tir- Darham

vrith^ftona* Aam Tard^ which took its name fronv a place built orf- ^^^

£aflward from Charing-crofs, runs that fine flreet ginally by the illuftrious Thomas, de Hatfield, eleded

^he Strand^ which tetmiaates at Temple-bar. In the bifhop of Durham in 1345 ; deiigned by him for the

-year 1355 the whole of it was an open highway, with town refidence of him and his fuccelTors. At thisplace^

^B^rdcns to the water-iide. In that year it was fo in 1540, was held a moil magnificent feaH, given by

ruinous, that Edward II L by an ordinance dire6^ed a the challengers of England, who had cauled to be

ta.x to be rai&d upon wool, leather, wine, and ^oods proclaimed, in France, Fiandera, Scotland^ and Spain,,

carried to the ila^ at Wedminfter, from Temple-bar a great and triumphant jufling to be holden at Wefl<*

minfler, for all corners that would undertake them

to Weilminller abbey, for the repair of the road ; and

±hat all owners of houfes adjacent to the highway

fhould repair as much as lay before their doors.

JBefore the above period, it entirely cut off Weftmin-

^ler from London ; nothing intervened except the

fcattert'd houfes, and a village wjiich afterwards gave

name to the whole ; and St Martin's flood literally in the

fields. But about the year 1560 a flreet was formed,

'loofely built s for all the boufe» on the fouth fide had

great gardena to the river, were called by their own-

trrs names, and in after-times gave name to the feve-

ral flreets that fucceeded them, pointing down to the

Thames; each of them had flairs for the convenien-

cy of taking boat, of which maiiy to this day bear the

nanaes of the houfes. As the court was for centuries

either at the palace of Weftminfter or .Whitehall, a

boat was the cuftomary conveyance of the great to the

firefeuce of their fovereign. The north fide was a mere
ine of houfes from Charing-crofs to Temple-bar;

all beyond was country. 1 he gardens which occu- pofcs of general benefit.

But both the challengers and defendants were Englidu
After the gallant fpoxta of each day, the challengera
rode unto this X)urham-houfe, where they kept open,
houfehold, and feafled the king and queen (Anne of
Cleves) with her ladies, and all the court. In the
reign of Edward VI. the mint was eftablifhed in thia
houfe, under the management of Sir WiUiam Sbar-
rington» and the iniuence of the afpiring Thoraat.
Seymour, lord admiral. Durham-houfe was reckon-*
ed one of the royal palaces belonging to queen Elizag
beth ; who gave the ufc of it t« the great Sir Walter
Raleigh. ,^j

]3urham-yard is now filled with a moil magnificent Th^ Adel>
mafs of building, called the Ade^phi^ in honour ofpbi*
two brothers, the ingenious Adams, its archite&s.
Befides its fine k>dgings, it is celebrated for its en-
chanting profpe^l, the utility of its wharfs, arid its
fubterraneous apartments anfwering a variety of pur-

[

um-

pied part of the fiteof Convent'-garden were bounded by
fields, and St Giles's was adiflant country village.
Our capital found itfelf fo fecure in the vigorous govern-
ment of queen Elizabeth, that, by the year 1 600, mofl
confiderable additions were made to the north of the
long line of flrett jufi defcribed. St Martin's-lane
was built on both fides. St Giles's church was fliU
infulated : but Broad-flreet and Holburn were com*
pletely formed into flreets with houfes all the way to
Snow-hilL Convent-garden and Lincoln's inn fields
were built, but in an irregidar manner. Drnry-lane,
Clare-llreet, and Long-acre, arofe in the fame pe-
riod.

Almofl contiguous to Charing-crofs, and upon the
fouth fide of the Strand, is that noble pahice called

Farther on fland the ruins of the 5tfwjr. HenryThe SAin>f«
III. had granted to Peter of Savoy, uncle to his queea
Eleanor^ daughter of Berrrenger of Provence, all the
houfes upon the Thames where this building now
flands, to hold to him -and his lieirs, yielding yearly
at the Exchequer three barbed arrows for all ferviccs.
This prince founded the Savoy, and bellowed it on
the foreign hofpital of Montjoy. Queen Eleanor pur-
chafed it, and bellowed it on her fan Edmund earl
of Lancaflcr. It was rebuilt in a molt magnificent
manner by his fon Henry. It was made the place of
confinement of John king of France, in 1356, after
he was taken prifoncr at the battle of Poitiers. In
1 38 1 it was entirely deftroyed by AVat Tyler, out of
fpleen to the great owner John of Gaunt. .Henry VII.

NorihimberJand^houfe^ which flands on the fite of began to rebuild it> with adcfign of forming it into
the hofpital of St Mary Rounceval. Henry VIII. an hofpital for a hundred dillrel^d people, and Hen-
granted it to Sir Thomas Caverden. It was after-; xy YIII. completed thedeiign. I'he revenues, at the,

fuppreflion by Edward VI. amoiinttd-to above 500 L
a year. Queen Mary reflored it \ and her maids of.
honour, wi3i exemplary piety, fiuuilhcd it with all ne-«
ceifaries. it was again fuppreflcd by Queen Elifabeth ;
^ ^ ^ and at prefent part fcrves as lodglngT* tor private peo-

laiid, with Elilabeth daughter of Theophilus earl of pie, /or barracks, and a fcandalous infciiious prifuii for

warda transferred to Henry Howard- carl of Northamp-
ton ; who, in the time of James I. built here a houfe,
and called it after his own name. He left it to his
kinfman the earl of SuflFolk^ lord treafurer ; and by the
marriage xS Algemoon Percy earl of Northumbcr-

Suiiblk, it palTed into the houfe of the prefent qoble
«wner. The greater part pf the houfe was built by
Bernard Janfcn, an archite^ in the reign of James I,
The front next tb^ flreet was begun by Algernoon in
1748, and finifhed by the prefent duke, who married
his daughter. Two additional wings to the front next
the Thames, and a variety of other improveinents botli

the fold iery and for tranfport-convids.

A little to the eallwavd flood Sovurfet houfe ^ * P^"Som^fct-
lace built by Somerfet the Protector iu the time of houfe.
Edward VI. ; and to make way for which he dcm9U-
fhed a great jiumber of buildings without making ary
recompence to the owners. I*ail of the church of St
John of Jerufalem and the Tower were blown uj) for

L I 2 ' ■ * {he

L O IQ

[ 268 ]

L O N

. tiOndoQ. the fake of the materialt ; and the cloiftert on th^ north
J*~ T fide of St Paul's, with the charnel-houfe and chapel,
underwent the (ame fate ; the tombs being deflroyed,
and the bones thrown into Finfbury-fields. This hap-
pened in 1549 } but it is probable that he did not live
to inhabit the palace he built, as he was executed in
the year 1552. After his death the palace fell to the
crown ; ind it became an occalional place of refidence,
firft to Queen Elizabeth, and afterwards to Catherine
queen toLing Charles II. It was built in a ilyle of
&rchitc6kure compounded of the Grecian and Gothic $
and the back, front, and water-gate, were done from
- n defign of Inigo Jones, about the year 1623. A
chapel was begun the fame year by that-archited, and
liniflied fome time afler. The whc^e of this llrudiure
was demolifhed in 1775, in confequence of an a6^ of
parliament ; and a mo ft magnificent edifice, from a
dtflign by Sir William Chambers, has been erected
for the accommodation of aU the public offices, — thofe
of the Treafury, the Secretary of State, the Admi*
ralty, the War, and the Excife, excepted. The
Royal Society, and the Society of Antiquarians, hold
their meetings here, in apartments which have been
allotted to them by royal munificence ; and here alfo
are affhually exhibited the works of the Britifh painters
and fculptors. The terrace on the fouth fide is a walk
bounded by the Thames, and unparsdleled for gran-
^ deiur and beauty of view.
8t MarttnN ^^ church of St Martin is diftinguifhed by the
and other name of St Martinis in the Fields^ firom its (ituation,
ahurchc£. which was formerly a field, with only a few fcattered
houfes. The church being decayed, was rebuilt by
Henry VIIL and again by James I. but XK>t being
large enough to accommodate the inhabitants of the
pariH), it was augmented in 1607, at the- charge of
Prince Henry, eldefl fon of James I. and feveial of
^ the nobility. After many expenfhre reparations, how-
ever, it was entirely taken down in 1720, and a
new church began,, which was finifhed in 1726. This
h an elegant edifice, built of flone. On the weft
front is a noble portico of Corinthian columns, fup-
porting a pediment, in which are reprefented the royal
arms in has relief. The afcent to the portico is by a
flight of very long flcps. The length of this church
is about 140 feet, the breadth 60, and height 45. It
has a fine arched roof - fuftained by floiie columns of
-Ae Corinthian order. The ftecple has a beautiful
fpire, and one of the befl rings of bells in 'London.

St Jamais Church was built in the reign of Charles
}1, at the expenct of Henry earl of St Alban's, and
•ther neighbouring inhabitants. The building 1% of
Vick and ftone, about 85 feet long, 60 broad, and
45 feet liigh, with a. handfome fteeple 150 fbet ia
• fccight.

St George*! Churchy near Hanoter-iquare, is a beao-
tifiil ftru&ure. This waa one of the fifty new church-
ts ere6ked within the biUs of mortality, by a£^ of par-

tament, in the reign of Queen Arnie. The ground"
}r the edifice was given by the late lieutenant-general
Stewart, who alfo left 4000 1. to the parifh,. towards
erecting and endowing a chanty fchool ; which, by
additional benefa£UonB and fubfcrxptions, is become
ytrj cotifidcrable.

The greater part of the parifh of St Pauft Covcnt^

garderty was anciently a garden, belonging to the ab^ Load^^
hot and convent of Weitminfter, and was then called ^

Convent-Garden^ a name corrupted into Covcnt, ^ind^^^^'J^
more generally Common-garden. In 1552, Edward airdcn.
VI. gave it to the eaii of Bedford, with an adjoining
field, formerly called the Seven Acres^ but now, being
turned into a long ftreet, called Long-etcre. The
church of St Paurs^ Covent-garden, wal built by
Inigo Jones, and is efteemcd one of the moft fimple
and perfect pieces of architedure in England. In the
front is a plain portico of the Tufcan order, with
mafly columns. Before the church i\ a fquare area,
containing about three acres of ground, called Coven^
garden mdrket^ and is the beft in England for herbs,
fruit, and flowers. On the north, and part of the eaft
fide, is a magnificent piazza, defigned by Inigo Jcmes. ^ g

Next to the pariih of St Paul, Coventrgarden, is ^t M217 ^
that of St Mary le Strand* This is alfo one of the fifty le Stnoj;.
new churches built in the reign of Queen Anne, and *^
vi a handfome piece of architedure, though not very
extenfive. At the entrance, on the weft fide, is an
afcent by a flight of fteps, in a circular form, which
leads to a fimilarly (haped portico of Ionic columns,
covered with a dome, that is crowned with a vafe.
The columns are continued along the body of the
church, with pilafters of the fame order at tbV corners ;
and in the intercolumniations are niches handfomcly
ornamented. Over the dome is a pediment fuppofted
by Corinthian columns, which are dfo continued round'
the body of the ftrufture,. over thofe of the Ionic order.
A handfome baluflrade is carried round the top of the
church, and adorned with vafes.

A little eaftward from the preceding church is that,
of St Clement*! Danes ^ fitiuited like wife in die Strand.
A church is faid to have fiodd in this, place fince about
the year 700 ; but the preient fbuAure was began in
i68d, defigned by Sir Criftopher Wren. It is hoik
of ftone, with two rows of windows, the lower plain,,
but the upper ornamented ;. and the termination is by
an attic, the pilafters- ofi^diich are covered wiJi vafes.
On the fouth fide is a portico, covered with a dome,
fupported by Ionic colunms ; and oppofite to this is
another: The fteejJe is Beautiful,, and of a great
height*

The church of St George^, Bloonsfbury^ is alfo one of
the fifty new churches ereded by a6t' of parliament.
It is diftinguifhed from all the reft by fbuiding fouth
and norths and by the ftatue of King George I. at the
top of its pyramidaF fteeple. t^

In Lamb's Conduit-fields, on the nordi fide of the Fouudii^g
town, is. a large and commoclieus fhrtt<fture caUed the-^^^J^
FoundJmg'hofpita/y for the reception of expofed and
diverted children. This laudable charity was proje^-
ed' by feveral eminent merchaats in the reign of queea
Anne ; but was not carried into execution till, many
years afterwards, when a charter for its eftablifhment
was obtained, through the indisfiitigable affiduity of
Mr Thomas Coram, the comaaandcr of. a merchant
veflel, who fpent the remainder of his life in promoting;
this defign. From the time of its infiitution, the
parliament has occafionally granted confiderable fuma
for its fupport ; and in fome years upwards of 60OQ
infants have been received.

Nfit b±, from hence is an HoJ^tolfor the SmaU^fox ^

ani'

ION

j ^gjondofi. and m dtftwat MrU ttf >tlHr te«» jherc m otbcft»

^^ •" ' cither for |bc fick df aU kindi* or thoft in parttcubr

^ circomftaacct. Of the kttev ax« federal Lying'4H hof-

( /i/a//» and tkc Lo^i^^Lal for female patients in the

yenered difeafe. Of thie former are St Geortt^i and

i£o ^ MUdicfix hofpitalsf befides feveral inRnnanes.

Cr»7*s ino. Grafs Inn is one of the four principal inns of court ;

which> though ihuatcd within the limits of the parifh

of St Andrewi Hoiboniy it yet without the liberties

of the city of London. It took its name from an

ancient family of the name of Gray, which formerly

J.ircoln'f

I5«

^ufe.

269 3 L O N

Ae recommendatioo of the latter that all penfioncra ^^"j^,
and youths are reeeired into the hofpitaL They con- ^ -^
fift of 1 69 of which number the king is always crtke»
and the others are generally nobkmen of the firft rank.
To this hofpital belong a mafter^ a preacher 9 two
fchoolmafters, a phyikiaoi a tegifter» a receiver^ a
treafurer, a ftewaxd^ an auditor^ and other officers;
and the annual revenues of it being upw iucreafed to
ttpv^ arda of L. 600O9 five- men and four boys have been^
added to the original number. ^

In the parifh of St Luke (binds the Haberdalhers ^i^qI,
teiided here» and in the rcijfn of £dward III. dcmifed alms-houfe, or j1fte*s Hofpiialf fo called from having HofpitaL
it to fome lludents in the law ; but it is faid to have been ere^ed by the company of haberdafhcrs, purfuant
been afterwards conveyed to the monks of Shene, near to the will of Robert Alke, £fq; one of their one m-
Richmond in Surry, who leafed it to the fociety of bers, who left L» 50,000 for the building and the re-
the Inn. It was held by this tenure till the diflblutton lief of 20 poor members of the company ; befides the
^i the monaAeriesy when Henry VII L grranted it to maintenance and education of 20 boys, fons of decay-
the fociety in f«c-&rm. This inn confifts chiefly of two ed freemen of the &me comp;:;iy. This U a large
.quadranglesy and has an old hdl well built of timber^ edifice of brick and ftone» 400 feet long, with a piazza ^

in front 340 feet in length, confiding of ftone co-
lumns of the Tufcan order. In the middle of the -
building is a chapel, adorned with colui;ins, entabla-
turcsy and pediment, of the Ionic order ; and under
the pediment is a niche, with a ftatue of the founder.
In the fame parifh is the Iron-mongers hofpital, like-
wife a large building.

In the pariih of St Mary, Whitechapel, ftands the
Lmdrm Ho/pitaly for the reception of the fick. * It is
a large buUdingj and was ereded a few years iince by
vokintary contribution. Here are alfo fome confi-
dcrablc alms-houfes.

with a chapel in the Gothk ftyle. Here is alfo a good
libjfary, and the Inn is accommodated with a fpacious
garden.

lMColn*4-Ihny another of the four principal inns of
court* was originally the palace of Ralph NeviUe bifhop
of Chichefter, and chancellor of England about the
year 1 2 26. It afterwards devolved to the earl of Lin-
coln, who converted it into a court for the fludents of
law <ibout the year 13 10. From him it received the
name of Liofcoln's-inn, and coniifted only of what is
now called the old fquare, which is entered from Chan-
cery-lane. At prefent this fquare contains, befides
buildinflrs for the lawyers, a large hall where the lord
chancellor hearrcaufes in the (ittinga after tenn. To
this inn belongs likewife a fine garden, which has late*
ly been diminiihed by the building of fome large and
commodious offices, for the ufe oif the fix clerks in
the court of Chancery, &c.

In the' parifh of St James, ClerkenweU, is an hofpi-

already

moft remarkakable at prefent are, Burlington-houfe,
Devonfhire-houfe, Egremout-houfe, andBedford-houfe;
CarLrton-houfe, t!ie magnificent abode of the prince of
Wales, and the fuperb refidence ere£ied by the duke

tal called the CbarUr-houJe^ which is a corruption of of York between the Treafury and the Horfc-g«ards

the word chartmixy a name formeriy ufed fora convent
or priory of the Carthufians,. which this place for-
meriy was. After the difiblution of monafteries it
fell to the earl of Suffolk^ who difpofed of it to Tho-
mas Sutton, £fq; a citizen of London, in the time of
Ling James I. for L. 13,000. ,The purchafer intend-
ing it for an hofpital, applied to the kingfov a4>atent,
which he obtained in 161 1,. and the grant was con/>
finned by parliament in 1623. Mr Sutton having ex-
pended L.7000 in fitting up the buildings, gave it
the name of king James's ' hofpital, and endowed it
with lands to the amount of near L. 4500 a-year, for

To thefc may be added, Montagn-Jytm/e (now the3^jj^|{ "
Britifh Mufeum) ; which was- )^uilt on a French planMufetunw
by the firil duke of Montagu, who had been ambaf-
fador in France. The ftaircafe and ceilings were paint-
ed by Roufleau and La Fofle t- the apothecfis of Iris,
and the afieinbly of the gods, arc by the laA. It >%'a8
purchafedof the duke's heirs by parliament, for uniting
together the Royal,. Cottonian> Harleian, Sloanian,
and other coUedlions of books, MSS. coins, antiqui-
ties, fubjetWin natural hiftory, &c* &c. for the public
ufe^ for which it is excellently adapted. The firil of
thefe libraries contains the books and MSS. of our

the maintenance of So gentlemen, merchants or fol* princes from Henry VII. to Charles II. ; the fccond
diers, who ihould be reduced to indigent circumftances^ the MSS.^ coUeded by Sir Robert Cotton, bis fon,
aad 40 boys,, to be intruded in clauical learning. The and grandlbn Sir John,, which lail gave it to the public
men are provided with handfome apartments,, and aU by a6^ 12 and 13 William III. c. 7. The Harleian
the neceffaries of life except clothes ; inftead of whid» colle6lion of MSS. was formed by Edward earl of Ox-
each of them is allowed a.gown^. and L.7 a-year. Of ford, and purchafed by government in 17531 ^^ ^^^
the bpyf, 29 arc. at » proper time lent to the univer- fame time with the Lbrary, MSS. and natural curiofi-
fity, where each has an allowance of L.20 a-year for ties of Sir Hans Sloane. This laft coil Sir Hans

eight years. Others, who are judged more fit for
trade,, arc put out apprentices,, and the fum of L.40
is given witk each of them. As a farther encpwrage-
ment to the fchohurs, there are ntne^ ecdefiaftical pre-
fcxacata ia the gift of the govcmoii^ It is alfo by

L. 50,000 ). and he left it,, by -will, to the ufe of the
public, on condition that the parliament would pay
L. 20,000 to his executors. It comprehends an ama»
zing number of curiofities ; among which are, the
library^ including books of ^rawingR^ MSS. andprintSy.

a'^ountiPjg"

iL O N

•C 270 ]]

L o> k:

^.4*on dfln. ftmonntii)^ to about 50»ooo «>luine9 ; mednlaand coins^
"- » ancient and modern, 20*000 ; cameos and intaglios*
about 700 ; feals, 268 ; veflcU, 5cc. of agate, jalpcr,
.&c, 542 ; antiquities* 1125 ; precious iloncs, agates,
jafper, 4cc. 2256 ; metals, mincrab, ores, &c. 2725 ;
cryllal, fpars, 8cc* 1864.; foilllsf flints, Kones, 1275$
earths, fands* ialtt, 1035 ; bitumens, fulphurs, ambers*
&c* 399 ; talcs». rales. Sec. 388 ; corals, fpunges, &c.
1421 ; teftacea, or/lieUsy&c. 5B43 ; echini, echinitat,
&c. 659 ; afteriaei trochi, entrochi* dec. 241 ; crufta-
cex, crabs, lobfters, &c. 363 ; ftellae marinse^ ftar-flihes,
tec. 173; fi(h, and their parts, &c. 1555; ^ir<^s, and
their parts, eggs, and nells, of different ipecies, 1 172 ;
quadrupeds, &c. 1886 ; vipers, ferpents, &c. 521 ; in-
fers, &c. 5439 ; vegetables, 1 2,506 ; hortus ficcus,
«r volumes of dried plants, 334; humani, as calculi,
anatomical preparations, 756 ; mifcellaneous things*
natural, 2098 ; mathematical inilruments* 55. Aca-*
talogue of all the above is Mrritten in a number of
large vohimes. It is a large and magnificent buildings
and has behind it a garden* confiliing nearly of nine
.*5* acres.

f^jwirS^icc. l^cfides a great number of fpacious ftrects, which
are daily increaiing, this part of the metropoli* is or-
namented with feveral magnificent fquares, viz. Grof-
venor-fquare, Berkeley -fquare, Portman-fquare, Ca-
rendifli-fquare, Hanover-fquare, St JamesVfquarc, So-
ho-fquare, Bloomfliury-fquare, Queen^s-fquare, Lin-
coln 's-lna-fi elds, Leicefter-fquare, Red-Lion^iquare,
fome of which have been particuhrly defcribed; not
to mention others that are at prefent building. In
general, the new buildings in the liberty of Wcftmin-
iter have increafed to a prodigious degree ; infomuch
that they reach as far as Mary bone to the.n.)rth, Pic-
cadilly to the fouth*. and Hyde-Par k-wall to the
weft.

Before the con&igsation in 1666, London (which*
inoonveni- like moft other great /lities, had arifen from fmall be*
*»* »"d un- ginniijgs) was totally inelegant, inconvenient, and un-

^luuuij* healthy, of which latter misfortune many mefancholy
proofs are authenticated in iiiftory, and whkh, with-
out doubt, proceeded from the narrownels of the
.flreets, and the unaccountable proje^ions of the
buildings, that confined the putrid air, and joined
with other circumilances, fuch as the want of water,
rendered the city feldom free from peftilential devafta-

157
Xoodon

anciently

UDiyerfoj mid of'COQ.feqtieiiee muft*£nomiihe prodigious X^<«^^
re fort of foreigners of diftind^on andxaite *vho would ^ ^
have viiited it^ have become an inexkaufUble fund of
rithes to this nation* But as the deplorable bUndnefs of
that age has deprived us of fo valuable an acquisition,
it is become abfolutdy necefFary that fome effoxta
fliould be made to render the prefent plaa in a greater
degree anfwerable to the charader cif the richeii and
xnoit powerful people in the world. jfl

The plan of London, in its .prefent ftate* will in tt« plaa ^
many iRflances appear to very moderate judges to bc*^^*^*^
as injudicious a difpofltioQ as can eaiily be conceived
for a city of trade and commerce, on the borders of
fo noble a river as the Thames. The wharfs and quays
on its banks are extremely mean and inconvenient;
and the want of Kgularity and uniformity in the
ftreets of the city of London, and the mean avenues
to many parts of it* are alfo circumftances that greatly
leffen the grandeur of its appearance. Many of the
churches and other public buildingsare likewife thruft
qp in corners* in fuch a manner as mi^ht tempt fo-
reigners to believe that they were defigned to be con- ,
ce^ed. The improvements of the city of London for
fome years paft have, however, been very great ; and
the new itreets, which are numerous, are in general
more fpacious, and built with greater regularity and
elegance. 159

The very elegant and neceffary method of P*^^ng£2^ ***
and enlightening the ftreets is alfo felt in the moft fen-^ ^
iible manner by all ranks and degrees of people. The*
roads are continued for feveral miles around upon the
fame model ; and, exclufive of lamps regularly placed
on each fide, at (hort diftances, are rendered more fe*
"cure by watchmen ftationed within call of each other.
Nothing can appear more brilliant than thofe light*
when viewed at a diftance, efpecially where the roads
run acrofs ; and even the principal ftreets, fuchasPaU
Mall, New Bond-ftreet, Qxford-ftreet^ &c. convey an
idea of elegance and grandeur, j^

London, then* in its large'fenfe* including WefUWcJdiiaJ
minfter, Southwark, and part of Middlefex* fonM?^^*^
one great metropolis, of vaft extent and of prodi-^,^n«oiik
gious wealth. When confidered with all its advan- ^^
tages, it is now what ancient Rome once waa ; the
feat of liberty, the cncoiunger of arts, and the admi-'
ration of the whole world. It is the centre of trade ;

tion. The fire which confumed tlie greateft part of has an intimate connedUon with all the countiea in the
.the city, dreadful as it was to the inhabitants at that, kingdom; and is the grand mart of the nation* to
time, was productive of confequences which made which aU parts fend their commodities* firom whence
ample amends for the loffes fuftained by individuals ; they are again fent back into every town in the nation
a new city arofe on the ruins of the old ; but, though and to every part of the world. From hence innu-
inore regular, open, convenient, and healthful, than the merable carnages by land and water are conftantly em-
former, yet it by no means anfwered to the charadler9 ployed : and frum hence arifes that circulation in the
of magnificence or elegance, in many particulars; and it national body which renders every part healthful* vj*
ts ever to be lamented (fuch was the infatuation of gorous, and in a profperous condition ; a circulation
thofe times), that the magnificent, elegant, and ufeful that is equally beneficial to the head and the moft

plan of the great Sir Chriilopher Wren, was totally
difregarded, and facrificed to the mean and fellifh
views of private property ; views which did irreparable
injury to the citizens themfelves and to the nation in

dillant members. Merchants are here as rich as noble-
men; witnefs their incredible loans to government :.
and there is no place in the world where the fhops of
tradefmen make fuch a noble and elegant appearance*
general : for had that great architedl's plan been follow- or are better ftocked. 161

ed, what has often been alTerted muft have been the re- The Thames, on the banks of which London is ii-.J?**5*^
fult ; the metrojjolis of this kingdom would inconteflably tuatej, is a river which* though not the largeft* i«f<J^I^
ibavebeen the moft magnificent and elegant city in the the richeft and -moft comniodipuft for conunerce «fany.<iicicc.

cra>

X O N [27

Id. It 18 conttnu^y'fiHod'with fleeta^ faO-
• or From the moil diilant climates : and its banks,
X^ondon4>ridge to Blackwally form almoft on^
lued. ^eat magaicint: of naval lloree ; containing-

large wet-docks, 32 dry-docks, and 33 yards
le building of (liips for the ufe of the merchants ;
:rs the places allotted for the building of boats and
:rs, and the king's yards lower down the river
rie building of men of war. As the city is about
\\lcs diltant from the fca, it enjoys, by means of
3crcLutiful river, all the beneiits of navigation, with*
he danger of being furprifed by foreign fleets, or
tring annoyed by the moiil vapours of the fea.
fes regularly from the water-fide, and, extending

on both fides along its banks, reaches a prodi-
9 length from eall to well in a kind of amphi-
tre towards the north, and is continued for near
uiles on all fides, in a fuccefHon of magnificent
s and populous villages, the country-feats of gentle-

and tradefmen ; whither Che latter retire for the

^Et of frcfh air, and* to relax their minds from the

ry of buiinefs. The regard pa>i by tlie legiflaturc

he property of the fubjc«St, has hitherto prevented

bounds being fixed for its extenlion.
The irregular form of London makes it diiHcuIt to
'^rtain its extent. However, its leneth ^om ead to
t is gene) ally allowed to be above (even miles from
'dc-purk corner to Poplar ; and its breadth in fome
ces thrce, in others two, and in others again not

ch above half a mile. Hence the circumference of

: whole is almofl 1 8 miles ; or, according to a later

afurement, the extent of continued buildings is 35

les two furlongs and 39 roods. But it is much eafier

' form an idea of the large extent of a city fo irrc-

Jarly built by the number of the people, who are

■ niputed to be near a million.; and from the number

: edifices devoted to the fervice of religion.

Of thefe, befide St Paul's cathedral and the coUe*

.-ate church at Weflminfler, here are 102 parifh*

lurches, and 69 chapels, of the eflablifhed religion :

I French proteilant chapels ; 1 1 chapels belonging

> the Germans, Dutch, Danes, &c. ; 26 independent

leetings ; 34 prefby terian meetings ^ 20 baptili meet-

igs ; 19 popifli chapels, and meeting-hoiifes for the

.i'e of foreign ambaffadors and' people of various fe^s^

nd three Jews fynagogues. So that there are 305

Aaces devoted to religious worfhip in the compafs of

his vail pile of buildings, without reckoning the 2.1

jut-parifhes ufually included in the bills of mortality,

^md a great number of methodifl tabernacles.

There are alfo in and near this city 100 alms-houfes,
.about 20 hofpitals and infirmaries, 3 cQlle&;es,.io public
prifons, 15 flefh-markets \ one market ror live cattle \
two other markets more particularly for herbs ; and 23
"other markets for com, coals, hay,.&c. $.15 inns of
court, 27 public fquares, befides thofe within fingle
; buildings, as the Temple, &c. ; 3 bridges,. 55 halls
' for companies,. 8 public fchools, called free-fchools ;
' and iji cbarity-fenools, which provide education for
\ 5034 poor children ; 207 inns^447 taverns, 551 cof-
[ fcchoufes, 5973 alehoufes; looo hackney-coaches f
' 400 ditto chairs ; 7000 ffa-eets, lanes, courts, and al- ^
f leys, 'and ijo,ooo dwelling-houfes, containing, as has
^beeo already obferved, about 1,000,000 inhabitants ;

t ] L' o N

who, according to a moderate eflimate, are fappofed X^o^ob
to confumc the following provifioas weekly :

1000 Bollocks, at 61. a-piece
6000 Sheep, at 12 s. a-piece
2000 Calves, at il. 43. a-piece
3000 Lambs, at 8 s. a-piece, for fix

months - - - - . -
1500 Hogs in pork and bacon, at 208.

for fix months - - - •

2000 Pigs, at 2s. 6d. a-piece
1000 Turkies, at 33* 6 d. a-piece, for

{lyi months ...

rooo Geefe, at 2s, j6d. a-piece, for fix

months .' - -

2000 Capons, at is. 8d. a-piece
500 Dozens of Chickens at 9% per

dozen ....
4300 Ducks, at 9d. a*piece
1500 Dozen of rabbits, at 7 s. per do-
zen, for eight months
2000 Dozen of pigeons, at 28. per

dozen, for eight months
700 Dosen of wild-fo\v*l, of feveral forts,

for fix months
in fait and frefh fifh, at x d. a-day, for

half a milhon of people for one week 1 4^5 8 3
In bread of all forts, white and brown

at id. a-day, for one million of peo*

pie for a week ...
300 Tons of wine, of all forts, at 50L

a ton, one fort with another, for one

week - - .

In milk, butter, cheefe, &c« at i.d. a*

day, for a million of people for a^

week • -

In fniit of all forts, at one farthing a-

day,.for a million of people for a

week' - . . •

In eggs of hens, . ducks, geefe, &c. at

half a farthing a-day, for a millioa

of people for a \veek
Ib beer andak, fbrong and fmall,.at 2 d.

a-day,.for a million of people for a .

week. -. - - .. -
In fugar, plums, and' fpice, and all

forts of grocery, at a halfpenny a*

day, for. a million of .people for. a

week - • - . -

In wheat-flour, for pies and pudding$^.

oatmeal and rice, &c. at half a far-
thing a^yy.for a.imllion .of people^

for a week
In fait, oil, vinegar, capers^ olives, .and.

other, fauces, at half a .farthing a-

day, for. a milUoa oL people fotat.

weeki
In roots and 'herbs of'aU forts, both. for.

food and phyfic, at half a farthing .

arday, for a million of 'people for. a

week • - f.
In iea-coal, charcoal, candles, and fire-
wood* of kll forts^ at I d.. a-day, for •

a million of j^ople for a week . 29,.i66 13-4

Ia»

s, d*

6000

3600

2400

1200

1500

250

. -*

175

125

. 166

13 2

225

■

161

s^s

•

t ■

200

850

14*583

6 ^

29,166

13 4

15,000
29,166

00 »^

Weekly

confumpc^
of pro¥i*
I3,4iioDS.

7291

^3 4

5645 ^6 4

5?.333 « 8

M»J&3. 6 8

3645. 16 8

364J 16 a

3645.11 r

fjondoa,

derry

7*91 13 4

364; 16 8

167

Bring,
porter, &c.

L O N C

In psTpcr of all forts ^a great ({nantity

being ufed in printing) quiUty pens,

inky and wax» at a tarthtng a-day^

for amillion of people for a week
In tobaccoi pipes, and fnafF, at half a

£irtliing a-dayy for a million of pe^jpk

for a week • - •' 4
in cloathiagt as linen' and woolleni

for men, women, and children*

ihoeSy dockings, &c. at 3 s. 6 d. fet

week, for a mifiion oi people fbr-

a week - - - -
Expences for horfe-meat, in hay, oatif

beans, icoo load of hay a-week, at

40 8. a«load, comes to 2000 1. in

oats and beans the like value, 2000L

which is in all, for one week
Cyder, mtim, brandy, ftrong watery

coffee, chocolate, tea, &c. at id.

a-day, for a million of pe6ple for one
• week - - . -

The common firing it pit-coal, commonly caU<

271
by

I759OOO O

4000 O Q

29,166 13 4
ei

L N

00 die eafr, frcrm wliich it is pitted tiy the Loihloti
river Bann ; by Dooegsd on the weft; and that county ^^T*
and the Deucalcdoniaa ocean on the north. Its
greateft length is about 36 miles, its breadth 30, con-
taining about 25i,$io acres* The bogs and heaths
of, this county are manured with fea-(hells, as thofe
of Donegal. Like that, too, it is pretty champaign,
and not unfruitful. It is particularly noted for a very
clear river called the Barm^ abounding with ialmon, a
fi(h &id t6 delight in limpid dreams. This river, to
diftinguiih it from a lefTer of the fame name, is caJled
Xh$ Greater or Lower Bonn, In order to cultxvatef
fettle, and civilize this county, king James I. granted
it, by letters-patent, to a fociety, by the name of the
Governor and AjpfianU at London of the neto flantathm
of l/ifier hi the recAm of Ireland^ It contains fix ba-*
ronies } and, befides the two knights of the fhire, fends
to parliament two members for the* city of London*
deny, and two each for Colcraine and Newtek-Lima-*
vadj or Lamnevady.

LortDONDERav, or Derry^ the capital of the Gounty^
and the fee of a bifkop, ftands at the bottom of Lough^

Supply of
water.

169

111 Air At! ce
companies.

fea^oaU of which there are confumed upwards of Foyle. This city has a very good port, to which (hips

766,8^0 chaldrons cveiy year. The annual confump- of the greateft burden have tfccefs, and a confiderable

tion of oil in London and Weftminfter for lamps, * a- trade. It will be ever famous for the gallantry and

mounts to 400,000!. In 1787, the quantity of por- perfeverance with which it defended itielf in three

ter brewed in London for home-confumptton and fo- memorable fieges, in defiance of the greateft hardfhips

reign exportation, amounted to 1,176,856 barrels. and difcouragements, namely, ift. In 1641, when the

This great and populous city is happily fupplied rebels could not reduce it either by fraud or forci<

fnth abundance of fre/h water irom the Thames and adly, In 1649, when it was befieged by the Lord ArdeSf

the New River } which is not only of inconceivable and reduced almoft to extremity by famine, till at kft

fervice to every family, but by means of fire-plugs reh'eved by troops fent from England. 3dly, When

every where difperfcd, the keys of which are depofited it held out agaxnft the French and Irifh from the 7th

with tlie panfh-officers, the city is in a great meafure of December 1668 to the laft day of July 1689,

fecured fi-om the fpreading of fire ; for thefe plugs are though it was neither well fortified nor provided with

no fooner opened, than there are vaft quantities of wa- a garrifon or ftores of provifion and ammunition, and

ter to fupply the engines. This plenty of vrater has hardly any attempt made to relieve it during fo long a

been attended with another advantajTe,' it has given time. Though the city h 2o miles up the nver, yet

rife to feveral companies, who injure houfes and very large /hips can come Up to the quay, where there

goods from fire ; an advantage that is not to be arc four or five fathoms of water. It is now well forti-

met with in any other nation on earth : the premium fied with a ftrong wall, befides outworks \ and along

is fmall, and the recovery in cafe of lofs is eafy and the banks of the river are feveral caftles and a fort*

certain. Every one of thefe offices keep a fet of This city is of no great antiquity^ having been bmlt

men in pay, who are ready at all hours to give their and planted in the reign of James I. by a colony fent

alliftance in cafe of fire ; and who are on all occafions by the fociety abovementioned. The trade of the

extremely bold, dexterous, and diligent : but though town is very confiderable, ha^'ing not only a large

t70
Places of
diverfion,

all their labours fhould prove unfuccefsful, the peHon
who fuffers by this devouring element has tha com-
fort that muft arife from a certainty of being paid
the value ^upon oath) of what he has infured.

(hare in the herring-fifhery, but fending (hips alfo to
the Weft-Indies, New-England, and Newfoundland,
for which they are fo .advantageoufly fituated, that a
vcflel bound from thence to America often arrives

llie places for diverfion are, Vauxhall, Ranelagh- there before a London ftiip can get clear of the found-

gardens, the two play-houfes, one of them rebuilding, ings, or arrive in the latitude of Londonderry. Tho*

the Pantheon lately burnt down ; and the little theatre there are a great many (hallows in Lough-Foylcf

in the Hay-market, with Sadlers-weDs, Hughes's Cir- which ferve it inftoad of a road \ yet they are eafily

cus, and Aftley's Royal-Grove, &c. The fineft repo- avoided, as there are deep channels between them«

fitories of rarities and natural hiftorjr, are Sir Hans Thofe points called Emtftone^ RuJtirhuU^ or CaldjUwff

Stoane's, in the Britifh Mufeum, already deferibed ; which lie a little to the weft of the mouth of the bar-

and apother colle^ed by the late Sir Afhton Lever, now
the private properly of Mr Parkinfon, and depofited in
proper apartments fi^r public infpe£tion, near the foUth
ena of Bbckfriars bridge.

hour, are counted the moft northerly of Ireland, lying
in lat. ^^, 20. The inhabitants of this city are al-
moft all Proteftants. It gave title of earl and haron
to a branch of the fiunily of Pitt, which became ex-

LONDONDERRY, or Colerain, a county of tin6^ in 1764; but part of the title was revived in

Ireland, in the province of Ulfter. It is bounded on Robert Stewart, who was created Baron Lbndonder-

the fouth and fouth-weft by the county of Tyronne ; ry in 1789. A late travellrr fays, •* Derry is, per-

N'^iSj. 6 hapSf-

t O N

F 273 ]

L O N

^•y tK« cleaneft» beftbuflty and moft beautifully litu-
'^d town in Irelaad ; and» excepting Corke, as'cen-
^ient ai any for cominercey foreign and domeftic*^'
" Jie lake almoft furrounds it ^ and the whole ground-
' ot both of it and its Liberties belongs ^o the 1 2 great
tympanies of London^ Great quantities of falmon,
' Ited and barrelled, are exported from hence to Ame-

>ca.

. IL.ONG9 an epithet given to whatever exceeds the
fual ftandard of length.

Z.oNCf'Boat^ the kxgeft and (Irong^ft boat be-
>ngi.ig to any fhip. It is principally employed to
irry great burdens, as anchors, cables, ballail, &c.
ce Boat.

ILONG ( Roger), D. D. maftcr of Pembroke-hall
1 Cambridge, Lowildes*s profelTor of aftrohomy in that
niveriity, redlor of Cherryhinton in Huntingdonfhire,
nd ol" Brad well /(^x/^i mare in EfTex, was author of a
vcU-known and much approved treatife of aftronomy,
nd. the inventor of a remarkably curious, agronomical
nachine, thus defcribed by hinuelf.* ** I have, in a
oom lately built in Pembroke-hall, ere&ed a fpho^
if 1 8 feet diameter, wherein above 30 perfons may fit
lonvevently ; the entratice into it is over the fouth pole
>y fix fleps ; the frame of the fphere confifts of a num«
>er of iron meridians, not complete femicircles, the
lorthern ends of which are fcrewed to a hrge round
ilate of brafs, with an hole in the Centre of it ; thro'
his hole, from a beam in the cieling, comes the north
>ole, a round iron rod, about three inches long, and
iipports the upf)er parts of the fphere to its piflper
levation for Vxt latitude of Cambridge ; the lower
lart of the fphere, fo much of It as is invifible in £ng-
and, is cut off; and the lower or fouthern ends of the
neridians, or truncated femicircles, terminate on, and
ire fcrewed down to, a (Irong circle of oak, of about
[ 3 feet diameter ; which, when tibe fphere* is put
nto motion, runs upon large rollers of lignum vitoe, in
he manner that the t6ps of fome windmills are
nade to turn 4X)und. Upon the iron meridians is fix-
d a zodiac of tin painted blue, whereon the ecliptic
nd heliocentric orbits of the planets are drawn, and
he conilellations and ftars traced : the Great and Little
3ear and Draco are aheady painted in their places
ound the north pole ; the reft of the conilellations are
iropofed to follow : the whole is turned round with a
mall winch, vnth as little bbpur as it takes to wind
ip a jack, tJiough the weight of the iron, tin, and
rooden circle, is about 1000 pounds. When it is
nade ufe of, a planetarium will be placed in the middle
hereof. The whole, with the floor, is well fupported
ty a frame of large timber." Thus far Dr I^ong,
»efore this curious piece of mechanifm was perfe^ed.
iince the above was written, the fphere has been com-
iletely finished ; all the conilellations and ftars of the
lorthern hemifphere, viiible at Cambridge, are paint-
d in their proper places upon plates of iron joined
ogethcr, which form one concave furface. Dr Long
>uhlinied a Commencement Sermon 1728 ; and anan-
wer t6 Dr (Galley's pamphlet on Greek Accents ; and
lied December i6th 1770, at the age of 91. A< the
naterialsfor this article are fcanty,we (hall fubjoin, from
he Gentleman's Magazine f, a few traiu of hiin^ as
Iclineated in 1769 by Mr Jones. " He is now in
he 88th year of hit age, and for his years vegete and

Vot.X.PartL

aAive. Be was lately (in Odobcr) put in tMsSM^t^fS^t^*
. tion for the office of vice-chancellor. H* executed,
that truil once before, I think in the year 1737 ; a
very ingenious perfon, and fometimes very &cetioiiS.
At^the public commencement in the year 1713, Dr
Greene (mailer of Bennet college, and afterwards bi-
ihop of Ely* being then vice chancellor, Mr Long
was pitched upon for the tripos-performance ; it was
Witty and humorous, and has paiTed through divers
editions. Some that remembered the delivery of it,
told me, that in addreffing the vice-chancellor (whoaa
the univerfity wags ufually ilyled Mifi Greene)^ the
tnpos-orator, being a native of Norfolk, and affuming
the Norfolk dialed, inilead of faying, Domwt Vlce»
Cance/larkf did very archly pronounce the words thusi
Doming yice'CanceUartSL ; which occaiioned a generid
fmile in that great auditory. His friend the late Mr
Bonfoy of Ripton told me thia little incident, « That
he and Dr Long walking together in Cambridge in a
duflcy evening, and coming to a fhort f>ofi fixed in the
pavement, which Mr B. in the midil of chat and inat<»
tention, took to be a A^ ilanding in his way, he {aid
in a hurry, « Get out of my way,. boy.* • Tbat %,
Sir/ laid the Dodor very calmly and flily, is a poft-
boy, nvho turns out of bis way for nobody •^--^l could re-
colle6l feveral other ingenious repartees if there were oc-
caiion. One thing is remarkable, he never wafi ahale and
hearty man, always of a tender and delicate conilitu-
tion, yet took great care of it. His common drink
water ; he always dines with the fellows in the hall.
Of late years he has left off eat^ing flefli^mcats; in the
room thereof, puddings, vegetables, &c. fometimes a
glafs or twQ, of wine."

LONGEVITY, length of life.

From the different longevities of mert in the begin-
ning of the world, after the flood, and in thefe ages,
Mr Derham draws an argument for the interpoiltiofl
of a divine Providence.

. Immediately after the creation, when the world was
to be peopled by one man and. one woman, the ordi-
nary age was 900 and. upwards. — Immediately after
the flood, when there were three perfons to ilock the
world, their age was cut ihorter, and none of thofe
patriarchs, hut Shem, arrived at 500. In the fecond
century we And none that reached 240 : in the'thirdt
none but Terah that came to 200 years ; the world*
at leaft a part of k, by that time being fb well
peopled, that they had built cities, and were canton-
ed out into diftant nations. — By degrees, as the
number of people increafed, their longevity dwindled,
till it came down at length to 70 or 80 years ^ and
there it ilood, and has continued to ftand ever iince
the time of Mofes.— rThis is found a good medium^
and by means hereof the world is neither overilocked»
nor kept too thin ; but life and death keep a pretty
equal pace.

That the common duration ^f man's life has been
the fame in aD ages iince the above period, is plain
both from facred and profane hiftory. To pa^ by
others, Plate lived to 8 1', and was accounted an old
man : and the inilances of longevity produced by PKny
L. vii. c. 4B« as very 5eztra6rdinary, may mofl of them
be matched in modem hiilories. — In the ibllowing
Tables are collected Into one point of view the moft
memorable inflaaces of long-lrved perfens of whofe age
^ ' M m ^ we

1 O If I 174 1 L' O^ M

Loagfwrfty. ifft have aay muheiitib records. The firft and feeond gill } who bfeitedthemt accompanledlix »durd, t^iy
2" • are extm^ed from Mr Wbuehurfi*s Inquiry into the Origin ther with a number of u£e£ul obfeYTatiojis, la the did r> ^
0p4Strata QftbeJBartii'mih fome addkioDaby DrFother* lume of theMeinair»of the Maodieiler Literary Socktj*

Names of the perfont, {Agesj Placet of Ahode,

Thomat Parre-

Henry Jenkina

Robert Montgomery
James Sanda
[Hh Wife ^
CouDtefs of Definoad

Eckflon

J. Sagar

^— Laarence

-Simon Sack

CoL Thomas Winllow

Francis Con£ft

ChriA. J« Drakenberg

Margaret Forfler

her daughter

Francis Bona

John Brookey

James Bowela.

John Tice

John Mount

A. GoUfmtth

;Mary Yatea

John Bales

William EUia

Louifa Truxo, a Negrela

Margaret Patten

Janet Taylor

Richard Lloyd

^uiaanah Hilliar

Ann Cockbolt

JaneaHayley

152

169

126
140
120
140

143
112

140

141

146

150

146

136

104

121

1134
152

"5
136

140

i.28
126

ns
138

108

1^33
zoo-

K>5
112

Livfug or Dead*

Shropfkire
Yorkflure

Piuo

Staffoidihire.

Ditto

Ireland

Ditto

Lancaihire

Scotland

Trionia

Ireland

Yorkshire

Norway

Cumberland.

Ditto

France

.Devonihirc

Killingworth

Worcefterfiiirc

Scotland

France

Shropfliire

Nortiiamptoii

Liimrpool

Tucomea, S. America

Lockneugh near Paliley

Fintray, Sc6tland

Montgomery

Piddington» Northampfh.

Stoke-^ruerne, /i.

Died November 16* 1635.

Phil. Tranf. N' 44.
Died December 8. 1670.
PhiLTranf. N^22i.
Died in -^ — 1670.
> Do Fuller's Worthies

i ^ P-47-

Raleigh's Hlfl. p. 166.

Died — — 1691. (a.)

-— — — x66S. (b)

Living — — (c)

Died May 30. 1764.

Aug* 26* 1766.

Jan. — 1768.

June 24* 1770. (d)

V Both Kving x??'*

Died Feb. 6. 1769.

Living 1777. (e)

Died Aug. 15. 1656 (r)
March> 1774- (c)
Feb. 27. 1766. (h)
June — 1776. (1)
— — 1776.(11)
April 5. 1766.(0
Aug. 16. 1780. (m)
Living OcL 5. 1780. (n)
Lynche's Guide to Health
Died 06Lio. 1780.
Lynche's Guide to Health
Died Feb. 19. 1781 (o)
Aprfly. 1775 (f)
March 17. 1781 (qJ

___ Middlewich, Che(hirc ^

WiSiaiB. Walker,, aged i r2» not mentioned above* vho was a foldier at the

battle of Edge-hiH.

Vve look back tx> an early period of the Chriftian
mrdif we ihall find that Italy has been, at leaft about
that time, peculiarly propitious to longevity. Lord
Bacon obferves that the year of our Lord 76,. in the Ita Parma
veign of Vefpafian, vi^as memoiable ;. for in that year
was a taxing which aflbrded the moft authentic method
of knowing the ages of men. From it^ there were
ft>und in that part dt Italy lying between,the Apennine
mountains and the rirer Po 124 perfons who ekher
aqiiaBed or exceeded 100 years of age, namely :

54 perfons of 100 Years each.

J7 - - iw
a. -■ - X25'

4 perfons of 130 Years*

In Bruflels
In Placent^
In Faventia

In Rtmino

4
3

I
1
I
6

136

140

120

130.

125.

13^

IIO:
I20'

150 leavs^ «/^.
Marcus ApocicL

<a) Fuller's Worthies,, pi 140.
(m) Pha. Trt»£ abridged ^ Lowtlioip, Vol III.
?• 3^* ^*

Jc) Deiham'a HiyficcTheOfegy, p. 173,.
a) Asnoal Regifter.
(a) Daily Adveitifer, Nov. i5, 1777.,
(r) WanricWhife^
o) Daily Advertifer, March 1774,
h) MoniiftgPofti Feb. 29. 1776.
(t) Daily Adteatifcr, Jim 24, itj€.

(k) Daily Advertifer, Aug. 22. L776:

(l) See Infcription in the portica o£ All-Saiats

ohurch.
(ji) London EiFcn. Pofl, Aug. 22.. x^Sow
(n) London Chronicle, Od« 5. . 1780.
0} Northamp. Mercury, Feb. 19. 1-781.
aj Well, known to perfons. of credit of^Noitk
ampton.
{f^ Geo. EYcning^Pofty Abrch 24* tjSu

}

L N r

Mr Carew, in bil Turr^ of CornwaO, iflitres Ui>
Kat it isnounufoalthin^ with tbe inhabitants of that
ounty to reach 90 years of age and upffanby and
ven to retain thatr ftrcngth of body and perfed ufe
>f their fenfet. Befidee Brown^ the Cbrnifh beggar,
vho iired to i30« and one Pole^ew to 130 yean of
fcge, he remembered the deccafe. of four pcrfoos in hia
» wn parifh^ the fum of whofe years, taken coUcdtvelyy
fmountcd to 340. Now, although longevity evident-

*7S "i 1^0 N

Vf prevails fnore in eertain iliftriAs-tiMUi m,o^Mt yet fcwf *^*
it U'by DO means confined to any particular nation ot ' ^"^^^
climate ; nor are there wanting inftances of it, in al*
moft every quarter of the globe, as appHrs froih tha
preceding as wdl as the lubfequent Tables | which
might have been confidembly enlaiged, had it appear-
ed neceflary^ but- we h^ only added«^ in the lafty
three recent inftances that are peculiarly rpmark«
able.

Nunes of the Pcrfons.

Hippocrates, Phyfician
Democritus, Philofopher
Galen, Phyfician
Albuna, Marc

Dumitur Radiily

Titps FuUonius

Abraham Paiba

L. Tertulla

Lewis Comaro

.Robert Blakeney, £fq.

Margaret Scott

W. Gulftone

J. Bright

William Poftdl

Jane Reeves

W. Paulet, Marquis of

Winchefter
John Wilfon
Patrick Wiatt
M. Laurence

Evan Williams

John Jacobs (a)

Matthew Tait(8)

Donald Macleod(T)

Age,

104
X09
140
150

140

150

137
100

1.14

X40
105
lao
103

106

116

"5
140

HS
lai

104

Places of Abode^

liland of Cos

Abd^ra

Pergamus

Ethiopia

Harodifzeck, Tranfyl-

vania
Bononia

14^ [ Charlellown, South-Car.
Armioiuafi
•Venice

Armaghi Ireland
SaikeTth» Scotland
Ireland
Ludl6w
Fnmce
Eifes

Hamplhire

Suffolk

Leiburyi Northumber^«

Orcades

Caennarthen work-houfe,

ilillaUve
Mount Jura

Auchinleck, Airfhire.

IfleofSky. Alive Jan.

Where recorded.

Lynche on Healthy chap. 3.
Bacon's Hiftory, 1095^
Voff. InlL or lib. 3.
Hakewell's Ap. l£. x.
Died Jan. 18, 1782. Gen.

Gazetteer, April i8th.
Fulgofus, lib. 8.
General Gazetteer
Bu]gofu8 lib. 8.
Bacon's Hiii. of Life, p. 134*
General Gazetteer.
Infcrip. on her Tomb there.
Fuller's Worthies.
Lynche on Health*
Bacon's Hiftory, p. 134.
St J. Chron. June 14^ 1781.

Baker's Chrom p. 592.

Gen. Gaz. Od. 29^ 1782.
Plemp. Fundammed, § 4. c. 8.
Buchanan's Hift. of Scot.
Gen. Gazetteer* Od. 12,
178a.

All thepuUicprintSf Jan. 1 790.

Died Feb. 19. 1792. Edin.

Even. Cour. Mar. 8. 1792.

All the public prints at the end

of 1 7 90; 9iDd Memoirif &c. |

Mm 2

(a) This man, in 17B9, at the age of 12O9 quitted his native hills, and from the funrntit of Mount Jura undef-
took a journey toVcriailles, to behold and return thanks to the National AfiTembly for the vote which Had freed him
and his poor countrymen from the feudal yoke. In the early part of his life, he was a ferrant in the fiunil^
V>f the prince de Bcaufremont. His memory continued good to the laft day of hia Ufe ; •and the principal in*
conveniences which he felt from his great age were,, that his fight was weakenedt and the natural heat of hia
body was lb diminifhed, that he (hivered with cold in the middle of the dog-days if he was not fitting by a
good fire. This old man was received in the body of the houfe by the National Aflembly, indulged with a
chair, and dircded to keep on his hat lell he fhould catch cold if he was to fit uncovered. A colle6Uoll
Mas made for him by the members, which exceeded 500L Sterling ; but he lived not to return to Mount Junb
He was buried on Saturday the 31ft of January I790» with great funeral pony, m the parifh<hurch of St
Euilace at Paris.

s) He ferved as a private at the taking of Gibndtaf in 1704;^

't) Mmoin of the Life and gallant Exphnts of the Old Highlander S^eani Donald Macltodf ^c* publiihed Jaa* '
1 79 1, in the 103d year of his age. — ^This old gentleman, for it appears that he really is a gentleman both
by birth and by behaviour, was born in the year of the RevoliAiOit, in the parifh of Bracadill, in the iHe of
iSky and county of Invernefs, North Britain^' He is a t:adet of the faniily of Ulinifli in Sky ; -and defccnded^
through his mother, frx>m Macdonald of Slate, the ancellor of the prefent Lord Macdonald. The earlier
part of his Hfe coincided with the fatnine of feven years in Scotland ; which vvas fo great as to fuggeft, even
to the patriotic Mr Fletcher, the id^a of the people felling themfdves as (laves for immediate fubiiftence. He
was bred in the midil of want and liardfhips^ cold> hungev, and for 'the years of his apprenticeftiip with a
hiafon and ftone-cutter in Invernefs, in inccflant fatigue. He inlifted, when a boy, in the Scottiih fervice^
ia the town of Perthy in the' laft year of the reign of Xing WiHxam. The regiment into which he enlifted

ION r

Longeriey. The Antediluvians are purpofdy omittedy as beari n
too little reference to the prcfent race of mortals* to a
ford any fatisfadtory conclufions; and as they have been
already taken notice of in a feparate article ; (fee An-
tediluvians). As the improbable flories of fomc
perfoQs who have almoft rivalled them in modern
timcs> border too much' upon the marvellous to find
a place in > thefe tables^ the prefent examples are a-
bundantly fufficient to prove, that longevity does not
depend, I'o much as has been fuppofed, on any parti-
ticulair climate, lituation, or occupation in life : for
Vfc fee, that it often prevails in places where all
thefe are extremely diflimilar ; and it would, moreover,
be very di£Bcult, in the hiftories of the feveral perfons
above mentioned, to find any circumftance common to
them all, except, perhaps, that of being born of heal-
thy parents, and of being inured to daily labour, tem-
perance, and fimplicity /)f diet. Aitionjj the inferior
ranks of mankind, therefore, rather than among the
fons of eafe and luxury, fhall we find the moft nume-
rous ihilances of longevity; even frequently, when
other external circumltances feem extremely unfavour-
able : as in the cafe of the poor fexton at Peterbo-
rough,, who, notwithftanding his unpromifing occupa-
tion among dead bodies, lived long enough to bury two
crowned heads, and to furvive two complete genera-
tions. The livelihood of Henry Jenkins and old
Parre, is faid to have confifted- chiefly of the coarfeft
fare, as they depended on precarious alms. To which
may be added the remarkable inllance of Agnes Mil-
bourne, who, after bringing forth a numerous off-
fpring, and being obliged, through extreme indigence,
to pa(s the latter part of her life in St Luke's work-
boufe, yet reached her io6th year -in that fordid and
unfriendly fituation. The plain diet and invigorating
employments of a country life ^re acknowledged on
all hands to be highly conducive to health and longe-
vity, while the luxury and refinements of large cities
are allowed to be equally deftru^ve to the human fpe-
cies ;, and this confideration alone, perhaps^ more than

276 ] L O N I

counterbalances all the boafted ^rivileget of fixpensrl-J
elegance and civilization refulting from a city life. <-]

From country villages, and not from crowded c>
ties, have the preceding inftimces of longevity beta
chiefly fupplied. Accordingly it appears^ &oa tbe
London bills of mortality, during a period of 30 yeizi,
viz. from the year 1728 to 1758, the fuin of the
deaths amounted to 750,322, and that, in all thii
prodigious number, oidy 242 perfons furvived \l£
1 00th year of their age! This OTer;^own metn»-
polis is computed by Dr Price to contain a mc:}i
-part of the inhabitants of England, and to o^-
fume annually 7000 perfons, who remove into it
from the country every year, without iacreafiDg i«
He moreover obferves, that the number of iiih2b:t2£!i
in England and Wales has diminifhed about cme-foiatk
part fince the Revolution ; and fo rapidly of late, tiis:
in I r years, near 200,000 of our common peofk
have been lofl. If the calcidation be juft, ho was
alarming it may appear in a national view, there b
this confolation, when confidered in a philofbpbial
light, that without partial evil, there can be no gtac-
ral good ; and that what a nation lofes in the fca!c ct'
population at one period, it gains at another; aad
thus probably, the average number of inhabitanu <^
the furface of the globe continues at all times neaiif
the (ame. By this medium, the world is neither o?cr-
ftocked with inhabitants nor kept too thin, but Is
and death keep a tolerably equal pace. The inhabi-
tants of this ifland, comparatively fpeaking, are but 21
the duil of the balance ; yet inftead of being dimim:'-''
ed, we are aifured by other writers, that within th£S
30 yeass they are greatly increafed.

The dcfire of feif-prefervation, and of protrad%
the fliort fpan of life, ia fo hitimately inte rw o ven w^
our coniUtution, that it ia juftly eiteemed one of ^
firH principles of our nature, and, in fpite even of p^
and mifery, feldom quits us to the lad moments a
our exigence. It fecms, therefore^ to Be no lefs osr
duty than our intereii, to examine minutely into rhs

vaiuj^ii

was the Scots- Royals, commanded by the earl of Orkney. That old military corps, at that time, ufed bows s4
arrows as we]l as fwords, and wore fted caps. He ferved in Gerniany and Flanders under the duke of Marlborougi^
under the duke of Argyle in the rebellion 1715, in the Highland Watch, or companies raifed for enforcing
the laws in the Highlands ; in the fame companies when, under the name of the 42d regiment, they wet
fent abroad to Flanders, to join the army Under the duke of Cumberland ; in the fame regiment in Irelaiid,
and on the breaking out of the French war, I757> in America. From the 42d he was draughted to ^a
a drill ferjeant in the 78th regiment, in which he ferved at the redudiion of Louifburg and Quebec : After
this he became an out-penfioner of Chelfea Hofpital. But fuch was the fpirit of this brave and hardy ¥«.
teran, that he ferved in 1761 as a volunteer in Germany under the marquis of Granby ; and offered hj
iervices in the American war to Sir Henry Clinton ; who, though he declined to employ the old man b
the fatigues and dangers of ^ar, treated him with great kindnefs, allowed hihi a liberal weekly penfion out of bii
•wn pocket, and fent him home in a Ihip charged with difpatches to government. — ^The ferjeant, *« as Is
memory, according to the obfervation of his biographer, is impaired, does not pretend to make an exzd
tnumeration pf all his offspring : but he knows of 16 fons now living, 14 of whom are in the army and narr,
befides daughters ; the eldeft of whpm by his prefent wife is a mantuamaker in NewcaiUe. — His eldefl fik
If now 83 years old, and the youngeft only nine, i^or, in all probability, would this lad dofe the rear of
l^is imniediate progeny, if his prefent wife, the boy's mother, had not attained to the 49th year of her age*
-—In his prime, he did not exceed five feet and feven inches. He is now inclined though age to five feet
.five inches. He has an interefting phyfio^rnomy expreffive of fincerity, fenfibility, and manly courage. Ha
biognipher very properly fubmits it to the confiderarion of the Potygraphic Society, whether they might
not do a thing worthy of themfelves and their ingenious art, if they fliould multiply likneiTes of this bring
antiquity, and circulate them at an eafy rate throughout Britain and Europe* They would thus gratify a
mrj gencxal curiofity f a cnriofity agt coofined to the prefent age^

L O N r a

irIou8 means that have beeii con&dered as condaciTe
) health and long life ; and, if poflible, to diiUngoifh
ich circiunftances as are eflehtial to that great end
'om thofe which are merely accidental. But here it
I much to be regretted, that an accurate hiftory of
It lives of all the remarkable perfons in the above
ible, fo far aa relates to the diet, regimen, and the
fe of the non-naturalsy has not been faithfully handed
own to us ; without which it is impoffible to draw
[le neceiTary inferences. Is it not t^en a matter of
(loni(hment, that hiftorians and philofophers have hi-
lierto paid fo little attention to longcWty ? If the pre-
!nt imperfe6^ lift ihould ekcite others, of more leifure
nd better abilities, to undertake a full inveftigation
f fo interefting a fubje6^, the inquiry might prove not
nly curious but highly ufeful to mankind. , In or-
er to furniih materials for a future hiflory of longe-
ity, the bills of mortality throughout the kingdom
»ught firft to be revifed, and put on a better footing,
greeable to the fchcme of which Manchefter and Che-
ber have already given a fp^cimen highly worthy of
mitation. The plan, however, might be further im*
>roved with very little trouble, by adding a particular
iccouot of the diet and regimen of every peifon who
Lies at 80 years of age or up^^rds ; and mention-
ng whether his parents were healthy, long-lived peo-
)le, 8cc. An accurate regifter, thus eftablifhed
hroughout the Bn'tifh dominions, would be produc-
ive of many important advantages to fociety, not
>nly in a medical and philofophical, but alfo in a po-
itical and moral view.

All the circumilances that are moft effentially ne-
reflary to life, may be compromifed under the fix fol-
owing heads: i. Air and climate; a. Meat and drink;
{• Motion and Veft; 4. The fecretions and excretions;
^. Sleep and watching; 6. Affections of the mind. .

Thefe, though all pcrfedly natural to the conftitu-
ion, have by writers been ftyled the non-naturals, by
I flrange perverfion of language ; and have been all
;opioui1y handled under that improper term. How-
rver, it may not be amifs to offer a few fhort obferva-
:ions on each, as they are fo immediately connedled
vlth the prefent fubje^.

I . y^/r, &c. It has long been known that frefh air is
nore immediately neceffary to life than food ; for a man
nay live two or three days without the lattet, but not
many minutes without the former. The vivifying
principle contained in the atmofphere, fo efTential to
tile fupport of flanie, as weU as animal life, concern-
ing which 'authors have propofed fo many conje6lures,
ippears now to be nothing elfe but that pure dephlo-
TiiUcated fluid lately difcovered by that ingenious phi-
ofophcr Dr Prieflley^ The cbmmon atmofphere may
well be fuppofed to be morp or kfs healthy in propor-
tion as it abounds with this animating principle. As
this exhales in copious fhreams from the green leaves
oi all kinds of vegetables, even from thofe of the moft*
poifonous kind, may we not, in fome mcafure, ac-* '
count why inilances of longevity are fo much more
frequeot in the country than m large dties-; «-Here the
lir, inHead of partaking fo largely of this falUtary im-
pregnation, is daily oontaminated with noxious animal
ciffluvia and phlogiflon ?

With refpedt to climate» various obfer^tions coii-
Tpireto prove,, that thofe re^ons whickltt .within the

77 ] L D N

temperate zones are beft calculated to promote long Z«ong^cj
life. Hence, perhaps, may be explained, why Italy '- ' '
has produced fo many long livers, and why iflands in

feneral are more falutary than continents ; of which
^emiudas and fome others afford examples. And it
is a pleafing circumftance that our own ifland ap-
pears from the above table (notwithflanding the fud-
den vieiifitudcs to which it is liable) to contain far
more infbinces of longevity than could well be imagi-
ned. The ingenious Mr Whitehuril aJTures us, from
certain &6b, that Englifhmen are in general longer ,
lived than North Americans ; and that a. Britifh con-
flitution will laft longer, even in that climate, than a.
native one. But it muft 'be allowed in general, t^t
the human conftitution 10 adapted to the peculiar ftate
and temperature of each refpe^ive diniate, fo that n«-
part of ^e habitable globe can be pronounced too hot
or t6o cold for its inhabitants. Yet, in order to pro*-
mote a friendly intercourfe between the molt remote
regions, the Author of nature has wifely enabled the
inhabitants to endure great and furprifing changes o£
temperature with impunity*

2. Foo{/s and drinh Though foods and drink of
the moft fimple kinds are allowed to be the beft cal-
culated for fupporting the body in health, yet • it ca& .
hardly be doubted but variety may be fafely indulged,
occafionally, provided men woidd reftrain their appe-
tites within the bounds of temperance ; for bountU
ful Nature cannot be fuppofed to have poured forth .
fuch a rich profufion of provifions, merely to tantalize *
the human fpecies, without attributing to her the part
of a cruel ilep-dame, inftead of that of the kind and
indulgent parent. Befides, we find, that by the won-^
derful powers of the digeitive organs, a variety of ani-
mal and vegetable fubftances, of very difcordant priiK
ciplesy are happily affinu'lated into one bland homoge- -
neous chyle ; therefore it feems natural to diftruft thofe -
cynical writers, who would rigidly confine mankind to
one fimple difh, and their drink to the mere water o£
the brook. Nature, it is true^has pointed out that mild
infipid fluid as the univerfal diluent, and therefore moft ^
admirably adapted for our daily beverage. B^t expe-
rience has equally proved, that vinous and fpirituous
liquors, on certain occafions, are no lefs falutary and
beneficial, whether it be to fupport .ftrength againft
ficknefs or bodily fatigue, or toexhilerate the mind*-
under the preffure of heavy misfortunes. Buty alas 4
what Nature meant f6r innocent . and ufeful cordials, .
to be ufed only occafionaUy,' and according to the df-
redkion of.reafon, .cuftom .and caprice have, by xlegrees, .
rendered habitual to the<human frame, and liable to >
the moft enormous and deftru^veabufes*. Hence tt .
may be. juftly doubted, whether, gluttony and intem- -
perance have not depopulated the world more* than t
erea the fword, peitilence, and famine. True, there- -
fore, is the old maxim, *^ M^dusMtenA etc v*Renofaci^
wuScimeiUum^ ex medicamento venemumJf

34 and 4« Motion and rtfi^-JUep andwatcbihg It .
is- allowed onaU hands, that alternate motion and reft, :
and ileep and watching, .acci neceflary conditions to .
health and longevity ; .andthatthey ought to be adapt-
ed- to agei temperament, coikftitution^ temperature of '
the climate, &c. ; but the errors which niankind daily
commit in thefe refpe^s become a fruitful fource of -
difcafEt^ While fome are bloated. and relaxed witk<

caf&^

* 7 '

t X5 N

£ 478 1 t O N

Iriih plantediMi scKSf H {AnihoBy .6 Jsatodei,^!^
boroug;he ; and Teturavao members to pailuina. ^
M fmaUf and maeh encumbered 'With bog, maaai
with a tolerable. good ibil,| and ia-aboiit 25 miuj;
and 15 broad*

LoNGPoaiK a town of Icelaad, ihtiated 01 tk:.
ver CrofnliOy m the • county of JLoogford and proo:
of Leihftery 64 miles firom Dubiin ; which mc x

^^"'^7^^*'^^^ **i indolence, others are anaetatedytind^ become
UxmgfQrd. ^^^ throi^ hard laboUr, watching, and fatigue

5* Secre^ons and excrahns. Where the animal
fun^ons are duly performed, the iecrettons go on re-
gularly ; and the different evacuations To exa6ily cor-
refpond t6 the quantity of alimdnt taken in, in a given
time, chat the body is found to return daily to nearly
the fame weight. If any particular evacuation happen

•to be pretematurally diminifted, feme other evacua- « few.miks bek>w this place into the Shaanos. 1:^
tion is proportionally augmented, and the equilibrium a borough, poft, market, and &ir .town ; and ittn
is commonly preferved ; but continued irregukritfcs, two members -to parliament ; patron^ Lord Loigih
4n thefe important functions, Cai^not but terminate in Jt gave title of «dr/ to the family of Aungier; a'r
•difeafe. iwo/i to the family of Mkklethwaite ; and novp

6. AfftBion* of the mbuL The due regulation of that o{ haron to the family of Packenhara. Wiuiri
the^pamons, perhaps, contributes more to health and mile and a half of the town is a charter-fclid tr
longevity than that of any other of the non-naturalsi
The animating paffions, fuch as joy, hope, love, &c«
'Tdien kept within proper bounds, gently .excite the
•tiervon^ influence, promote an equable circulation, and
fiare highly conducive to health ; while the depreffing
^afTe^ions, fuch as fear, grief, and defpair, produce the
•contrary efFe<5b, and lay the foundation of the moft for**
.midable difeafes.

Prom the Ught which hiilory affords us» as well as
froip fome inftances in .the above table, diere is g^reat
f eafon to beHeve, that longevity is in a g^reat meafnre
Jxereditary ; and that healthy long-lived parents would
commonly tranfmit the fame to tibeir children, were it
not for the frequent errors in the- non-naturals, Vhich
fo evidently tend to the abbreviation of humAn life.

Where is it, but from thefe caufes, and the Unnatu-
Tal modes of living, that, of all the children which are

•bom in the capital cities of Europe, nearly one half tends from the city of New-York ead 140 miki, 'i
die in early mfaacy? To what elfe can we attribute minating with Montauk point; and is not mort dm :
«this extraordinary mortality ? Such an amazing pro- miles in breadth on a medium. It is diridcdiri

alK>ve 40 children. This place has a banack ion
troop of korle. It is large and w«ll bmh ;^z\
very early age an abbey was founded here, of rua
&t Idas, one of St Patrick's difciples, was abboL j
the ytar 14OQ, a fine monafleiy -was fooaded to l
honour of the Viigin Mary, for JDominicaa frir5,V
.O'Ferral prince of Annaly . This mooaflery bej^ i
-flroyed by fire. Pope Martjn V. by a bull in ikys
1429,-granted an indu%ence to all who (kooldccc
bute to the rebuilding of it. In 1433, Pojpe^-
gene IV. granted a buS to the fame purpofc; 1:^
1438 he granted another to the like effed. T;
church of this friary, now the parifh-churcb, is a:ii
diocefe of Ardagh. The £urs axe four in tk jrcr.
LONG-ISLAND, is an idand of ^North AotrM
belonging tp the ftate of New^York, which is fcpr*
ted from the continent by a narrow chanDd lu

amazing pro-
portion of premature deaths is a circomfbince unheard
^ among £ivage nations, or among the young of xsther
^animals ! In the earlieft ages, we are informed, that
human life was protra^d to a very extraordinary
length; yet how few peribns, in thefe latter times,
'arrive at that period whidi nature fe^ms ^ to have de-
jfi^ned ! Man is* by nature a fieM^amimal,^^ and feems d«-
• ilined to rife with the fuq, and to ipend a large por-
tion of his time in the open air, to inure ' his body to
Tobuft cxerdfes and the* inclemency of the feafons,
and to make a plain homely repalt only. when hunger
ididates. But art has fludioufiy defeated the kind
intentions of nature 5 and by enflaving lum to all the
JtJandifhments of fenfe, has left him, aks ! an eafy vic-
tim to folly and caprice. To enumerate the various
^bttfes which take place from the earlieft infancy, and
which are continued through the fucceeding flages of
jnodifh life, wooU carry us far beyond our prefcnt
intention. Suffice it to obferve, that they prevail more
particukriy among people who arc the moft highly
poliihed and refined. To conqmre their artificial
mode of life with that of nature, or even with the
Jon^-livcrs in the lift, would probably afford a very
ilriking contraft ; and at the fame time fupply an ad-
4litiond reafon why, in. the very large cities^ inflances
of longevity are fo very rarc^

^ LONGFORD, a connty of Ireland, in the pre-
•vincc of Leinfter, bounded, by the county of Leitrim
and Caven on the norths Meath on the eaft and fbuth,
and Rofconunoa on the weii. It contains 134,700

three counties. King's, Qu^c"'** ^^^ SuiToIL ^
fbuth fide of the ifhmd is Bat huid, of a light ic.'
fbily bordered 00 the fea^coaft with large trads d^^
meadow, extending from the weft point of the ua
to Southampton. This foil, however, is wdlc^
hted for raifmg gpun, efpecially Indian corn. ^
north fide of Uie ifland is hilly, and of a ftrocgL
adapted to the culture of grain, hay, and fruit, i
ridge of hills extends from Jamaica to Soutb-hii
Laige herds of cattle feed upon Hampftead plaii^i^
on the fait marihes upon the fouth fide of tk iiU
Hampftead plain in Queen's county is a curiodtj. >
is 16 miles in length, eaft and weft, and 7 or 8 2^
wide. The foil is black, ^nd to appearance riditf
yet it was never known to have any natural groft^
but a kind of wild grafs and a few (hrubs. hi^^
quented by vaft numbers of plovor* Rye grpwi*;
rably well on fome parts of the plain. Tk bwb^
it lies common for cattle, horfes, andfhecp. Astb
is nothing to impede the profpe6t in the whole )af
of this plain, it has a curious but tnefome sfieciep^
the eye, not unlike that of the ocean. The iii)^
contains 30,863 inhabitants*

LONGIMETRY, the art of meafuriog kof^
both^icc^ble and inacceffible. See Gsomstitis-

TRIGONOMBTRYm

LONGING, is a preUmatural i^»petitetn prc^

women, and in fome fick perfons" when about to rcc0*^

It is cailed pica^ £mm the bird of that name, "^^

laid to be iubjea to the iama4ifoider.. 'O^^

L O 17

ION

f 479 1 .

XottfhkOf omfiib of bodi a defire of unufual tbiogft'to eat and the dq)redatIon8 of time and barlyariaqs. On this im- Longitf^

Longyiut. ^jjiuij^ and in being ioon tiwd of one and wanting ano« perfe^^ piece the great feme of Longtnus i^ raifed, "*?•• ^

ther. Iti« called malaci^y 'from «t«iu«»»', <* weaknefs.'' who, at Pope expreifea it—" is himfclf the great fu- ^^^^"^

In pregnant women it is fomewhat relieared by bleed- blime be dniwB/' The beft edition of his works is

iogt and in ^out the fbnrth month of their pregnancy that by ToUiusy printed at Utrecht in 1694, cum noth

it leaves them. Chlorotic girls, and men who hbotv-
undtr fuppreflcd hemorrhoids, are very fubjefb to this
complaint, and are relieved by promoting the refpec-
live erac nations. In- general, whether this df (order is
obferved in pregnant women, in persons recovering
from an acute fever, or in thofe who labour under ob-
ftru6iions of the natural evacuations, this craving of ward, counted io degrees upon the equator \ but

nxxnorum. It has b^en tranflated into Engliih by Mr
Smith.

- J-ONGISSIMUS DORsi. See Anatomy, r^jMr
of the MufcUu

LONGITUDE, in geography and navigation, is
the diftance of any place from another eaftward or weil«

when th<diflance is reckoned by leagues or miles and*
not in degrees, or in degrees on the meridian, and not
of the parallel of btitude, in which cafe it include^}-
both latitude and longitude, it is ca]l<^ departure.

To imdthe longitude at' (ea, is a problem to which
the attention of navigators and mathematicians 'has^
been drawn ever iince navigation hegan to be impro-
ved.— -The importance of this problem foon became fa*
well known, thar^ in 1598, Philip- III. of Spain of-
fered a reward of 1000 crowns for the folution ; and'
his example was foon followed by the States General,,
who offered 10,000 fforins* In 1714 an a6^ was paf-
fed in the Britifh parliament, impowering certain com-
miffioners to make out a bill for a fum not exceeding
2000 L for defraying the neceflary cxpences of ex^e-.
riments for afccrtaining this point ; and likewifc graht--
ing a reward to the perfoii who made any progrefs in.
the fdiution, proportionable to the degree of accuracy*
with vdiich the fbhition was performed : 10,000 1. wa%'
granted if the longitude ffiould be determined to one
degree of a great rirclc, or 60 geographical miles ;'.
15,000 if to two thirds of diat diftance ; and 20,000-
if to the half" the diftance*

In confequence of thefe -proffihred rewards, innume- -
rable attempts were made to difcover this important
fccret. The firft was that of John Morin profeffor of'
m^hematics at. Paris, v^o propofed it to Cardinal
Richelieu ; and though it was judged infufficient oir
account of the imperfedion of the lunar tables, a pen-*
fion of 2000 livres per annum was procured for him in
1645 by Cardinal Mazarine. Gemma Frifius had'
indeed, in 1530, projected a method of finding the Ion-
kours of her lif« in his converlation, and modelled her gitude by means of watches, which at that time were

the appetite fhould be indulged.

LONGINICO, attovm of Turky in Europe, in
the Morea, anciently caDed Olympki^ famous for being
the place where the Olympic games were celebiated^
tad for the temple of Jupiter Olympus, about a mile
dillant. It is now but a fmafl place, feated on the
VLver Alpheus, 10 miles from its mouth, and 50 foutk
e£ Lepanto. £. Long. 2^. o. N. Lat. 37. 30.

LONGIN[US (Dionyfius), a celebrated Greek cri-
tic of the third century, was probably an Athenian.
His father's name is unknown, but by his mother he
was allied to the celebrated Plutarch^ His youth was
i^nt in travelling with his parents, which gave him an
opportunity to increafe his knowledge, and improve
Kis mind. After his travels, he' fixed his refidence at
Athens, and with the greateft affiduity applied to ftudy.
Here he publi(hed his Treadfe on the Sublime ; which
vaiied his reputation to fuch a height, and gave the
Athenians fuch an opinion of his judgment and tafte,
liiat they made him fovereign judge of all authors, and
•^rery thing was received and rejefted by the public
according to his decifions. He feems to have (bud at
Athens a loi^ time ; here he taught the academic phi-
K>lbphy, and among others had the femous Porphyry
ibr his pupil. But it vms at length his fortune to be
^iFawn from Athens, and to mix in more a6^ive fcenes;
to train up young princes to virtue and glory ; to guide
^e bufy paffions of the great to nobJe obje6t8 ; to
Ih'Uggle foTi and at laft to die» in the caufe of liberty.
2^Aobia, queen of the Eait, prevail«d on him to un-
dertake the education ofher fons;. and he foon gained

uncommon (hare in her efleem : (he fpent the vacant

Ibntiments and condu6k by his inftruftions. That prin'-
^fs was at war wkh Aurelian ; and being^defeated by
him near Antioch, was compelled to ihut herfelf up in
Ps^myra, her capital city. The emperor wrote her a
letter, in which he ordered her to furrender | to which
flie returned an ^aafweiv drawn up by Longinus, which
iilled him with relentment. The emperor laid fiege to
tiie city ; and the Palmyri^ns were at Icngtli. obliged
to open. their gates and receive the conqueror. The
Queen and Longinus endeavoured to fly into Perfia;
But were unhappily overtaken and made prifoners when
tiiey were on due point of croffingthe Euphrates. The
^ucen, intimidated, weakly laid the blame of vindica-
ting the liberty of her country on its true author ; and
the brave Longinus, to the tiifgrace oTthe conqueror.

newly invented : but the frru6kure of tlicfe machines •
was then by far too imperfe£^ to admit of any at^ •
tempt; nor even in Z631, when Metius made an at-
tempt to this purpofe, were they advanced ib any con-^
fidemble degree. About the year 1664, Dr Hooke
and Mr Huygens made a very great improvement in *
watchqiaking, by the application of the pendulmn^
fpring, Dr Hooke having quarrelled vrilh the miniflry, .
no experiment vt^as made with any of his machines; buti
many weve made with thofe of Mr Huygens. One expc*
riment, particularly^, made by Major Holmes, in^a voy* •
age from theCaaft Of Guinea in 1665, anfwered fo
weU, that Mr Huygemr was encouraged to improve
the- {lru£inre>of his watches; b\it it was- found that,
the variations'of heat and cold prodnced fuch altera-

carried away to immediate execution. The wri- -tidnsin the rate -of going of the vratcli, that unlefs this

tii^ of Longixnis.were iMimero'us, fome on philoibphi-
cal, bm* the greater part on critical fubjeds. Dr
Pearoe htt c<med6d the titles of 25 treatifes, none of
trJuGfa,. cxccpttng;, thBt on the Sttbbmc^Jiave.e/ci^ed

could be remedied; the .watches could be of little xife in .
determining the longttude*

In 1 7 14 Henry Sully, an Eoglifhman* printed a*^
lauJI'tnid at Vicnaa upon the fulgcdt of watch**

making^

L O N [2

A^agitudc t making. Having sdfterwai^ removed to Parii, he ap-
plied himfclf to the improvement of time-keepers for
» the difcovery of the longitude. He taught the fa-
mous Julian de Roy ; and this gentleman, with his
fon, and Ml Bcrthoud, are the only perfons who»
fince the days of Sully, have turned their thoughts'
this way. But though expennSents have been made at
£ea with fome t>f their watches^ it docs not appear that
4liey have been able to accomplifh any thing of im-
portance with regard to the main point. The firft who
fucceeded in any confiderable degree was Mr John
Harrifon ; who, in 1726, produced a watch which
vent fo exa^lly, that for ten years togetner it did
not err above one Cecond in a mouth. In 1756 it
was tried in a voyage to Li(bon and back again, on
board one of his Majefty's (hips ; during which it cor-''
redied an error of a degree and air half in the compu-
tation of the (hip's reckoning. In confequence of this
lie received public encouragement to go on ; and by
the year 1761 had fini(hed three time-keepers, eai^^f
them more accurate than the formier. The 1^ ^°^^V
«ut fo much to' his fatisfadion, that he now appltffl
to the commiilioners of longitude for leave to make an
^itperiment with his watch in a voyage to the Weft In-
•Jies* Permiiilon bein^ eranted, his fon Mr William
Han:ifon fet out in his Majefty's (hip the Dcptford
for Jamaica in the month of November 1 761. This
trial was attended with all imaginable fuccefs. The
longitude of ^e ifland, as determined by the time-
keeper, differed from that found by aftronomical ob-
servations only one minut« and a quarter of the
^ equatof ; the loogitudes of places feen by the way
being alfo determined with great ezadnefs. On the
(hip's return tdEnfirland, it was found to have erred no
more during the whole Toy4ge than i' V4t' in time,
vhich is little more than 28 miles in diftance ; which
^beipg within the limits prefcribed by the ad, the inventor
•^imed the whole L. 20,000 offered by government.
Objedions to this, however, were foon ftarted. Doubts
vere pretended about the real longitude of Jamaica,
as well as the manner in which the time had been
found both there and at Bortfmouth. it was alleged
a^o, that although the .time-keeper happened to be
right at Jamaica, iind after its return to England, this
was by no means a proof that it had always been fo
in the intermediate times$ in confequence of which al-
legations, another trial was appointed in a voyage to
Barbadoes. Precautions were now taken to obviate as
tnany of thefe obje£lions as pofllble. The commif-
fioners fent out proper perfons to make aftronomical
•bfervations at that ifhmd ; which, when compared
yrith others in England, wodd afcertain beyond a doubt
its true fituation. In 1764 then, Mr Harrifon junior
let fail for Barbadoes ; and the refult of the experi-
ment was, that the difference of longitude betwixt
Portfmouth add Barbadoes was (hown by the time-
keeper to be 3h. J5' 3" I and by aftronomical obfer-
vations to be 3h. 54' 20''; the error being now only
43" of time, or 10' 45'' of longitude. In confequence
4oi this and the former trials, Mr Harrifon received one
half of the reward promifed, upon making a difcov^
of the principles upon which his time-keepers were con*
ftruded. He was likewife promifed the other half of
tke reward as foon as time-keepers (houldbe conftruA-
cd by other artifta which, ihould anfwcr tUe purpbfe m

80 ] L O N

well as thofe of Mr Harrifon himfelf. At tUi tir 2
delivered up all his time-keepers, the laft of viuiTi
fent to Greenwich to be tried by Mr Ncril Wsn
the aftrdnomer-royal. On trial, however, it waLj

* to go^with much lefs regularity than had be^ nr.
ed ; but Mr Harrifon attributed this to bis b:,
made fome experiments with it which he hadoGC:::
to ftni(h when he was ordered to deliver up the f^
Soon after this, an agp'eement was made hj Jk c^
miflloners with Mr Kendall to conftnid a vztdia:
Mr Harrifon's principles ; and this upon trial nsk
to anfwer the purpofe even better than any tkHr
rifon himfelf had conftru^ed. Thiswatdmr
out with Captain Cook in 1772; and donfigalt
time of his voyage round the world is 1772, i:*
1774, and I775» never erred quite 14! fecoKkz
day : in confequence ^ which, die houfe of cessiss
in 1774, ordered the other L» lOfOoo to be pu:
Mr Harrifon. Still greater accuracy, hovem, ^
been attained. A watch was lately conftntdcdr
Mr Arnold, which, during a trial of 13 mostk,k
February 1779 to February 1780, varied bo be
than 6.69' during akiy two days; aod'tbtgn:
difference between its rates of going on anyd^iL
the next to it was 4. 1 1 ." The greateft cnroriir..
have committed therefore in the longitude duriiii:
fSngle day would have been very little more tb;;
minute of longitude; and thus might the loo^r-
determined with as great exa£lneis as the kited::
nerally can.— This watch, however, hasootjttk:
tried at fea«

Thus the method of conftru6^ing time-kcepen^
difcovering the longitude feems to be brought^*
great a degree of perfedion as can well be apr:
Still, however, as thefe watches ane fubjed to l:
dents, and may thus alter the rate of their gwog^j^
out any poffibility of a difcovery, it is neceilr?-

- fome other method fliould be fallen upon, in axe-
corre^ from time to time thofe errors which nay r
either from the natural going of the watch» crrr
any accident which may happen to it. Mediodi :
this kind are all founded upon celeftial obfenatK^

' fome kind or other; and for thefe methods, crri^
for an improvement in tin^-keepers, rewards arc r.
held out by government. After the difc<wcn£s=^
by Mr Harrifon, the ad concerning the hf--
was repealed, excepting fo much of i( as related tc"
Conftru6dng, printing, publiftiing, &c. of DaBtia|
manacks and other ufefid tables. It was eaad^f^
that any perfon who (hall difcotcr a method fv^
ing the longitude by meanr of a t]mc-keep€r,tlicpf'
cipl^s of which have not hitherto been made p^^-
(hall be intitled to a reward of L. 5000, ^ *^i
tain tris^s made by the commiiSoners, the laid ci^
(hall enable a (hip to keep her longitude during 1^
age of fix mondis within 60 geogjaphical w^'
degree of a great circle. If the (Sp keep* ber kv
tude -within 40 geographical miles for that tiiKr
inventor is intitled to a reward ofL. 7Joo»'^,
L 10,000 if the longitude 1» kept vrtthin half a**
grec. If t;he method is by improved sftroaoff^
tables, the author is intitled to L.5000 who'j-^
flipw the^ diftance ef the moon from the ^^^,
within 1 5 feconds of a degree, aufwcricg to al^.
laiautes of ItDgkudt, iiter aOowisg half a degi«^

L O I^ [ a8

errors of oUervatto&y and under certam reftri&ioos»
and. after comparifon with agronomical obfervation9
for a period of iSi years, digring v4iich the hinar ir-
regularities are fuppofed to be completed. The fame
re\i'arilB are offered to the perfon who ftiall with the
like accuracy difcover any other method of finding the
longitvide.

rr4iefc methods require celeftial obCervatipns ; and
any of the phenomena^ fuch as the different apparent
places of ilars with regard to the moon, the beginning
^nd ending of eclipfes, &c, i^U anfwer the purpofe :
only it is abfolutely neceffary that fom'e variation (hould
be perceptible in the plienomenon in the fpace of two
minutes ; for even this (hort fpace pf time will pro-
duce an error of 30 miles in longitude. The moft
proper phenomena therefore for determining the lon-
gitude in this manner are . the eclipfes of Jupiter's fa-
tell i tea. Tables of their motions have been conftru6i-
cd, and carefully corrected from time to time, as the
mutual attra6kioo» of thefe bodies are found greatly to
dillurb the regularity of their motions. The difficul-
ty herei however^ • is to obfertc thefe eclipfes at fea ;
and this difficulty has been found fa great, that no
perfon feems able tofurmount it. The difficulty arifes
from the violent agitation of a (hip in the ocean, for
^rvhich no adequate remedy has ever yet been found,
nor probably will ever be found. Mr Chriftopher
Ir^'in indeed invented a machine which he called a
marine chair^ with a view to prevent the effeAs of this
agitation ; but on trying it in a voyage to Barbadoes^
it w^as found to h^ touUy ufekfs»

A whimiical method of finding the longitude was
propofed by Meffrs Whiflon and Ditton from the re-
port and flaih of great gun«. The motion of found is'
' Known to be nearly equable, from whatever body it pro-'
I ceeds or whatever be the medium* Suppofing there-
fore a mortar to be fired at any place the longitude of
which is known, the difference between the moment
that the flafli is feen and the report heard will give
the diflancc between the two places ; whence, if we
' know the latitudes of thefe places, their longitudes
muft alfo be known. If the exa^ time of the explo*
fion be known at the place where it happens, the
difference of time at the place where it is heard will
' likewife give the difference of longitude. Let us next
' fuppofe the mortar to be loaded with an iron (hell
£lled with combuflible matter, and fired perpendicu-
' larly upward into the air, the (hell will be carried to
' the height of a mQe, and will be fecn at the diilance of
I near 100; whence, fuppofing neither the flafh of the
mortar fhould be feen nor the report heard, flill the
I longitude might be determined by the altitude of the
fhell above tlK. horizon.

According to. this plan, mortars were to be fired at
certain times and at proper flations along all fre-
quented coafts for the diire&ion of mariners. This in-
deed might be of ufe> and in (lormy weather might be
a kind of impit>vement in light-houfes, or a proper
addition to tfaemr; but with regard to the determina-
tion of longitudasy- ia evidently, ndiculoua.

We (hall now proceed to give fome pta€iical direc-
tions for finding the longitude at fea hy proper ce-
leilial obfervations ; excluuve of thofe from Jupiter's
Satellites, which, for reafons jufl mentioned^ cannot
fcepradifedatfea. In the firfl place} however^ it will bc
V04.. X. Part L

I ] L O N

neceffaiyto point out fome of thofe difficulties which ^<*'*.^^^^^^'^
fiand in the way, and which render even this method of
finding the longitude precarious and uncertain. Thefe
Ke principally in the redu^on of the obfervations of the
heavenly bodies -made on the furface of the earth to
fimilar obfervations fuppofed to be made at the centre ;
which is the only place where the celeftial bodies ap-
pear in their proper fituation. ' It is<alfo very difficult
to make proper allowances for the refra6iion of the
atmofphere, by which all objects appear higher than
^ey really are ; and another difficulty arifes from their
parallaxes, which makes them, particularly the moon,
appear lower than they would otherwife do, excepting
when they are in the very zenith. It is alfb well
known, that the nearer the horizon any celeftial body
is, the greater its parallax will be ; and as the parallax
and refredUon a£t in oppoiite ways to one another, the
former depreffing and the latter raifing the obje^^, it is
plain, that great difficulties muft arife from this «ir-
cmnftance. The fun, for infbince, whofe parallax is
le& than the refradtipn, muft always appear higher
than he really is ; but the moon, whofe parslkx is
greater than her refra6^ion, muft always appear lower*

To render obfervations of the celefHal bodies more
eafy, the commiffioners of longitude have caufed an
Ephemeris or Nautical Almanack to be publifhed an-'
ttually, containing jevery requifite for folving this im-
portant problem which can be put into the form of
tables. But whatever may be done in this way, it
will be neceffary to make the neceflary preparations
concerning the dip oi the horizon, the refradlion, feme-
diameters, parallax. Sec, in order to reduce the apparent
to the true altitudes and diftances; for which We fliall
here fubjoin two general rules.

The principal obfervation for finding the longitude
at fea is that ,of the moon from the fun, or fronr
fome remarkable ftar near the zodiac. To do this*
the operator muft be furnifhed with a watch which
can be depended upon ior keeping time within a mi-
nute for fix hours ; and with a good Hadley's qua-
drant, or, which is preferable, a fcxtant: and this laft in-
ftrumeift will ftill be more fit for the purpofe if it be
furnifhed with a fcrew for moving (h^ index gradually $
likewife an additional dark glafe, but not fo dark as
tlie common kind, for taking off the glare oCthe moon*«/
light in obfervia^ her diftance from a ftar. A fmall
telefcope, which may magnify three or four times, ia^
alfo neceffary to render the contad of a ftar with*
the moon'a limb more diP:ernible. Amagnifyii^*
glafs of 1 1- or 2 inches focus will likewife aflift the ope-
rator ia reading off his obfervations with the greater
facility*

!• To tnahe the ohfervoHtim^ Having examined and ad-'
jufted his jnftrument as weU as pofS)le, the obferver is
next to procejsd in the following manners If the diftance
of the moon from the fun is to be obferved, turn dowa
one of the fcreens ; look at the nraon diredly dirougk
the tranfparent part of the horieon-glafs ; and keying
her in vae w, gently move the index till the fun's image be
brought into the filvend pait of that gla&. Bring the
neareft limbs of both objedsinto contad^, and let the qua-
diant librate a little on the lunar ray; by which means the
fun will appear to rife and fall by the fide of the moon ; in
which motion the neareft limbs muft be made to touch
one another exa£Uy by moving the index. The ob-.

N « fervation

L O N L

Leiigitiide. fcrvation is then made $ tnd the divifioo cotncidiKg
with that on the Vernier fcale, mil (how the diftanec
of the neareft Hmhs of the obje^.

When* the diftaoce of the mooD firom a (br is to be^
qbferved when the moon is tery bn)2:ht9 turd down the
lighteil fcreen, or iifc a dark glafs lighter than the
fcreens, a ad de/igned for this particular purpofe ; look
at the ilar dire6Uy through the tranfparent part of the
horizon-glafs ; and keeping it there, move the index
till the moon's image is brought into the filvered part
of the fame glafs. Make the quadrant librate gently
on the flar's ray, and the moon will appear, to rife and
fall by the ilar : move the index between the librations,
until the moon's enlightened limb is exactly touched
by the (tar, and then the obfervation is made. In
thefe operations, the plane of the quadrant mufl always
pafs through the two objects, the diftance o£ which ia
to be obferved ; and for this purpofe it muik be pLiccd
in various poAtions according to the fituation of the
Qbje6^s» which will foon be rendered eafy by pradice.

The obfervation being made, fomebody at th every
itiflant that the operator calls muil obferve by the
watch the exad hour, minute, and quarter minute, if
there be no fecpnd hand, in order to iind the apparent
tune ; and at the hme. inftant, or as quick as pofiible,
two afiiftants muft take the altitudes of thofe objects
the diftance of which is obierved ; after which, the
obfervations neceflary for finding the longitude are
completed.

The ephemens ibows the moon's diflance from the
fun, and Likewife from proper liars, to every three
hours of apparent tinie for the meridian of Greenwich;
and that the greater number of opportunities of ob-
ferving this luminary may be gtven, her diflance is
Ipenerally fct down from at leail one objedl on each
fine of her. Her diflance from the fun is (et down
ifrhile it is between 40 and t20 degrees ; fo ^hat, by
means of a fextant, it may be obferved for two or three
days after her firft and before her laft quarter. When
the moon is between 40 and 90 degrees from the fun,
her diflance is fet down both from the fun and from a
ftar on the contrary fide ; and, laflly, when !he dt«
fiance is above 120 degrees, the diflance is fet down
from two flars, one on each fide of her. l^he diflance
of the moon from objeAs on the eail fide of her is
found in the ephemeris in the 8tk and 9th pages of
the month ; and her diflance from objedls on the weft
IS found in the loth and nth pages of the month.

When the e|^emeris is ufed, the diflance of the
moon mufl only be obferved from thofe flars the di-
flance of which is fet dawn there } and thefe afibrd a
ready means of knowing the ftar from which her di-
flance ought to be obferved* The obferver has then
BOthing more to do than to fet his index to the di-
ftance roughly computed at the apparent time, eftf-
raated nearly for the meridian at Greenwich ; afler
•which he is to look to the eaft or weft of the moon,
according .as the diflance of the ftar is found in the
^th or 9th, or in the ibtb or nth, pages of the
Bonth ; and' having foUnd the moon upon the hon-
zon-glafs, the flar will" eafily be found by fweeping-
with the quadfaqt to the right or, left, provided the
air be clear and the ftar be in the line of the moon's'
fhorteft axis produced. The time at -Greenwich is
eftimated by turning into time, the i^ppofed longitude.

If #

28a ] L O N

from that placfy and adding it to the a{^iiattfis^
the (hip, or fubtmAing it from it u occafios itfXL'
The diftance of th*: moon from the fua, orib.i
roughly found at this time, by faying, As j^c eirr
(the.nnmber contained tn three hours) is to tkci
pence in minutes between this nearly cfymaudt:;
cud the next preceding time fet down in thee|k:!.
ris ; fo is the dif^rence in minutes between ;k :
ftances in the ephemens for the next precede 7
next following times, to a number of minutes; vL
being added to the nc^l preceding difbnce, c;
traced from it, according as it is increalisg « i->
creafing, will give- the diftance nearly at the tir?:;
obfervation is to be made, and to which the io^x:.:
be fet.

An eafier method of finding the angnbrdilbr'
by bringing the objects nearly into contact :-.-:
common way, and then fixing the indtx tijLt!-^
certain degree and minute; waiting until the»>.i
are nearly in conta^, giving notice to the z&hs:'
get ready with the altitudes, and when tbeob^r
exadlly in conta^l to call for the altitudes andikv
ad time by the wittch. The obferver BWftfes:-
pare for taking another diflance, by fettingbbr.
three or k>\xr minutes backwards or forwardi, 2»:
obje6ls happen tD be receding from orapproada;:
each other ; thus proceeding to take the diibzncc, &'
tudes, and time by the watch, as before. Tb-:
obferver may take as many diftances as he thlabr-
per; but four at the diftance of three vokiA^-
three at the diftance of four minutes, will at aE tff^
be fufBcient. Thus not only the eye of the obbr
wiH be kfs frttgned, but he wiU likewife becv^
to manage his inftrument with much greater fad:
in every dire^on, a vertical one only exccpwi
in taking the diftances the middle one can be tako:
any even divifion on the arch, fuch as a degicc,-'
degree and 20 or 40 minutes, that difbncc will ^'''
dependent of the Nonius divifion, and coDfnjKT
free of thofe errors which frequently ariie fromtk*
equah'ty of that divifion in fevetal parts of ttt f*
duated arch. The obfervation ought always t x
made about two hours before or after noon; a^i*
true time nuy be found by the altitude of the (9a>
ken at the precife time of the diftance. If thn^-*
fiances are taken, then find the time by the ikia^
correfponding with the middle diftance; aBdtiKi<^
obfervation will be fecured ficom any error arifog h*
the irregularity of the going of the watck Ai*
time, however, found by the altitude of *.^^f
he depended upon, becaufe of the unceruiaty « »
horizon in the night, the beft waytof detcnniiuflg^-
time for a night obfervation wiUbe by two ihio^r
the fun ; one taken on the preCedhigaltenKiPm h^
he ifr tvithin fixdcgtees of the hodzon ; *^^ft
on the next morning, when he it more thas b
grees high. It muft be obierved, hower*'* ""^^
order to ibibw thefe diredibna, if isnoteffary w*
atmofphere ftiouM be pretty free fi^)in douA» of
Xnk the obfetvcr muft take the obfcrfltion* * ^
tiooesasiie Cand^efttibtain them«:

2.. To reduce tie obfernfcd Dytatm of'<i» ^^^
Star ^iwn. the moon to tht-hrm Difiance* ''^f^i^
longitude into time, and add it to the timcattw^^
i£ the longitude be wefl;,,.bttt fuhlra^ '^ ^ ^^ ^n;

X ON [

^liicfli f9f& gir^ Che fiippofed time at Gr^ehwich; ind
his we miiy eaU rrdueidflmr. 2a Find the deaieft noon
>r itndhight. both before and after tfie reduced tinte
a the feVentb page of die mbath in the ephemerii.
\. T^ke out the moon's feinidtameter and horizontal
>arallaxe8 cor^pondmg to thefe noona and midnigfatt*
ind find their differences. Then fay^ As [2 hours is
:o the moon's femidiameter.in 12 hoursy To is the re-
iuced time to a number of ieconds ; whiich* either add-
^d to or fubtra£led from the moon's femidiameter at
:he noon or midnight jnft mentioned^ according as it
8 increafing or decreafing^ will give her apparent fe-
nidiameter ^ to which add the corre^on from Table
VIU. of the ephemeris, and the fum will be her true
emidiameter at the rediiced time« And aa 12 hours
8 to the difference of the moon's horizontal parallax in
I 2 hours, fo is the reduced time to a fourth (lumber ;
^'liich, being added to or fubtra6^ed from the moon's
lorizontal parallax at the noon or midnight before the
•educed time, according as it is xncxieafing or decrea-
Ing, the fum or difference wHI be the moon's horizon-
^1 parallax at the reduced tim'e. 4. If the reduced
:ime be nearly 4iny even part of 1 2 hours, viz -yth, ^th,
Sec. thefc parts of the difference may be taken, and

285 I t <5 N

rithmic c«5-laftgfcnrbf tht fan ttr Ws appirent alii- toRg
tude, and the logarithmic tangent of the apparent
diflance of the nioon from the fun or ftar. The fum
of thefe, rejedHng to in the ind^, will be the pro-
portional logarithm of die fecdnd angle. 3. Take
the dififcrcnce between the firft and fecond angles,
adding it to the apparent diftance if it he lefs than
90, and the firft angle be greater than the fccond ;
but fubtraaing it if the fecond be greater than tHe
firfl. If the diftance be greater than 90, the fum of
the angles touft be added to the apparent diflance,
which w:ill give the diftance correfted for the refrac-

tion of the fun or ftar. 4. To the proportional lo-
garithm of the correaion of the moon's altitude add
the logarithmic cofme of her apparent altitude ; the
logarithmic fine of the diflance correfted for the fun
or ftar's refraaioa, and the logarithmic co-fecant of
the fun or ftar's apparent altitude. The fum, rejed-
ing 30 m the index, will be the proportional loga-
nthm of the third angle. 5. To the proportional
loganthm of the corredtion of the moon's apparent
altitude, add the logarithmic co-tangent of her appa-
rent altitude, and the tangent of the diftance cgr-
reded for the fun or ftar's refradion ; Iheir fum, re-

zither added or fubtraded according to the diredions jcaing 20 in the index^ will be the proportional lo-

already given, without being at the trouble of working
by the rule of proportion. ^. To .the obferved alti-
tude of the fuB^s lower h*mb add the diflerence betwixt
liis femidiameter and dip ; and that fum wiU be his
sipparent altitude. 6. From the fim's refraaioo take
bis parallax in altitude, and the remainder will be the
correaion of the ftm's altitude. 7. From the fur's
obferved altitude take the dip of the horizon, and the
remainder will be the apparent altitude. 8. The re-
fraaion of a ftar will be the correaion of it^ altitude.

ganthm of the fourth angle. 6. Take the difference
between the third and fourth angles, and fubtraa it

r?S.'K//^*°f^^^«^^<l ^<>r the fun or ftar's re-
fraftion if lefe than 90, and the third angle be great-
er than the fourth-, or add it to the diftance if the fourth
anglcbegreatcr than the third: but if the diftancebemore
than 90, the fum of the angles muft be fubtraaed frohi
It, to give the diftance correaed for the fun or ftar's re-
fraaion, and the principal effeSft of the moon's pa-
rallax.^ 7. In Table XX. of the ephemeris, look for
the diftance correaed for the Am and ftar's refraaion

9. Take the difference between the moon's femidiar --*w^. .^ i^.^ iun ana uar-s retraction

meter and dip, and add it to the c^ferved altitude i£ ^^ the moon's pamllax in tiic top column, and the
ber lower limb Was taken, or fubtraA it if her upper correaion of her altitude in th^ left-hand fide column
limb was taken ; and the fum or difference will be the *«^e out the number of feconds that ibiid under the

fomcr, and oppofite to the fatter. Look again in
the fame table for the correaed diftance in ^\> *r.^

spparent altitude of her centre. 10. From the pro-
portional logarithm of the moon's horizontal paraW,
taken out of the nautical almanack (increafing its in-
dex by ip), take the logarithmic cbfine of the moon's
apparent altitude, the remainder will be the propoi'-
tional logarithm of her parallax in altitude; from which
take her refraaion, and the remainder will be the cor-
reaion of the moon's altitude, n. To the obferved
diftance of the moon from a ftar add heir femidiameter
if the neareft limb be taken, but fubtraa it if the
farthcft limb was taken, and the fum or difference wiU

correaed diftance in die ton
column, and tibe correaion of the moon's altitude in
the left-hand fide columh 1 take out the number of
feconds that lland under tkb former and oppofite to

^^f v./. ^^^ '«^'*^ **» ^^^ ^^<= table for the
cortedted diftance in the top-column, arid the correaion
of the moon's altitudfc in the left-hand fide column r
toke out the number of feconds that ftand under the
former, and oppofite to the lattw. Look a^ain in
the fame table for the correaed diflance in the ton-

be the apparent diftance. 17. To the obferved di- column, and the principal effitas of the moon's parallax

fiance of the fun and moon add both their ftmidiame-
ters, and the fum wiD be the apparent diftance of their
centres.

3. To find the trtte Diftance of the O^edt^ having
their appar em Ahuudei and Diftances. I. To the pro-
portional logarithm of the correaion of the fun or
ftar's altitude, add the logarithmic cofine of the fmi
or ftar's apparent altitude ; the k)garithmic fine of the
apparent diftanee of the mdon from the fun or fbr ;
and the logarithmic co-fecant of the moon's apparent
altitude. The fum of thefe, rcjcaing 30 from the
index, will be the proportional logarithm of the firft
angle. 2. To the proportional logarithm of die cor-
reaion of the fiia or ftar's altitudCf add the log^«

in die left-hand lide c<^«mn, and tike out the number
of feconds. The diflwence between thefe two num-
bers moll be added to the correaed diftance if lefk than
90, but fubtraaed from it if .greater ; and the fum or
dinerence will be the true dillance.

4. Tq dettrmihe the Lon^tude after having obtaini
ed the true Diftance. Look in the ephemeris amonir
the diftances of th* pbje^s for the computed diftance
betwixt the moon and the other objea obferved on
the given day. If it be found there, the time at
Greenwich v^iH be at the top of the column ; but if
it fells between two diftances in the ephemeris which
ftand immediately before and after it, and alfo the
difference between the diftance ftak'ding before and

Nna the

L O N

C a84 T

L O N

Lengitndc the computed diftance; then take the |:^portiona]
» logarithms of the firft and feconddifFerenceSy and the
difference between thefe two logarithms will be the
proportional logarithm of a number of hours^ mi-
nutes, and feconds; which beine added to the time
ilanding over the firft diftance^ will give the true time
at Greenwich. Or it may be found by faying, As
the firft difference is to three hour»» fo is the fecond
difference to a proportional part of time ; which be-
ing added as above dircfked, will give the time at
Greenwich, -The difference between Greenwich time
and that at the fhip, tunied into longitude, wiU be that
at the time the obfcnrations were made ; and will be eaft
if the time at the fhip is greateft, but wefl if it is leaft.
Having given thefe general dirc^Uons, we fhall
next proceed to fhow fome particular examples of
finding the longitude at fea by all the diiOTerent me-
thods in which it is ufually tried.

I • Tojind the Longitude by Comfutatlon Jrom the Ship**
. Cour/e, — ^Were it pofHble to keep an accurate account
of the diftance the (hip has ruui and to meafure it ex*
4 See Lev ^^Y ^Y ^^ log f or any other means, then both lati-
(pci-petual) tude and longitude would eafily be found by fettling
the fhip*s account to that time. For the courfe and
diflance being known, the difference of latitude and
departure is readily found by theTraverfe Table ; and
the difference of longitude bein? known, the true
longitude and latitude will sdfo be known. A variety
of caufes, however, concur to render this computa-
tion inaccurate ; particularly the fhip's continual de-
Jle^lion from the courfe fet by her playing to the
right and left round her centre of gravity ; the un-
equal care of thofe at the helm, and the diftance fup-

. • ■'I

efhmate of its drift and comrfe. ^ Then witk ikrlf i

ting and drift, as a courfe abd diflance, find the c. |

ference of latitude and departure; wi^ whid: :i

dead reckoning is to be increaled or dimicHbod : r*

if the latitude thus corredcd a^^rees with .that br .;

fervation, the departure thus corredcd may be sf:

taken as true, and thus the fhip's place with itp:»

to the longitude determined.

ExAbr. Suppofe a fhip in 24 hours finds, br'tr

dead reckoning, that fhe has made 96 mOes of i.

ference of latitude north and 38 miles of depa-tr-

weft ; but by obfervation finds her difference of L-

tude 112, and on trial that there is a curreot v^-

itt 24. hours makes a diffitrence of 16 miles Lir::.

north and 10 miles of departure cafl : Reqaird :*

ftiip's departure.

miles.
Diff. lat. by account 96 N.
DifF. lat. by current 16 N.

True diff. lat.

112

Departure by 7
account 3

Departure by
current

}

c -

Here the dead reckoning coreftcd by the
gives the difference of latitude 112 mile^ 1
the fame as that found by obferration ^ whesct .-
departure 28 is taken as the true one.

When the error is fiippofcd to arifc frozn the ccT-r
and diflances, we muft obferve, that if the di5;.n-:
of latitude is much more than the departure, or v
direA courfe has been within three points of tk i-
ridian, the error is moft probaUy in tbe diflanc;. L
if the departure be ihuch greater than the &Sac^
of latitude, or the dire^ courfe be within three pj

pofcd to be failed feeing erroneous, on account <rf ^f^^^ paraUel, or more than five points fh>m the r: i

ftormy feas, unfteady wmds, currents, &c. for which

it feems impofiible to make any allowance. The

place of the fhip, however, is judged of by finding

the latitude every day^ if poflible, by obfervations; and

if the latitude found by obfervation agrees with that

by the reckoning, it is prefumed that the fhip's place

is properly determined; but if they di&gree, it is

concluded that the account of the longitude fbinds ia

ridian, the error is probably to be afcribed id *j
courfe. But if the eourfes in general are ceir .r
middle of the quadrant, the error may be e:t^r :
the courfe, or In the diftance, or both^ , This csc%
admits of three cafes.

. I. When, by the dead reckoning, the di ffe re n ce -:
latitu4e is nadre than once and an half the
or when the courfe is lefs than three points

need of correftioa, as the latitude by obfervation ia ^le courie to the difference of latitude and depaitu

always to b^ depended upon

Currents very often occafion errors in the comptv-

tation of a fhip's place. The caufes of thefe in the

great depths 01 the ocean are not well known, though

many of the motions near the fhore can be accounted

for. It is fuppofed that fome of thofe in the great

oceans are owing to the tide following the moon,

and. a certain libration of the waters arifiag finom

thence; likewife that the unfettled nature of thefe

currents may be owing to the .changes in the moon's

declination. In the torrid zone, however, a confi-

derable current is occafioned by the trade^winds, the

motion being conftantly to the. weft, at the rate of between three and fi^ pointi of the meridian :F

eight or ten miles per day. At the extremities of the the courfe with the difference of latitude and d^:^

trade. winds or near the scth degree of north or fouth t^re by acconnt fmce the laft obfervation. With r:

latitude, the currents ^are probably compounded of courfe and the diffei-encc of latitude* by obferrat -^

findaskotiker departure. Take half the fum of the:
departures for the true one. With the true depart 2t
and difference of latitude by obfepvatioa find the t-^
eourfie ; dien with the true courfe and meridian-:
difference of latitude find the difference of lengitiide.
2* Tojindtbc Jjm^itude al Ssa by a Furuai(M<hsrt,'^

5 Dr

With this^courfe and the meridional difference
titude by obfervation, find the difference of L:;-
tude.

2. When the dead reckoning is more than c.^
and an half the difierence of latitude ; or when *i:
courfe n more than five points : Find tbe courfe vl
diftance with the difference of latitude by obfenz^: :
and departure by account ; then with the co-n :-
bititude by obfervation, and departure by acca.:'.
find the difiereace of longitu'de.

3, When the difference of latitudie and dqja^t:?
by account is nearly equal, or the dire6i courfe "»

this motion to the weftward, and of one towards the
equator ; whence all fhips failing within thefe limits
ought to allow a courfe each day for the current.

When the error is fuppofed to have been occafioned
by a current, it ought if poffible to be tried whether
the cafe is fo or not ^ or we muft make a rcafonablc

L 6 N [2

Longitude. Dr Halky having colledled a great number of obfer-
vations on the variation. of the n^dle in many parts
of the world ; by that means was enabled to draw
certain lines on Mercator's chart, (ho wing the vana-
tion in all the places over whjch they paffed in the
year 1 700, at which time he firfl publiihed the chart ;
whence the longitude of thofe places might be found
by the chart provided its latitude and variation was
^Iven. The rule is. Draw a parallel of latitude on the
chart through the latitude found by obfenration ; and
the point where it cuts the curved line marked with
the vanatioa that was obferved will be the ihip's place.

BxAM. A fhip finds by obfenration the latitude to
be 1 8<3 20' north ; and the variation 'of the compafs
to be 4^ well. Required the fhip's place. — Lay a
ruler over 18^ 20^ north parallel to^the equator $ and
the point where its edge cuts the curve of 4° weft va-
riation gives the (hip's place, which will be found
in about 27' 10' weft from London.

This method of finding the longitude, however. Is
attended with two inconveniences. i. That when
the variation lines run eait or weft, or nearly fo, it
cannot abe applied ; though as this happens only in
certain' parts of the world, a' variation chart may be of
great ufe for the reft. Even in thofe places indeed
v/here the variation curves do run eaft or weft, they
may be of confiderable ufe in corre6ling the latitude
when meridian obfervations cannot be had; which
frequently happens on the northern coafts of America,
tlie Weftem Ocean, and about Newfoundland; for
if the variation can ' be found ezaiSdy, the eaft and
weft curve atifwering to it vtrill (how the latitude. But,
2. The variation itfelf is fubjedl to continual change^
whence a chart, though ever fo perfe6l at firft, muft in
time become totally ufelefs ^ and hefice the charts con-^
Arudled by Dr Halley, though of great utility at their
firft publication, became at length almoft entirely ufe«
lefs. A new one was publifhed in 1746 by MefTrs Moun-
taine and Dodfon, which was fo well received, that
in 1 756 they again drew variation lines for that year,
and publifhed a third chart the year following. They
alfo prefented to the Royal Society a curious paper
coq^erning the variation of the magnetic needle, vnth
a fet of tables annexed, containing the refult of more
than 50,000' obfervations, in fix periodical reviews
firom the year 1700* to 1756 inclufive, adapted to
every five degrees of latitude and longitude in the
more frequented oceans; all of which were publi(hed
in the Philofophtcal Tranfadions for 1757. -

3. Tojind the Longitude .hy the SiuCs Declination.'^'^
Having made fuch obfervations on the fun as may
enable us to find liis declination at the place^ take the
difference between this computed declination and that
fhoi^-n at London by the ephemeris; from which take
alfo the daily difference of declination at that time ^
then- fay, as the daily, difference of declination is to
the above found difference, fo is 360 degrees to the
difference of longitude. In this method, however, a
fmall error in the declination will make a great one in
longitude.

4. To find^ the Longitude ty the Moon's culminating*
—Seek in^he ephemeris for the time of her coming
tp the meridian on the gvitn day and on the day
following^ and take their difference ; alfo take the dif-
ference betwixt the limes of culminating on the fame

85 1

L O N

day as found in the ephemeris, and as obferved r then Lon^riiade.
^fay, as the daily difference in the ephemeris is to tlie
difference between the ephemeris and obfervation ; fo
is 360 degrees to the difference of longitude. In this
method alfo a fmall difference in the culmination will
occafion a great one in the longitude.

5. By Eclipfes of the Moon, ^^-'This is dope much in
' the fame nnanner as by the eclipfes of Jupiter*s fa-

tcllites I For if, in two or more diftant places where
an eclipfe of the moon is vifible, vre carefully obferve
the times of the beginning and ending, the number
of digits eclipfed, or the time when the (hadow touches
fome remarkable fpot, or when it leaves any particular
fpot on the moon, the difference of the times when
the obfervations were made will give the difference of
longitude. Phenomena of this lund, however, occur
too feldom to be of much ufe.

6. In the 76th volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
aflions, Mr Edward Pigot gives a very particular ac-
count of his method of determining the longitude
and latitude of York ; in which he alfo recommends
the method of determining the longitude of places by
obfervations of the moon's tranjit oner the meridian^
The inftruments ufed in his obfervations were a ^<&xgix
pendulum -clock, a two feet and an half refiedor, an
eighteen inch quadrant made by Mr Bird, and a tran-
fit inftrument made by Mr Siffon.

By thefe inftruments an obfervation was made, on
the xoth of September 1783, of the occvdtation of a
ftar of the ninth magnitude by the moon, during an
eclipfe of that planet^ at York and Paris. Befides
this, there were obfervations nrade of the immerfions
of 9 Aquarii and ^ Pifctum ; the refult of all which
was, that between Greenwich and York the difference
of meridians was 4' 2/'. "

In 1783, Mr Pigot informs us, that he thought of
finding the difference of meridians by obferving the
meridian right afcenfions of the moon's limb. This he
thought had been quite original : but he found it after-
wards in the Nautical Alnwinack' for 1 769, and in
1 784 read a pamphlet on the fame futgef^ by the Abbe
Toaldo ; but ftiU found that the great exadnefs of
this method was not fufpe6led ; though he is con-
vinced that it mnift foon be univerfally adopted in pre-
ference to that from the firft fatellite of Jupiter.

After giving a number of obfervations on the fatel-
lites of Jupiter, he concludes, that the exadtnefs ex-
pe6led from obfervations, even on the firft fatdlit^ is
much' over-rated. •* Among the various ©bjeftions
(fays he), there is one I have often experienced, and
which proceeds folely from the difpofition of the eye,
that of feeing more diftinftly at one time than ano-
ther. It may not be improper aMb to mention, that
the obfervation I (hould have relied on as the heft,
that of Aug. 30. 1785, marked excellent ^ is one of
thofe moft diftant from die truth.'*^

After giving a number of obfervations on the eclipfe
of the moon Sept. ro. 1783, our author concludes,
that the eclipJes of the moort-s fpots are in general too
much negleAed, andf that it might be relied upon much
more were the following circuniftances attended to r
I . To be particular in fpecifying the cleamefs of the
(ky. 2. To choofe fuch fpots as are well defined, and
leave no hefitation as to the part eclipfed. 3. That
every obfcrver (hould ufe, as far as poffiblc, telefcopes

equally

L o N r

ULongifQ<k. equaOy powerful^ or at lead let the magnifying powers
be the fame. *' A principal objedion ((ays he) may
fttli be urged, ^z» the difficulty of diftinguifhinjr the
true (hadow from the penumbra. Was this obviatedt
I believe the refults would be more cxafk than frpm
Jupiter's firft fatellite : Undoubtedly the Shadow ap-
pears better defined if magnified little ; but I am much
inclined to think, that, with high magnifying powers,
'there is greater certainty of choofing the fame part
•of the fhadow, which perhaps is more than a fufficicnt
compenfation for the lofs of diftin^efiB."

The following rule for meridian obferrations of the
moon's limb is next laid down : ** The increafc of the
■moon's right afcenfion in twelve hours (or any given
time found by computation), is to la hours as the
•increafe of the moon's right afcenfion between two
places found by obfervatton is to the difference of me-
jridians.

Eramfltm
Nov. 30. 1782.
h. ' "

13 iz 57.62 Meridian tranfit of moon's^ By clock

fecond limb > at Green*

13 13 29.08 Ditto of « nt 3^*<^*

31.46 Difference of right afcenfion^

i3 14 8.C5 Meridian tranfit of moon's^ ^ dock

fecond limb > at York.

S3 14 30.13 Ditto of « tg^ J

•aa.08 Difference at York. *)

31.46 Difference at Greenwich.

The docks
KoiQff near-

9.38 Increafe of the moon's ap- \ Jmc,noc^.
parent right afcenfion be- I region itre-
tween Greenwich and I qi»ircd.
York, by obfervation. J
141'' in fecoads of a degree, ditto, ditto, ditto.
The increafe of tlie moon's right afcenfion £br i a hours,,
by computation, is 23,340 feconds ; and 1 2 hours
reduced into feconds is 43,200. Therefore, ac-
cording to the rule ftated above,

23,340" : 43,200" : diff. of merid. st26i".
*' Thefeeafy obfervations and fhort reduction (fays

286 1 L O N

as the fight Is fubjc^ to Vary. 6. A prindpsl
proceeds from the. obfervatton of the nooa'i
which may be confiderably leffmed, if orta-
round fpots near each limb were lUb obfentdc
obfervatories ; in whidi cafe the libratioii of the
will perhaps be a confideratknu 7. When tLt
ference of meridians, or of the ktttudei of
very confidenble^ the change of the mooD'a
becomes an equation.

** Though fuch are the recpiifites to ofe tbn
thod with advantage, only one or two of tbez
been employed in the oblcrvatioos that 1 hm
ced. 'Two-4hirds of thefe obfervations Ind sot
the fame ftars obferved at Greenwich and Yks;
yet none of the refults, except a doubtful ok«
15" from the mean ; therefore I think we nir
a tin greater exa6tne(s, perhaps within lo^if li
bove particulars be attended to.

<* When the fame ftars are not obferved, its 31^
finy^for the obfervers at both places to compctto^
right afcenfion from tables, in order to get th< 1;^
rent right of afcenfion of the moon's linb. 1'^^
this is not fo fatfsfadtory as by a£lual obfenami
the difierence wiU be triflings provided the ftir'srjk
afcenfions are accurately fettled* I am aifo of ^
nton, that the fame method ean be put ii^ pn&ct li
travellers with little trouble, and a tranfit ib^jsa
conftruded fo as to fix v^ with £u:iL*ty in acT;o:
It is not neoeffary, perhaps, that the initnuncst ta
be perfedly in the meridian for a few feconds of b.
provided ftars, nearly in the (ame parallel of dej:
tion with the moon, are obfcrved ; nay, I am isd.-
to think, that if the inflrument dcriates evena qu^
or half a d^ree, or more, liiiEcieat exa^tnet's cii:-
attained ; as a table might be computed^ fhovicf j
moon's parallax and motion' for fudi deviatioo ; w -
kft may eafily be fotmd by the well knowi iac<
of obferving ftars whofc difference of dcclinatixi
oonfiderablc.

** As travdlers very feldom meet wi^ fito&tiit^'
obferye ftars near the pole, or find a proper obie^ '
determining the error of the line of coUinutic:.
(hall recommend the following method as oiigira..'
Having computed the apparent right afceniioc
ibur, fix, or more ftkn, which have nearly tk »

Mr Pigott) are the whole of tlie bufinefs. Inftead of parallel of declination, obfervc half of them

computing the moon's right afcenfion for 12 hours,
1 have conftantly taken it from the Nautical Alma*
nacks, which give it fufiiciently exa6^, provided* fome
attention be paid to the increafe or decreafe of the
moon's motion. Were the following circumftances
attended to, the refults would be undoubtedly much
more exa£l.

^* I. Compare the obfervations with the fame made
in feveral other places. 2. Let feveral and the fame
ftars be obferved at thefe places. 3. Such ftars as' are
jieareft in right afcenfion and declination to the moon
are infinitely preferable. 4. It cannot be too ftrongly
urged to get, as near as poffible, an equal number of
obfervations of each limb, to take 'a mean of each fety
and then a mean of both means. This will in a great
meafure corred the error of telefcopes and Yighu

5. The adjuftment of the telefcopes to the eye of the ^

«hl£rver before the obfervation is alfo very nec^ffar}*, v^ ojfgroit'ufe,*'

VJtil

inftrument inverted, and the other half when m-
rig^t pofition. If the difference of right afctn^
between each fet by obfervation agrees with the ct
putation, there is no error ; but if they difagitf, t
that difagreement is the error of the line of coHiiB
tion. llie (ame obfervations may alfo ferre todi^t
aune, whether the diftance of the coTrerpondifl^*^'
are equal. In" cafe of neceflity, each limbofthw-^
might be obferved in the fame manner, though prvc
bly with lefs precifion. By a fingle trial I m*^ '
bove two years ago, the refidt was much more fl*
than I expelled. Mayor's catalogue of ^^ *"
prove of great ufc to thofe that adopt the above*
thod. — I am rather furprifed that the immerf*'*''
known ftars of the fixth and feventli magnitudct oi
hind the dark limb of the moon, are nst conftaDtlv«
fervcd in fixed obfervatories, as they would frcqa^"

ffl

L O N

[ as? 3

LoT»(ffnide. The annexed rule for finding the (hip'i place, wjth
the mtfcellaneous obfervations on different metboda* wc
have been favoured with by Mr John McLean of the
Obfcrvatory, Edinburgh. The rule was examined and
approved of by Sir JofcpH Banks prefidcnt of the
Royal Society.

I . With regard to determining the (hip's place by the
help of the courie and diilanoe fulled, the following rule
may be applied. — It will be found as expeditious as any
ef the common methods by the iniddlc latitude or meri-
dional parts ; and is in fome refpedts preferable^ as the
common tables of fines and tangents only are requi-

A, along the rhumb linea ZB, BA ; for if the men- Longitode*
dians PZf,PkocBL be drawn ; and very near the latter
other two meridian^ PhD, Pmn ; and likcwifc the pa-
rallels of latitude Bn, Dc, mo, hk ; then- it is plain
that De is greater than hk (for De is to hk as the
fine of DP to iJie fine of hP) : and fince tliis is the
cafe every where, the depart ore correfponding to the
diitance BZ and courfe BZC, will be greater than
the departure to the diftancc oZ and courfe oZC.
And in the feme manner, we prove that nB is great-
er thau mo ; and confequently, the departure corref-
ponding to the diftance AB, and courfe ABL, is

fite in applying it; — Let a and h be the diilances of greater than the departure to the dillancc Ao, and

two places from the fame pole in degrees^ or their com-
plete latitudes ; c the angle which a meridian makes
with the rhumb Hue paiTmg through the places ; and L*
the angle formed by their mcrldiuns, or the difference
of longitude in minutes : then A and B being the lo-
garithmic tangents of 4 ^ and \hjS tlie Ane of C, and
S the line of (C+i')» we fhall have the following e-

quation L=:^

A-oB

S'— S

(a). Alfo, from a well known

courfe AoL : Wherefore, the fum of the two depar*
tures correfponding to the courfes ABL and BZC,.
and to tlie diftances AB and BZ, is greater than the
departure correfponding to the diftance AZ and
courfe AZC : therefore tbe courfe anfwering to tlii^
fum as a departure, and CZ as a difference of latitude,-
(AC being the parallel of latitudes pafling tlArough
A), will be greater than the true courfe AZC made
good upon the whole. And hence the difference of
longitude found by the common rules will be greater ~
than the true difference of longitudes ; and the error:

jiroperty of the rhumb line^ we have the following e-
quatton :

S+E= R+D,. where S Is the logarithmic cofinc of ^" ^ greater or lefs according as BA deviates moic
C, E the logarithm of the length of the rhumbJine, ^ ^^^ &««» the dire6Uo4 of BZ.
or diflance, D the logarithm of the minute *fl difference . p

of latitude, and R the logarithm of the radius.

By the help of thefb two equations, we (hall haie
an eafy Solution of the feveral cafes to which the
middle latitude, or meridional parts, are commonly 9:^
plied.

Example. A (hip Irom a. port, in latitude ^6**
N. failtf SW. by W. till (he arrives at the latitude of*
40^ N; Required the difference of longitude.

Here ^=34% hzzso"", c^^^' 15", A=9.48534^
3:2:9.56107, S =9.9199308, S:=9.9i9B464; there.

fore, lu-zz^, .=:I£Z^ — zz 807 the minutes, diffe-

S'-S 844 ^'

rence of longitude. Alfo, $^9*74474, D=^.98a27;
therefore ErrR+D — 8=3.23753, to which the na-
tural number is 1728, the miles in the rhumb-line fail-
ed over.

2; The common method oT finding the difference
of longitude made good upon feveral courfes and. dj-
Aances, by means of the difference of latitude and de-
parture made good upon the feveral courfes, is not ac-
curately true.

For example : If a (hip (houM fail due fouth 600
miles, from a port in 60^ north latitude, and then due
weft 600 miles^ the difference of longitude found by the.
common methods of folution would be 1053 » whereas
the true difference of longitude is only 933,Jefs than
the former by 120 nules, which is more than \ of the
whole. Indeed every confiderable alteration in the
courfe will produce. a very feufible error in tlic diffe-
rence of longitude. Though, when the feveraj rhumb
lines fatkd over are nearly in the fame dired^ion, tlie
error in longitude will be but fmall.

The reafon of this will eaiily appear from the annexed
%ure, itt which the ftiip is fuppoied to foil from Z to

5* Of dtftecmining the fhlp's "longitude by lunar t^
fervations.

SevenJ ruleafbv this purpofe have !)««» hfecly pub«*
li/hed, the principal obje6l of wlucli feems to ha?e
been to abbreviate the compueatioas peqaifite for de-
termining the true diftancc of the foaor a ftar from the
inoon'ft centre. This, howtcver, ibauld have cectainl ^hetn
lefs attended to than the inveftigation-of a folution, in <
which confiderable errors in Che data may produce a
fmall error in the required diftance, . When either of
the luminaries has a fmaB elevation^ its altitude will'
be affe^^ed by the variablenefs of the atmolphere ; .
likfwiie the altitude, as given by the quadrant, . will •
be affedcd by the inaccuracy of the inftrument, and *>
the unccrtaiuty neceffarily attending . aU. obiervations :

made-

^9m

■w"

■■M^

(a) AcoB flgnifics.thc difference between A and B.,

L O .N [2

Longinidc. made at fea. The fum of thcfe errors, when they all
tend the fame way, may be fuppofed to amount to at
leaft one minute in altitude ; wliichy in many eafee, ac-
cording to the common rules for computing the tiuc
diflance, will produce an error of about 30 minutes in
the longitude. Thus, in the example given by Monf.
Callet, in the Tables Portaiivesi if we fuppofc an error
of one minute in the fun's altitude, or call it 6° 26'
34', inflead of 6® 27' 34" ; we ihall find the alteration
in diftance according to his rule to be 54*^, producing
an error of about 27 minutes in the longitude : for
the angle at the fun will be found, in the fpherical
triangle whofe lides are the complement of the fun's
altitude, complement of the moon's altitude, and obfcr*
ved dillance, to be about 26^ ; and as radius is to the
cofine of 26 ^ fo is 60'' the fuppofed error in altitude,
to 54" the alteration in diftance. Perhaps the only
method of determining the diftance, fo as not to be
affe^ed by the errors of altitude, is that by firft find-
ing the angles at the fun and moon, and by the help
of them tlie corrections of diflance for psurallax and re-
fradiion. The rule is as follows t

Add together the complement of the moon's appa-
rent altitude, the complement of the fun's apparent al-
titude, and the apparent diftance of centres ; from half
the fum of thefe fubtraA the complement of the fun's
altitude, and add together the logarithmic co-fecant
of the complement of the moon's altitude, the loga-
rithmic co-fecant of the apparent diftance of centres,
the logarithmic fine of the half fum, and the logarith-
mic fine of the remainder ; and halif the fum of thefe
four logarithms, after rejeflirig 20 from the index,
18 the logarithmic cofine of half the angle at the
xnoon.

As radius is to the cofine of the angle at the moon ;
fo is the difference between the moon's parallax and
refraction ia altitude to a corredlion of diftance; which

Cofec,— -0.025 1 2.
Cofec— 0.1 1479-

•*'s CO. alt.
J's CO. alt."
obf. dift.-.

700 ^V

•34 4-
50 9

Sine*— 9^98950

*)iJ4 55
77 27

Rem. 6 45

^^^

88 ] L O N

is to be added to the apparent diftance of
when the angle at the moon t» obtufc; biit'.> ..
tra6led when that angle is acute, in order to br:
diftance once corrected.

In the above formula, if the word/a«kc'L:-
for moon^ and vice verfa^ wherever thcle ttin^ .
we ihall find a fecond correction of diftance u:..
plied to the diftance, once corre&ed by i'ul.-r
when the angle at the fun is obtufe, but by n-i
when that angle is acute, and the remainder c>i i:
the true diftance nearly.

In applying this rule, it will be fufficiect to \ii
complement, altitudes, and apparent diibnc^':
tres, true to the neareft minute only, a« afasir'
in the angles at the fun and moon will rcryki.
fe^ the corrections of diftances.

If D be the computed diftance io fccoeds ..
difference between the moon's parallax and ubc
in altitude, S the fine of the angle at the cu::l

R the radius ; then . . _■ will be a thini cc^.

2nR

of diftance, to be added to the diftance tvin ; -

ted; But it 13 plain, from the nature of tbc.r

tion, that it may be always reje£^ed, excqitvi^

diftance D is vexy fmall, and the angle at "^ -

nearly equal to 90*.

This folution is likewifc of ufe in findk
true diftance of a ftar from the moon, bfchsrc :
wordyim into^ar, and ufing the refradtionof thcnr
ftead of the difference between the refradioa 20:
rallax in altitude of the fun» in finding the Itc
re6iion of diftance.

£x* Given the obferved dift:ance of a ftar fr
centre of the moon, 50" 8' 41"; the moon's r
55° 58' f} ^^c ftar's altitude, 19^ 18 J ; :^^ :j
moon's horizontal parallax, i- c 5': Rcquind't:
diflance*

CU-.

Cofec*
Cofec,

0.25169
0.1 1479

Sine.
SipC'

.9.98950
9.07018

Sine 9.83688

Rem. 43 23

2)19.96629
Cofec. ——9.98314-

2)19.426.16
•Cofec. 9.71308

15^54'-
2

•58^ 54'
2

1x7 48=J'i2r^'

3^ 48=:**s angle.
Rad, : Cofeq. 117^48' : : D'diff. parall. & rcfrtft. 1980-' : 92^'= tft correft. of diflance.
Rad. • Cofec. 31^48' « ftar's rcfraa. 162" : 138"= 2d con-ea. of diibmct.

Here the firft correAion of diftance is additive,
fince the an^fc at the moon is obtufe | and the fe-
cOnd corrcaion is alfo additive, fince the angle at the
ftar is acute : therefore their fum 923"+ 138' =1061"
SI 7' 41", being added to 50' 8' 41", the apparant

jS^ io8*

diftance of the ftar from the mooa's centre, r'
50- 26^ 2r' for the true diftance of ccntrr^fl^^y"
and 2XL id+S)— L {2 L R+L 2+LD) = i:';
which, being adde J to the diftance twice corTf>
gives 50* 26' 29" for the true diftance. By ^t

LOR r 491 1 LOR

^n ifaem/^ The filUng^frog grows to a large fise» , which by dropping the afpiratlon beeafhe Lafirit

ome being between four and five feet in length ; aad Mr and afterwaxds by contraction LorJj << The etysxo-

^ennant mentioM one taken near Scarborough, whofe logy of the word (fays J. Coatee) is well worth ob-

Eiouth was a yard wide. The iiihennefi on that coaft ferving ; for it was compofed of ULtf ^* a loaf of

lave a great regard for tbia fifh, from a foppofitioti bread/' trnd/orit ** to give or afford ;'' fo that/Ki*

liat it is a great enemy tq the dog^filh ; and wheneypr forJf now Lonlf implies " a giver of bread ;" becaufe,

:hey take it with their line^ fet it at liberty* - .1 /• -• 1 . 1 . _. j?

Uai.

It is a iiOi of very great deformity: the head 19
T\ucli bigger than the whole body ; is round at the
rirctunfcrencey and flat above ; the mouth of a pro-
iigrious widenefs. The under jaw is. mnch longer
than the upper: the jaws are full of (lender fhaurp
teeth : . xn the roof of the mouth are two or three rows
of the fame : at the root of the tongue^ oppofite eack
t>thery are two bones of an elliptical fotm, thiik fety
urith very ftrong (harp teeth. The noftrila do sot
eppeat externally, but in the upper part of the mouth
lire two large orifices ^at ferve inilcad of them* On
cad) iide the upper«jaw are two iharp fpine?, and others
are fcattered about the upper part of thehead* Imm^
^lately above the nofe are two long tough fihunentt,
and on the i)aek three others ; tliefe are what Pliny
trails comtcuhf and £ay8 it aaakes v£c of to attrad the

in thofc ages> fuch great men kept extraordinary
houfesy and fed all the poor ; for which reafon they
were calkd glva-i of breads a thing now mUch out of
date, great men being fond of retaining the title*
but few regardii^ the pradUce for which it was firit
given. See Ladt*

H4mf€ o/LoxDSf one of the three eftfltes of parlia^
ment, and compofed of the Lords Spiritual and Tem-
poral.

I. The SfirihuJ L&rdjt COnfift of 1 archbiihops and
24 biihops \ andy at the difTolution of monafteries by
Henry VIII. GoaMed Ukewife of 26 mitred abbots
and two priors I a very conilderable body, and vkjl
thofe times equal in number to the temporal nobility.
All thefe hold» or are fuppofed to hold, certain aDcicnt
baronies under the king : for William the Conqueror
thonght proper to change the fpir'iual tenure of frank-

little fifh. They feem to be Hke lines flung out for almoign or freemlmsy under which the biflu>pe held

that end. Along the edges of the head and body are their lands dm-ing the Saxon government^ into the

a multitude of fhort fringed ikins, placed at equal di* fcodal or Notman tenure by barony ; which fubje£bed

ilances. The aperture to the gills is placed behind f then- eflates to all civik Chargres and afleflincntSy from

each of thefe is very wide, fo that 4bnie .writers luure which they were before exempt ; and in right of fue*

imagined it to be a receptacle for the young in time celfion to thofe baronies, which were unalienable from

of danger. The body grows ilender near the tail, the their refpe&ive dignities, the biihops and abbots were

end of which i» quite even. ITie colour of the upper allowed their (eats in the houfe of lords. But though

part of this fiih is duiky, die lower part-white ; the thefe lords fpiritual are tn the eye of the law a diftindt

(kin fmooth. eftate from the lords temporal, and are fo diftingruifheA

L.ORA^^^HUS; in botany : A genus of the mo- in moft of our a(As of parliament ; yet in pradice they

nogynia order,belonging to the hexandria dafsof plants^ are ufually blended together under the name xiitbe hrdt;

and in the natural method ranking under the 48th of- they intermix in their votes, and the majority of fuch

der, jlggngaUt^ The germen is inferior ; there is no
calyx ; the corolla is fexfid and revoluted ; the iUmina
nre at the tops of the petair; the berry is monofpermous.
There U only one fpecies, a native of America, dif-
covered by Father Plttmier, and found growing natu-
rally at La Vera Cruz by Dr Honfton. It rifes with
a (hrubby ftalk, eight or ten feet high, dvriding into

intermixtupe joins both eflates. And from this want
of a feparate ailcmbly, and feparate negative of the
prelates, fome writers have argued very cogently, that
the lords fpiritual and tempoial are now in reality only
one eftate : which is onqueftionably true in every er-
fe6^ual fenfc, Plough the ancknt diiUn£b'on between
them ftiil nominaily continues^ For if a bill fliould

feveral branches, Iniving at their ends cluftcrs of fmall pafs their houfe, there is no doubt of its validity, tho'

every kird fpiritual fliouk) vote againft it ) of which
Sclden and Sir Edward Coke give many inftances : as,
on the other hand, doubtlefsiit would be equally good,
if the lords temp<wal pre£ent were inferior to the bi-
ihops in number, and eveiy one of thofe temporal lorda
gave his vote to rged the bill \ thoi^ this Sir Edward-
Coke feeros to doubt o£ • .

1. The TimfordLordi confift of all the peers of the
realm, (the bifliops not being in ftridneft held to be
fuch, but merely lords of paniament), by whatever
title of nobility diftinguifhed \ dukes, marquifes, earis,
tifcounts, or barona f. Some of thefe fit by dcfcent, \^^ -^^V
coble either by birth or creation. In thia fenfe, it as do all ancient peers; fome by creation, as do all^'^^^
amoonts to much the feme as fetr ^ ike reaftr^ or new-made ones| others, fince the union with Scotland,
Maf parUamntt. The title is by courtefy aKb given by dedtion, which is the cafe of the i6>peer8, who
to all the fens of dukes and marquifes, and to the reprefent the body^ of the Scots nobility* llieir num-
tldeft foni of caiSs : and it is aKb a title of honour be- 4)er ie indefinite, and may be increafed at will by the
iiowed on thofe who are honourable by their employ- power of €he crown i and once, in tlie reign of Queen
ments; as lord adv§iate^ lord cbamierJmn^ hrd chmh Anne, there was an inilance of creating no le& than
telhtj ^K The word la Saxon, but abbreviated firom 1 2 together ; in contemplation of which^ in the reigii
two fyHables into one ^ Ux k was origiaidly iUitfordy of King George I. a bill pafied the houfe of loids, and

O o 2 wail

fcarlet-coloured flowers, fucceeded by oval berries with
a piilpy eoverii^, and a hard (heS with one cell, in»
clofing feveral comprefiied feeds. It is propagated by
feeds, which fiiould be fown feon after they are ripe-;
otherwife they are very apt to mifcsny, or he a year in
the ground without germinating. The plants require
always to be kept in a barfc-flove.

LORARII, among the Romaais officers whofe
biilinefs it was, with whips and fcourges, to comp^
the gladiators to engage. The lorarU alfo punifiied
(kves who difobeyed their mailers.

LORiD, a title of honoinr given to thofe wlio are

LOR [202.] LOR

}^''^' ^'at cimntcnanccd by the then miniilryy for limiting the klng*8 forefts, may, both in going aiid mtu

the number of the peerage. This was thought by kill one or two of the king's kleer without vzx

fome to promife a great acquifition to the conftitution, in view of the foreftcr if he be present, or oa ^

by retraining the prerogative from gaining the afcen- a horn if he be abfent ; that he may not {ccb'j^

dant in that.auguft aiTemhly, by pourinjr in at plea- the king's venifon by (lealth.

fure an unlimited number of new-created lords. But In the next place^ they have a right to be ms^

the bill was ill relifhedy and mifcarried in the houfe of and conftantly are»' by the judges of the csn

commons, whofe leading members were then defirous king's-bench and common-pleasy and fuck x i

to keep the avenues to the other houfe as open and eafy barons of the exchequer as art of the degree f j

as psflible. coif, or have been made feneants at law ; u &bj

The difUndion of ranks and honours is necefiary in by the king's learned counul, being £eTJ€acts,£;i

every well-governed ftate : in order to reward fuch as the mafters of the court of chancery ; for *ls j

are eminent for their fervices to the public, in a manner vice in point of law, and for the greater dig.-

the moil defirable toindividuals, and yet without burthen their proceedings* The fecrctaiics of ftate, ^ji

to the comnmnity ; exciting thereby an ambitious ye^ attorney and folicitor general, were alfo ufinl tc E3

laudable ardour and generous emulation in others. And the houfe of peers* and have to this day itspij

emulation, or virtuous ambition, is a fpring of adlion with the judges, Stc) their regular writs of ^

which, however dangerous or invidious in a mere repu- ifTued out at the b^inning of every paniass.i

blic or under a defpotic fway, wiU certainly be attended traSandum d coafi&im impaidauimm^ though nt

with good effefU under a free monarchy ; where, with- confintienJmn : but» whenever of late yean tlief i

outdeilroying its exiftence, its excefies may be conti- been members of the houfe of commons, tkii

nually refbrained by that fuperior power from which tendance here hath fallen into difuie.

all honour is derived. Such a fpirit, when nationally Another privilege is, that every peer, br k

diffuied, gives life and vigonr to the community ; it obtained from the king, may znake another ki

lets all the wheels of government in motion, which^ parliament his proxy* to vote for him in his abb

under a wife regulator, may be direfked to any bene- A privilege, which a member of the other bo^^

ficial purpofe \ and thereby every individual may be by no means have* as he it himfelf but a pnuyi:

made fubfervient to the public good, while he prin- multitude of other people,

cipally means to promote his own particular views* Each peer has alfo a right* by leave of tbe^

A body of nubility is alfo more particularly neceifary when a vote pafles contrary to his featimcQis,t:!

in our mixed and compounded conftitution* in order to ter his diflcnt on the ^joornals of the houfe, ri:

fupport the rights of both the crown and the people, reafons for fuch dilFent ; vchich is ufuallj iyieii

by forming a barrier to withftand the encroadiments proteft.

of both. It creates and preferves that gradual fcale All bills likewife, that may in their coa&qxi

«f dignity which proceeds from the peafant to the any way affed the rights of ^e peenge,areb^i

prince ; rifing like a pyramid from a broad foimda- cuitom of parliament to have their firft nfe sci

tion, and dimim'fhing to a point as it rifes. It is thia ginning in the houfe of peers* and to fufferno ^

afcerding and contra6Ung proportion that adds ftabi- or amendments in the houfe of commons.

lity to any government ; for when the departure is There is alfo one ftatute pecnliady rcktifc tc 3

bidden from one extreme to another* we may pro- houfe of lords; 6 Ann. c. 25. which regako:

nounce that ftate to be precarious. The nobility ele^on of the 16 |[eprefentattvc peers of X^

therefore are the piflars, which are reared from Britain* in conflequence of the aad and 23d aitkie

among the people, more immediately to fupport the the union : and for that purpofe prefcribesthccs

throne ; and* if that falls, they muft alfo be buried &c. to be taken hy the ele^kors ; direds the sotk

under its ruins. Accordingly, when in the laft cen- balloting; prohibits the peers eleAing frofflbo^;

tury the commons had determined to extirpate mo- tended in an nnufual manner ; and exprefilf pr9«3

narchy, they alfo voted the houfe of lords to be ufeleis that no other matter (hall be treated of in that afeu

•and dangerous. And iince titles of nobility are thus lave only the ele^on*'on pain of incurring a jk£

expedient in the ftate* it is alfo expedient that their nire. See alio the articks Nobility and Feus.

ttwners ftkould form an independent and feparate LORDOSIS* (of A>«f^oi, Am/ ipimtr^/, is tk:

branch of the legiflature. If they were confounded dical writings* a name given to a difbmpered &^

with the mafs of the people, and like them had 01^ a the fpine* in whieh it is bent inwards* or tovard^

vote in eleding lepreicntatives* their privileges would anterior parts. It is ufed in oppofition topti^

ibon be borne down and overwhelmed by the popular hua^acked. See Suxgery.

torrent* which would efteaually level all diftinaions. LORETTO, a town of Italy* in the Huc>

It is therefore highly neceflarr that the body of nobles Mardic of Ancona* with a hiflu^'a fee. It is^

ftould have a diftin6k aifembly* diftin^ deliberations, but fortified ; and contains the fiunous cafcjsti,

and diftinfi powers from the commons. See alfo holy chapeU fo much viiited by pilgrinu. This^

< KiNG,NoBij.io*T, PARLiAMENj*CoM»ovs,tfju/CoM- pel» accordiug to the Impend*, was origii^nf*''^

MONALTY. houfe lu NaxaKth* inhabited by the viigisMii?'

As to the peculiar laws and cnftoms relating to the which fhe was fahited by the angd, and ^ ;

houfe of lords i One very ancient privilege is that de- bred our Saviour. After their deaths* it w^

dared by the chartes of the foreft* confirmed in parlia- great veneration by all believers in Jefus, and it t^

flsent 9 Hen. III. ; viz* that every lord fpiritual or confecrated into a chapel* and dedicated to the vii^

tcii>]g^^fttinmonc<l.iop«ri>anient»aadpaffii^ upon whid» occa&oa &t Luke made thati^^

LOR t 293 1 L A R

ge, -vrhich 18 ff31 prcfcnrod htit, and dignified with found In Paleftxne, wni formerly very commoOy parti* h^f nifB.

nstvne of our Lady of Lorctto. This fan6Ufii!d cularly in the neighbourhood of Nazareth.
ice MT^s allowed to fojoum in Galilee as long as that The holy houfe is divided within into two unequal

ri A ^was inhabited by Chriftians i but when infidels portions, by a kind of grate-work of filver* The di«

poflcjQion of the country^ a band of angdS) to fave vifion towards the weii is about three-fourtlis of the

rom poUutioDi took it in their arms»' and -conveyed whole; that to the eaU is called the .9<iA^aa/> In

roiTi Nazareth to a caMe in Dalmatian . Tliis hA the larger divifion, which may be coniidered as the

^ht have been called in queftion by incredulous main body of the houfe, the walls are left bare, to

pie, had it been perfbrmtd in a fecret manner ; fliow the true original fabric of Nazareth ilone ; for

9 tKat it might be mantfeft to the mod {hort-%hted they mull not be fuppofed to be . bricks* At the

aviator, and evident to all who were not peife6Uy lower or weitem wall there is a window, xhe fam&

£ as wcU as blindt a bla^e of celeilialiight, and a through which the angel Gabriel entered at the An-

Lcert of divine mufic, acconipanied it during the nunciation. The architraves of this window are co*

ole journey ; befides, when the angeb, to reft them- vered with filver. There are a great Aumber of goU

res> fct it down ki a little wood near the road, all den and filver lamps in this chapel : one of the former^

: trees of the foreft bowed their heads to the ground, a prefent from the republic of Venice, is faid to weigh

i continued in thatrefpe^bful pofture as long as the 37 pounds, and fomc of the filver lamps weigh from

red chapel remained among them. But, not having 120 to 1 30 pounds. . At the upper end of the largeft

sn entertained with fuitable refpe^ at the ca£kle above room is an altar, but fo low, tkat firom it you may

uitioned, the lame indefatigable angels carried it over fee the famous image which ftan^ over the chimney

e fea, and placed it in a field bdoaging. to a noble in the (mall room or fiinduary. Golden and fdver

iy called Lauretta^ from whom the chapel tak^ its angels, of confiderabk fise, kneel around her, fom«

nne. This field happened unfortunately to be fre- offering hearts of gold, enriched with diamonds, and

lented at that time by highwaymen and murderers : one an infant of pure gold. The wall of the fanc-

cir cum (lance with which the angels undoubtedly were tuary is plated' with filver, and adorned with cruci*

>t acquainted when they placed it there. After they fixes, precious ftones, and votive gifts of various kinds.

ere better informed, they removed it to the top of a The figure of the Virgin • herfelf by no^ means corre*

ill belonging to two brothers, where they imagined fponds with the fine furniture of her houfe : She is a

would be perfedly fecure finom the dangers of rob- little woman, about four feet in height, with the fea*

i:ry or aifaifination ; but the two brothers, the pro- tures and complexion of a negro. Of ail the fculp«

rietors of the ground, being equally . enamoured of tors that ever exifted, afrure<Qy St Luke, by whom

leir new vifitor, became jealous of each other, quar- this figure is faid to have ]^een made, is the leafl of a

;:lled, fought, and fell by mutual wounds. After flatterer $ and nothing can be a ftronger proof of Ih^

kus fatal cataftrophe, the angels in waiting, finally bleifed Virgin's contempt for external beauty, than

loved the holy chapel' to the eminence where it now her being iatisfied with this reprefentation of her.

lands, and has flood thefe 400 years, having loft all The figure of the infant Jefus, fay St Luke, is of a piece

clifh for travelling. with that of the Virgin : beholds a large golden globe

The facrtd chapel (lands due eafl And weft, at the in one hand, and the other is extend«l in the a^ of

arther end of a bo^e church of the moft durable ftone blefling. Both figures have crowns 00 their head^^

»f Iflria, which has been built around it^ This may enriched with diaunonds i. tbefie were prefents from

»e confidered as the external covering, or as a kind Ann of Auftria queen of France* Both arms of the

>f great coat to the cafafantoy which has a fmaller Virgin are indofed within hvrobcs, and no part but

:oat of more precious materials and workmanfiiip her face is to be feen \ hev drels is moft magnificent, but

learer its body. This internal covering or cafe is of in a wietcfaed bad tafbe : .this is not fusprifiag, for (ht

Lhe choiceft marble, after apian of San Savino% and has nO female. attendant. She has particular clothes

ornamented with bafib relievos, the workmanihip of for the different feafts held in honour of her, and^

the beftfcu^tors whi^h Italy could fumiih in the reign which is not quite, fix, decent, is always dreifcd and

of Leo X. The fubjed^ of thofe baflb relievos are, undrefled by the priefta belooffing. to thexhapel; her

the hiftory of the bleifed virgin, and. other parts of robes ate omaikientedwith all Kinda4af. precious. ftonea

the Bible. The whole cafe is about 50 feet long, 30 down to the. hem of bar garment .l.
in breadth, and tl^ fame in height ; but the real houfe There, is a. imall phce behind the fan^uary, in *

itfelf is no more than 32 feet in langth, 14 in breadth, which are fhown the . chimneys ^^ fome other fumi«

and at the fidts about 18 feet in height ; the centre ture, which they pretend belonged to* the Virgin when .

of the roof is four or five feet higher. The walls of file lived at Nazareth ; particularly a. little earthen

this little holy chapel are compofed of pieces of a porringer, .out of which the infant ufcd to eat* The

rcddiih fubftance, of an oblong* fquare (hape, laid one pilgrims bring roDuries,. little crucifixes,. andcAgnus .

upon another, in the manner of brick. At firft fight, on Dei's, .which the .obliging pricft (hakes for half: a mK

a fuperfkial view, thefe red-coloured obloo^ fubflances nute in this difli \ after, which it is .believed they ao»

appear to be. nothing elfe than common Itahan bricks i; . quire the virtue of nnuing various difeafes, .and'provc .

and, which is ftill more extraordinary, on a fecpnd and an. excellent. preventatii« of. all ten^tationa of Satan.

third view, with all pofiSble attention, they ftill have the The gown which the image had on when the chapel

fiime appearance. Travellers, however, are alFured,- arrived from Nazarethiis of red camblet, and xrareftdly^

with great earneflnefi^ that there is not a finale par- kept in a glafs fiirine*.

tide of hrick in their whole compofition, being en- . Above 100 mafles are daily fiud in this chapel, and .

tizdyof a ftonc^ which^ tkpugh it caimot ao^nr be ia the chusck in which, it ftandi. , The jewels and i

richea^

lOR [994] LOU.

4bMett4 tithes to he &tn «t ady one time in At holy dhapd ^odttie^y fome df tiuem of a hijii price ; k!M

"^are of fmati value in coi&parifon of thofe in th^ trea«> Ij the ^rtaUr part awe adapted to thcpo^? |

fmjp which if a large room adjoining to the Teflrj of btiyen, and kildior a mene triAe. Tke^idcsf

the great church. Ita the fn^efiei of thia room ans verty of thote maaufadurera and tradcn, id-:

kept chofe prefentAv^hich royals noble* aikd rich bigots inhabitants of thti tows io Moeral» ii afoficka;.

*of all ranks, have/ by oppreffing their fubjeds and that the reputatioa of oar Lady til Larcttokp.

^ injuring their familtes» fent to this place. To enume-i on the decl.ne.
rato^Wy pstrticular would fill volumes. They coniift In the gi*eat church which coataias the holf •d

of various utenfils and other things 10 iilver and goki ; are confemonals, M-faerc the pemtaats from mn J

as lamps^ candlefticks, goblets, cro\^-n$, and crucitixei ; try of Europe may be oofifvflcd in their ovi lep

lambs, eagles, faints, apoflles, angels, virgins» and prieds being ahrays in waitif^ for that pmpci :

infants : then there are cameos^ pearls, gems, and pre- of them has a long white rod an his hand, mir

cious ftones, of all kinds and in great numbers. What is he touches the heads of thofe to whom be tkn

-valued above aB the other jewels is, the miraculous pearU proper to give abfolutioo. Tbey place ihM^.

wherein they aflcrt that Nature has gfven a faithful de« their knees in groupei around tile ooafdlaaii:.

lineation Of the Virgin fitting on a cloud with the in^ and when the holy hthtr has touched tbdr bo.

fant . Jefua in her arms* There was not rocrm in the the expiatory rod^ they retire, freed from tic Li

prefies of the treafury to hold all the filvcr pieces which of their fina, and with renewed coorsge to :•::.

have been prefentedr to the Virgin* Several other freih aeconnt.

preifes in the veftty are completely full. It is faid In the fpaciota area before this churcli tkc-

that thofe pieces are ocnafionally melted down by hii elegant marble fountaiui^ fuppUed with vatff oa.

holinefs for the life of the ftate ; and alfo that the adjoiamg hill by an aquedudt. Few erroof tkr

- moft^preeious of the jewels are picked out and fold iaconfiderable towns of Italy are withoat it i

for the fame purpofe, falfe llones being fubftituted in ornament of a public fountain. The embcQEkr:

their roo9i. of iculptore and architecture are emploTed vki :

Pilgrimaged to Loretto are not fe frequent with f> propriety on fnch works, which are contiiunL':

reigners, or with Italians of fortune and diiUadiotty people's view ) the air is refre(hed and t&t miL'

as formeiiy; nineteen oat of twenty of thofe who ed bv the ilreams of water they pour forth; t:

make this journey now are poor people, who depend peculiarly agreeable in a warm dinate. h &.Z

for their maintenance 00 the charity they receive oa there is alfo a ftatue of Sixtna V. in bronzt i*|

the road. To thofe who are of fuch a rank in life aa the portal of the chorek itfelf is a ftatoc of it'

precludes them from availing themfelves of the cha^ gin i and above the middle gate is a Latin ioicT

Stable inilitutions for the maintenance of pilgrims, importing, that withia is the hoafe of the m^ j

iuch journeys are attended with expence and inconve^ God, ia which the Word was made Beth, Tix^

Aiency ; and fathera and hu/bands, in moderate or cob»-' of the church are likewife of bronse, embeUil^'']

iined circumftances, are fivquently brought todiiagree- luiflb relievos of admirable workman(hip ; tke-

able dilemmas, by the rath Vowi of going to Loretto taken partly from the 01 i and partly fnmi tk >-;

arhich their wives or daughters are apt to make on any Teftament) and divided into ditferent compar^J

/uppofed deliverance from danger. To refufe, is con^ As the gates of this church are (hut at nooe, ti*(

Xidered by the whole neighbourhood as cruel, and even grims who airivc^aftet that time can get so nax'\

impious ; and to grant, is often highly diftreifiag, par- /anSa €afo than thele gates, which aie by tin ^

liculariy to foch ho/baadS as» boia afie6tioa or any fometimes expofcd to tlie firft violence of tiat : 1

mhermotivc, do not choofe that their wives ihould ardour which ivas defigned for the cha^l itfelf I

«be long out of their fight. Bat the podt^ who are the fculpture* upon the gates which is witbiQ rc;:^

ainaintaincd during their whole journey, and have no» the mouths of thofe aeuots, is in fome dt-grttcf?

/thing more than a bare aiainttnance to exped froia by their kiflcs.

%heir labour at home» to them a journey to Loretto There are alfo feveral paintings to be fftslr

is a party of pleafure asiKrell as devotion, and by much fome of which are highly efteemed, particii^'

the moft agreeaUexoad tkey can take to heaven« The in the treafury. The fubjed of one of Hitkh'

jrreatcd concouric of p^rims is lit the feafons of Eafter Virgin's Nativit^^, by Annibal Carracd ; a«l c *

and Whitfantide. The rich travel in then: carrii^es : other, a Holy Family, by Raphael Tbtrtat-'^

A greater number- come on korfrback or oa mules ; others of confiderable merit whidi ornament tk^

Or, what is fliil more common, on aifes. ' Great num- of the great church. Thefe alurs, or Ji^^

'bers of females come in this fcnanncr, ^'ith a male of whit h this fabric contains a great number, srl^

friend walking by them as their guide and protector ; w:ith marble and embellifhed by fcnipture ; bato^^

"but the greateft number of bo& fcxes are on foot, within this church interefts a Irevdler of h&i^*^

The pilgrims on foot, as foon as they enter the fuburbs, much as the iron gmtes before thofe cbapi^b, ^*^

begin a hytrin in honour of the Virgin, which they were made of tlie fetters and chains of ^^^^^
continue till they reach the church. The poorer fort (laves, who were freed from bondage by the ^

«K received into an hofpital^ where they have bed and vidory of Lepanto.

4>oard for three days. The place where the governor refides to^^

The only trade of Loretto confifts of rofaries, era- the church, and the eockilaliics who are einpl^'
cifixes, little Madonas, Agnus Dei^s, and medals, it lodge in the ^e pakce» where they rcce^^
which are maaufafiured here, and fold to pi^'ms. ptigrims of high difHn6tion. The envirtM» « ^

There are vreat ttuoibers of /hops foil of the& com- town are very agt«eable« and in .fine wcH&cr^

L O R

[ 295 ]

LOR

ktaans of Croatia may be feen from hence. It »
1 on a mountain > in £• Long. 13. 50. N. Lat,

DRICA, WHB a cuirafsy brigaQtine^ or coat of

iQ ufe among the Roman fdldiers. It was ge*

Kenneth ll. v^^io removcd.1t to Scone, in order to fe-
cure. his reign ; for, according to the infcription,

Ni/tiilt*tfjtumy St«ti qvocunqut tUittum
Irtvetiient iiiftidcm^ nguare U/*i*tur ibu'em.

Some of the ancient regalia were preferred till the pre-
\y made of leather, and is Ciippofed to be derived i«nt century, when the keeper's fervants, during hi a
lorum* — ^The loric2 were fet with plates of metal infirm years, embezzled them for the iilver ornaments ;
rious frrms ; fometimes in hooks or rings like a and left only a battle-axe, jiinc feet long, of beautiful

workmanfbip, and ornamented with filver.

The caftle is fquare^ the infideonly 87 feet ; partly
niinoiis, partly habitable* At three of the comer»
are round towers ; one of there proje^is very little.
The entrance is towards the fea at prefent by a Itair-
cafe, in old times probably by a .draw4>ridge, which^
f^ill from a little gate>way» The mafonry appears very
ancient ; the tops battlemented« This pile isieated'on
a rock at the mouth of Loch Etive, whofc waters
expand within to a beautiful bay, where (hips may
fafely ride in all weather. Of this building, the fouu*
der of which is unknown, nothing remains except the
outer walls, which, though rooflefs, arc fUU in good
order ; and within which, fome buildings have been
ere^d, which ferve as the refidenee of the lai^.'
The duke of Argyle is hereditary keeper under the
Crown.«-— At a fniall diflaace from the caftle is a ruined'
chapel, once an elegant buildiAg ^'. a^d at one end an '
indofure, a family-cemetery. Oppofite to thefe is a
high precipice, ending abrupt and turning fuddenly
towmnl the fouth-eaft. A perfon concealed in the re-
ccfs of the rock, a little beyond the angle, furprifes
friends ftationed at fome diftance beneath the precipice
witli a Very remarkably echo of any word, or even
fentence, he pronounces ; which reaches the laft di<
ftin6l and unbroken. The repetition is fingle, but re-
markably clear.

In 1307, this caftle wag pofieiTed by Alexander
Macdougal lord of A^rgyle, a fmnd to the Englifh ;•
but wai that y^ar reduced by Robert Bruce, when
Macdougal. fueil for peace with that prince, and wa#
received into favour.

We find, about the year 1455, this to ha^ been a'
refidence of the lords of the ides ; for here James laft'
earl of Douglas, after his defeat in Annandale, ^d to •
Donald, the regulus of the time, and prevailed on him
to take arms and carry ou a plundering' war againfb
hia monarch James II.

The fituation of this regal feat .was calcdated foi-.
pleafure as well as fttength. The views of mountains,
de on the fouth by Looh Etive, on the banks x)f valleys, waters, and iilands, arc delightful. On the
hich ftands the caille of Bcrgomarn, wherein the north fide of Locli Etive ftood the town of Bcrego—
>ttrt8 of jufticc were anoiently held. This diHri^l, nium, fuppofed to have been the capital of the Weft
mounding with lakes, is Uie moft pleafant and fertile Highlandb. it feemi, from certain mounds, excava«
art of Argylelliire, producing plenty of oats and tions, and other . appoarancrs, 'to have been a ftrong -
arley. It once belonged to tlie ancient family of fbrtrefs, to prevent invailon, or to iocure a retreat, as •
dacdougal,. ftifi* rolidin^ on tlie .^ot ;, bjit devolved occaHons migli^ require* On the bank of the fame
the lords 'of Argyle m Gon(equence of a marriage loch is the fiteof Arddiatiait,' a pri^^ry cf monk| of
nth theheirefs, at that* time a branch. of the Stuart Vallifcaullium ia Boygundy, founded in 1230 by Do-
omily. Tke«hief place of notoia <hisdiftri^ is tho nald MaccotH,. aoceftor of the Macdougals of Lorn. .
laftle of Dunftaffnage, a feat of the Seottifh kings^ Hore Robert Bruce, who rema^'ned mailer of tliis
irevious to the eonouoft of the PiAs in 843 by Kcft. country before- he got entire. poiTeffion^of Scotland,,
leth II. fa this place was Itmg preferred the ^mous* held a parliament or. council. — ^Tlie country abounds
b)ne, the pafiadaum o£ NoFtsh Britain ; hronght, fays, ki Dniidical, Danish, tmd other monuments.
k^end, out of Sjpain, where it- was £rft nfed as a feat LORRAIN, a loverdja^n ftate of Europcj bounded
if juftioe by <}athdiis, ooeval with Mofcs. k con- on the north by Luxemburg and the arcltbrflioprick of ^
ttmol hoR aa tlie<orofi«tioa-cbair till the teign <A Treves^ oq liieeaft by AUace.asid-the duchy of Deus.

£ontdy.

I*3rraitu

fometimes like feathers, aad fometimes like the
\ of ferpents or fifhes, to which plates of gold

often added. There i^ere other lighter cuitaffes
fliog only of many iblds of linen cloth, or of flax
; ftrong enough to reii ft .weapons. Such foldiers
ere rated under loco drachms, inftead pf the lo*
now defcribed, wore.a/«Air^. — The Romaitlo-
inras made like a fhirt, and defended the wearer

before and behind, but vi^s fb contrived that the
L part could be occafionally fieparated from the
t. Some of the Icuricae were made of cords of
p or flax, clofe fet together; whence they are
:d fboraetst Liliceif triUceSf &c. from the number of
cords fixed one upon another ; but thefe were ufed
ler in hunting than in the field of battle.
^ORICATION, or coatihg, in cliemiftry, is

covering a glafs or earthen vefliel with a coat or
ft of a matter able to refift the fire, to prevent its
aking in the perfbrming an operation that requires
at violence of fire. See CH£MisTaY.
LORIS, in zoology. See LsMua.
LORIMERS, one of ^he companies of London,
t make bits for bridles, fpurs, and fuch like fmall
n ware. They are mentioned in ilatute 1 Rich. il.
12. — ^The word Ceems derived from the Latin word
/m^ •* a thongs"

LORME (Philibert de), one of the moft cdebia-
i archite& la the i6th century, was bom at Lyons,
leen Cathenae de Medicis gave him the fuperinten*
lice of bixiidings ; and he had the dire^ion of thofe
the Louvre, the Thuilleriee, the cafUe of St Anet,
Germains, and other edifices ered^ed by her orders,
e wrote fevtend books of architodure, which are e-
emed ; and died about the year 1577.
LORME, a divilion of Arg}defiiire in Scotland,
lich gives the title of marquis to the duke of Argyle.

extends above 50 miles in length from north to
ath, and about nine at its.utmoft breadth ; bounded
1 the eaft by Braidalbin ; on the weft, by tlie iDands ;
I the north, by Lochaher ; and is divided from Knap

LOT { «96 ] LOT

Fonts, oh the fouth by Franchc Comi^, fitid on the in his coloufiflg: for the judicious eje um-z:
wcfl hy Champagne and the duchy of Bar. It 18 about with the darkifh tint that predommate is i ]
loo miles in Icncrth, and 75 in breadth $ and abounda died in London about i68i.
in all forts of com, wine, hemp, flax, rape-feed, game, LOTHIAN, a name given to three as.
and iifh, with whiclt it carries on fome trade, and in Scotland, tiz. Haddingtpn-ihire, Edioburgl-b]
general all the uecefTaries oFlife. There are Hnemea* Linlithgow-fhire; otherwife called £^, ^j^^l
dow8 and large forcfls:, 5»ith mines of iron, iUver, and Lothians.

aoppcr» Us alfo fuit-pits. Thcj-e are a great number x. £aft Lothian» or Haddingtoo-ibiic, ii riq
of rivers ; of whicli the princip^ arc the Maefe or on the north- weft by the Frith of Forth; aWt
Meufc, the MolUle, the Scille, the Me are, and the eaft by the German Sea; on the fouth-eaft '&■{
6arre. It is divided into three parts; tlie duchy of wickihirei and on the weft by the cointTe^
Lonain, properly fa -called^ which was hcretofbre a burgh. It extends about 25 miles froa 02 sii
fovercign ftatc ; the duchy of Barr, v.hich formexiy be* and where broadeft, nearly 15 from oortli v j
longed to the dukes of Lorrain, but af tier wards came The coaft, advancing northward into the Fiii^
under the government of Frapce ; and the third com- an irregular curve*— -This is one of the sot ^
prebends the three bifhoprics of Met;^, Toul, and counties in Scotland, prodacing great quashd
Verdun, which have belonged to France ever fmce the wheat and all forts of grainy wdl-watertd, sj
year 15.?!' Iti I733» the emperor of Germany being tifully fupplied with ii(h» fowl, fuel, aodii..
at H'ar with France, this laft got poffeflion of the duchy
of Lorrain ; and when there was a peace made in 1 735,
*k was agreed, that Stanidaus king of Poland, father-
'in4aw to the king of France, fhould poflefs thefe du«
chies, and that after his death they fhoidd be united
for ever to the crown of France. It was alfo then
agreed, that Francis Stephen, duke of Lorrain, and
"(he emperor's fon4n-law, fhould have the grand duchy
<of Tufcany as an equivalent for Lorrain. After the
death of the great duke of Tufcany, in 1737, King

cefTaries of life. It abounds with towBs,r^
and farms, interfperfed with a great nttmlxrifc
able houfes belonging to perfons of raak isdfc
For cultivation, populoufncfs, and fertility, a I
may vie with any trad of land in the ^sadoti
Briuin. Over and above the farming, ^1
out to great account, the peojde towanli tkia
employ themfelves in the ftlhery, lalt-maki:^ d
foreign trade; and fome of the more ialaadiEiisd
engage in the linen and woollen manu^om Ij

Staniilaus and the duke of IfOrrain took pofi'edioB of flone and coal are found in moft parts of tks^

:their refpedive dominions, and the cefTation was con^
finned and guarantied by a treaty in 1738. The inha-
bitants are laborious and valiant, and their religion is
the Roman Cath<^i€. They have but little trade with
ftrangers, becanfe they have no navigable rivers, and
becaufe they have all neceiTaries within themfelves ;
but what little trade they have confifts of com and
linen cloth. Nanci is the capital town.

Lorrain (Robert le), an eminent fculptor, bom
at Paris in i666. From his infancy, he made fo ra-
pid a progrefs in the art of defigning, that at the age
qE i^ the celebrated Girardon intrufted him with the

and great numbers of iheep are fed 00 tkii
Lammermuir.

2. Edinbui^h-fhire, or Mid^Lothiaa, a cd
miles long, but varies in its breadth in diiec:-)
from five to 16 mQes. It ia bounded oa tbtc^
Haddington-fhire ; on the weft bytheihnt i
lithgow ; on the fouth, by TweeddaleorPatW
and on the north, by part of Weft-Lodsn cl
Frith of Forth. The afpcd of the coustryis I
neral level and plcafant, interfpcried vithi
hills, that help to exhibit agreeable profpc^ |
well watered with rivers, and (haded wth w«i

•care -of teaching his children and corre£iing his difci-^ produces plenty of coal* lime-ft^ne, a

{^J

pies. He committed to him alfo, in conjunction with
NouliiFon, the execution of the famous tomb of Car-
dinal Richelieu in the Sorbonne, and his own tomb at St
Landres in Paris. On his return from Rome, he finifh-
ad feveral pieces at Marfeilles, which had been left im-
perfcA by the death of Mr Puget. He was received

marble, and fome copper ore* The foQ, oti^'
tile, is finely cultivated, and yieUs as pleuiM^
of excellent wheat as are fonnd in any part ^^^
Britain* The whole (hire is interfperfed vui
houfes and plantations belonging to nobfcssj
gentlemen of fortune. The fatners arc

into the academy of foulpture in 1701. His chUf (cience of apiculture ; and wealthy in couk^J*
d^auvre is Galatea^ a work univerfally admired. Xx>r- their (kill, fome of them paying 500 L of 7^^'

rain afte^vards made a Bacchus for the gardens at
Verfailles, a Faun for. thofe <>f Marly ; and feveral
bronzes, among which is an Andromeda ; all in an
excellent tafte. "Iliis artifi fucceeded chiefly in heads;
and more particularly in that of young girls, which he
performed with incomparable delicacy and truth.

Lorrain (Claude.) See Claude.

LOTEN (John), a good landfcape painter of the
Engli(h fchool ; though a native of Switzerland. His
tafte led him to folemn.and dreary . fcenes,- as land-
ilorms accompanied with fhowers of rain, &c. and he
feldom omitted to introduce oak-trees in his profpeds:
Kis landicapes are generally large ; and he painted with
nature, truth, and force. But the effed of .his com-
pofition had been nuch ipncater if he had been lefs eold

N^i88. 3

The country is *rell inhabited, and prefeoaM'j
good number of towns and populous ^T^^^^.^'
the fea-coaft the common peo^e fnbfift by fifi^'r'
traffic in coals and fait, and fome few a^^
fmuggling commerce. Thofe in the inhw ^ ,
ployed in farming, and fome branches » w'*^,
-manufaaure. The (heriffialty of this ftir«i"^
gift of the crown ; and Edinbuigh \\^^^^

3. The (hire of Linlithgow, or Weft Lfi^^
bounded on the north by the Frith 0/ FfftJ-
fmall river Almond divides it feom Edinbarp;

the eaft. On the fouth-weft it joint the «n.
Lanerk ; and on the weft it is parted froi^^]
fhirc by Avon, a fmall river. Itt fb"^ "^^

LOT r a97 3 LOT

lafy approaches to a paralldograiin* It meafures in the yean 1567 and 1568. It was at firft intended Lotf«i7«

north-eaft to fouth-weft, atarty 20 miles. Its to have been drawn at the houfe of Mr Dencke, her
1th, except on the fliore of the Frith, does not ex- majeily's fcrvaiit (/. e. her jeweller), but was afterwards

1 2 .^-^The country is pleaiant and fertilci abound- drawn as above mentioned*
^tth com* -and pailurage« Here is found plenty Dr Rawlinfon fhowed the Antiquary Society, 174^
3al, linieflone, and lead ore ; nay, in the reign ** A propofal for a very rich lottery, general without .
imcs Vf . it produced a rich mine of filver. any blankes, contayning a great number of good prize.*),

OTION, is, llri^lly fpeaking, fuch wafliing aft as well of redy money as of plate and certain forts of
:ems beautifying the Ikin, by deanfing it of tliofe merchandizes, having been valued and prifed by the

commandment of the queene's moft excellent majeilie's
order, to the en tent that fuch comihodities as may
chance to arife thereof after the charges borne may be
converted towards the raparations of the havens and
ftrength of the realme, and towards fuch other public
good workes, ' The number of lotts (hall be foure

'^ — J ^ , J ^ -— — ^w

rmities which a diftempered blood throws upon

Medicines of this kind, however, are for the moft

iniignificant, and fometimes very dangerous ; the

proper method of treating thefe diforders is, by

iniRering fuch medicines as tend t)D corre£i the

bid (late of the conflitution from whence they arife.

.OTiON, in pharmacy, denotes a preparation of hundred thoufand, and ho more ; and every lott (hall

icines, by wafliing thevi in fome liquid, either
ic very light, fo as to take away only the dregs \
harp, fo as to penetrate them, in order to clear
n of fome fait, or corrofive fpirit as is done to an*
ony, precipitates, magifteries, &c. or intended to
e away fome foulnefs or ill quality, or to com*
nicate fome good one.

LOTAPHAGl (ancgeog.), a people of the Re*
Syrtica (fo called from their living on the lotus) ;
abiting between the two Syrtes, from the Ciny-
v& to the Triton. The lotus was faid to be a food
lufcious, as to make ftrangers forget their native
mtr)'. A fweet wine was expreflTcd from it, which

be the fum of tenne (hillings (lerling, and no more.
To be filled by the feaft of St Bartholomew. The
(hew of prifes are to be feen in Cheapfide, at the (ign of
the Qucene's Armes, the houle of Mr Dericke, gold-
fmithTTervant to the queene. Some other orders about
it in 1567-8. Printed by Hen. Bynneyman.'*

** In the year f6i2, king James, in fpecial favour
for the prefent plantation of £ngli(h colonies in Vir-
ginia, granted a lottery, to be held at the weft end of
St Paul's ; whereof one Thomas Sharplys, a taylor of
London, had the chief prize, which was 4000 crowns
in fair plate/* Baker's Chronicle.

In the reign of queen Anne, it was* thought necet

)mcr. See Men in x.
LOTTERY, a kind of public game at hazard,
quent in Britain, France, and Holland, in order to
fe money for the fervice of the (late ; being ap-
inted with us by the authority of parh'ament, and

not keep above ten days, (Pliny). Lotophagt of fary to fupprefs lotteries, as nuifances to the public.

Since that time, however, they have been licenfed by an
aft of parliament, under various regulations. The a<!tt
pafTedin 177B reflrains any perfon from keeping an of-
fice for the fale of tickets, (hares, or chance j, or f»r buy-
ing, felling, infuriug, or regiftering, without a licence ;
naged by comroiffioners appointed by the lords of forwhichlicenceeachoffice-kccper muft payjoLtocon-
! trcafury for that purp6re. It confifts of feveral tinue in force for one year, and the produce to be
mbers of blanks and prizes, which are drawn out of applied towards defraying the expences of the lottery,
leels, one of which contains the numbers, and the And no perfon is allowed to fell any (hare or chance

lefs than a fixteenth, on the penalty of 50!. AH
tickets divided into (hares or chances are to be depo-
fited in an office, to be eilablKhed in London by the
commiffioners«of the trcafury, who are to appoint a
perfon to conduA the bufinefs thereof; and all (hare*
are to be damped by the faid officer, who is to give

ler the correfponding blanks or prizes.
The Romans invented lotteries to enliven their Sa-
rnalia. This feilival began by the drftribution of
kets which gained fome prize. Auguilus made
terics which confided of thingrs of little value ;
it Nero eilablifiicd fome for the people, in which

)00 tickets were diilributed daily, and feveral of a receipt for every ticket depofited with him. The

ofe who were favoured by Fortune got rich by them,
eliogabalus invented fome very fingular: the priaes
ere either of great value or of none at all ; one gain-
l a prize of fix fiavcs, and another of fix Hies ; fome
3t valuable vafes, and others vafes of common earth.
, lotteiy of tliis kind exhibited an excellent pidlure
' the inequality with which Fortune dlHributes hts

vours.

numbers of all tickets fo depofited are to be entered
in a book, will^ the names of the owners, and the
number ^oi (liares into which they arc divided 5 aad
twopence for each fliare is to be paid to the officer on
depoilcing fudi tickets, who is therewith to pay all
expences incident to the office. All tickets depofited
in the office are to remain there three days after the
^drawing. And any perfon kecpinor an office, or fell-
ing (hares, or who Ihallpublifli any Jcheme for receiving
moneys in confideration of any intereil to be granted
in any ticket in the faid lottery, &c. without bcing-in
rofits were to go toward* repairing the havens of pofleffion of fuch ticket, (hall forfeit 5c ol. and fuffer
lis kingdom. It was drawn at the wed door of St three months imprifonment. And no bufinefs is to be
'aul's cathedral. The drawing began on the i ith of tranfaAed at any of the offices after eight in the cven-
anuary 1569, and continued inceffantly drawing, day ing, except on the evening of the Saturday preceding
nd ttightf till the 6th of May following ; as Mait- the drawing. No perfon is to keep any office for tlie
md, from Stowe, informs U6 in his Hiiiory, Vol. I. fale of tickets, 6cc. in Oxford or Cambridge, on per
. 257. Tlicre were then only tifree lottery -offices in nalty of 20I. Before this regulating ^tute took
^ondon. The propofals for this lottery were publifhcd place, there were upwards of 400 lotter\' offices in
V©I.X. PartL Pp 'and

The firft Englifh lottery we find mentioned in hi*
ory was drawn A. D. 15^69. It confifted of 40,003
>ts, at ics. each lot : the prize« were platen and the

LOT

Utm

i 298 }

L O V

and about London only t tnit the whok iramler after-
wardSf for all Britatni u appeared by the lift publiihp
ed by authority} amounted to no more thin 51.

^ LOTUS, or BiRD'a-rooT trbfoil, in botany t A
genus of the decandrla order, bclongin? to the diadcl*
phia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank-*
ing under the 3 2d orderi Pafiiumacfn, The legumen
18 cylindrical, and very ere6t; the alx cIoAug upwards
longitudinally; the calyx is tubulated. There are
many fpecies, but only fi^'e or fix are ufaally cultiva*
ted in our grardens. i. Tlie tetragonolobus, or wing«
ed pea, hath trailing, (lender, branchy flalks, about a
foot long, garni (hed with trifoliate oval leaves ; and,
from the axillas of the branches, brge, papilionaceous
red flowers, one on each footflalk ; fucceeded by te-

tragonous folitary pods, having a membranous wing or becomes the bond of attachment and union bttmvc
lobe, nmning longitudinally at each corner. It flowers * dividuals of the different fexes ; and makes tLts tj
June and July, and the feeds

(b ftiB in fome of the Borthen comtSa of Zm^,*:
thtj are eoariey and not very ameaUc to (ad^uh
been accuftomed to feed uoon better ftiv.
Lotas c/ ff&mtr. Set bf oarraot,
Egyp$Um Lofu$^ See Nymfhjka*.
LUfj^an Lorvs^ See Rhahkus.
LOVAGE, in botany. See LiGosricrM,
LOVE, in a lai^ fenfe of the word, d^ziatsj
thofe afiedions of the plea/ing kind whic^ otjebij
incidents raife in us.: thos we are iaid to kfw sen J
intelligent agents rf morally good difpofidosu, b:]
fo feniual pleafures, riches, and honours. Bet

Love, in its ufual and more appropriate %-j
tion, may be defined, ** that affe&oa wluck, xi
compounded of animal deiircy cftecm, andbeceri:^

m June ana juiy, ana tne leeas npen m autumn.
2. The creticus, or Cretan filvery kitus, hath a (lender
under (hrubby ftalk, rifmg by fupport three or four
feet high, ornamented with trifoliate, bright, filvery
leaves ; and branches terminated by feveral yellow
flowers fucceeded by fubternate pods. 3. The Jaco-
bseus, or lotus of St James's ifland, hath upright her-
baceous flalk» branching two or three feet high, and,
from the upper part of the branches, long fiender
footftalks, terminated each by three or five yellow ifh
purple flowers, appearing moft part of the fummer and
autumn, and fucceeded by fubternate pods filled with
plenty of feeds. 4. The hirfutus, or hairy Italian lo-
tus, hath upright hair}' flalks branching a yard high ;
and terminitted by heads of whitilh hoary -cupped flowers
appearing in June,' which are fucceeded by oval pods
full of feed, which ripens in autumn. 5. The dorcy-

in the foctety of each other a fpecies of happi&cis ^^\
they experience no where dfc.'* Wc call itaa^'i
tion rather than a fsffiwy becaufc it involves a c:.^ j
the happinefs of its objed : And that its coizir^
parts are thofe which have been juft cnnmeiatei. 1
fliaU firfl endeavour to prove, and tbrn pn^r:^
trace its rife and progre& from a felfifii appor: ^
generous fentiment

Aninud defire is the a£lual energy of the fesiias
petite : and that it is an eficntial part of the ccx;
affedion, which is properly called io^fe^ i^^rr^'
from thi^confideration, that though a man Qir:
fentiments of edeem and benevolence towardi rr
who are both old and ugly, he never fuppofcs ir:
to be in love of any woman, to whom he fcchs^'.:
fenfual appetite to have a ftronger tendency tiz:
other individuals of her fex. On the other haDC.'

nium, white Auftrian lotus, or (hrub-trefoil of Mont- animal defire ^on^ cannot be called the aflTe^ios*

pelier, has underfhrubby fmooth flalks, branching three
or four feet high, and the branches terminated by a-
phyllous heads of fmall white flowers appearing in
June, fucceeded by fhort pods. 6. The edulis, fends
forth feveral trailing ftalks about a foot long, fumifiied
at their joints with trifoliate, roundifli, fmooth leaves,
having oval ftipiilae. The flowers come fingly from
the fides of the flalks, on lon^ peduncles, with three
oval floral leaves, the length o7 the flower : the latter
•is fmall, yellow; and is fucceeded by a thick arched
pod, having a deep furrow on its outfide.

Culture^ &c. The firft fpecies is a hardy annual,
and is eafily raifed from feed fown any time from the
month of February to May j the plants requiring no
other culture than to be kept free from weeds. It was
formerly cultivated as an efcident ; for its young green
feed-pods may be drefled and eat like pcafe, or in the
manner of kidney-beans. The other fpecies may be
propagated either by feeds or cuttings, but require to
be kept in pots in the green-houfe during the winter*
feafon. The fixth fpecies is an annual, and a native

is evident ; becaufe he who gratifies fuch a defer k:
out efteeming its objed^ and .vifliing to coraffi^
at the fame time that he receives enfoyment, Io«t:
the woman, but himfelf. Mere animal clefire i»s srj^l
in view but the fpecies and the fex of its objtd: ::l
before it make a fele^ion, it muft be combiacc <d
fentiments very different from itfelf. The hrc ri
nient with which it is combined^ and hj which i d
IS induced to prefer one woman to another, feed
be that by which wc are delighted with grKtfcl
of perfon, regularity of features, and beauty of o^
pletton. It is not indeed to be denied that tlr.i
Something irrefiftible in female beauty. The wd^
vere will not pretend, that they do not feei as iaa
diate prepofleflion in favour of a handfosie mis.^\
but this prepoflirflxon^ even when combined with a
mal defire, does not conl^tute the whole of tk i
fe^ion which is called hve. Savages feel tlic^J
ence of the fenfual appetite, and it is extreme^ 71
babk tliat they have fome ideas of beaaty ; bat mc^
favagea the afle^tion of lote is feldom felu Even 10^
the lower orders in civil fociety it feems to be 1 v^

of feveral parts of Italy, where the inhabitants eat the

young pods as we do kidney beans. The green pods of grofs paflion, and to have in it more of the felfiibt^^

the fiift fpecies were formerly gathered in this cquntry, appetite than of the generofity of efleem. To tfeSfJ

aod dreHed in the manner of kidney beans,^nd are ufed fervations many excepcions will no doubt he fous^ (^1

(a) Such as the negroes. whofe ftbry is fo pathetically told by Addifon in N® 215 of the Spe£^or;ti
two lovtrs who were killed by lightning at Staunton Harcourt, Augnll 9th, 1718, (fee Pof€*i haters);^
nyany others which will occur ta every reader^.

L O V

r «99 3

^ve fpeak of bVagct tn gtntnif and of the great fte vontnlMitid to hif fcmfual gfatifieatum. Inil4nce|

of ue labouring pooTi who in the choice of their iaoumerable might be collected from every nation of

do net ftudy— who indeed are incapable of ftn« which we are acquainted with the eariy hiftory ) hut

LwBgv that re6titude of mind and thofe delicacies of we (hall content ourfelvea wtth^mentioning a few. A«

t^ixnenty without which neither man nor woman can braham bought Rebekah and gave her to his tou I£uc

I!<^rTe to be efteemcd. for a wife^. Jacob having nothing eUe togtve« tbrvedtOen.ni;

Xzi the favage ftate» and even in the firft ftages of Laban 14 yea^ for two wiveaf. ToDavidi demand* f Gen. zms

l.B:ieincnty the bond of union between the fexes feeme ing SaulU daughter in marriage^ it waa (idd, <^ The

cxxffift of nothing more than mere ani^sial defire king deiireth not any dowry ^ but an hundred forcikina

d inftinfUve tendemefs for their infant progeny, of tibe PhilifUnesj:*'' In the Iliad Agamemnon offert ^ t gttn.

a.c former impels them to unite for the props^tion his daughter to Achilles for a wife 4 and iays that hexviii. «8«

^e fpecies; and the latter preferves the union till would not demand for her 9Xij fnce§> By the laws § Lib. ix.

children, who are the fruit of it, be able to pro- of Ethelbert king of England, a man who committed

1^ for their own fubfiflence. That in fuch unions* adultery with his neighbour's wife was obliged to pay
aether cafual or permanent, there is no^mutual elbeem the hulband a fine, and to buy him anoiber wifeA\ ** But

buy

»/e.l\

d benevolence, is apparent from the fbite of fubjec* it is needlefs to multiply inibnccs 1 the practice hat

>n in which women are held in rude and uncuhiva* prevailed univerially among nations emerging from the

d nations, as well as from the manner in which mar* favage flate, or .in the rudeft ftage of fociety > and

i.^es are in fuch nations contradled. wherever it prevailed, men could not poilibly have for the

Sweetnefs of temper, a capital article vnth us in the fair fex any of that tender regard and eileem which con*

male chara6(er, difplays itfelf externally in mild looks flitute fo efr<;ntial a part ox the complex affedion of

id gentle msinners, and is the firft and perhaps the love. •

oil powerft.l inducement to love in a cultivated Accordingly we find the magnanimous Achilles an

ind. *< But fuch graces (fays an ingenious i^'ter* ) abfolute flrangcr to that generous affedion, thoucrh his

-e fcarce difcenuble in a female favage; and even heart was fufceptible of the warmed and pureft friends

L the moil polifhed woman would not be perceived fhip. His attachment to Patroclus was fo heroically

y a male favage. Among fava^es, Hrength and bold- difmterefled, that he vrillingly facriiiced his own life to

els are the onif valuable quah'ues. In thefe, females revenge the death of his friend ; but when Agamem-

re miferably deficient ; for which reafon they are non threatened to rob him of his favourite female cap-

^ntemned by the males as beings of an inferior order, tive, though' he felt the infult offered to his fridcf he

^lie North American tribes g^ry in idlenefs : the never fpoke of the woman but as ^Jlave whom he waa

rudgery of labour degrades a num in their opinion, concerned to preferve in point oS honour^ and as a tef*

nd is proper for women only. To join young perfons timony of his ghry. Hence it is that we never hear

1 marriage is accordingly the bufinefs of the parents ; him mention her but as hisj^/, the reward of war^ ot

nd it would be unpa^onable meamnefs in the brides the gifi which the Grecians gave him^
room to (how 2Xijfomdnefs for the bride* In Guiana

v^oman never eats with her bufianJt but afber every

leal attends him with water for waihing ; and in the .
Ifaribbee iflandsfhe is not permitted to eat even in the
rejence of her hufband« " Dampier obferyes in general,
bat among all the wild nations with which he was ac-

Sed. 3H

** And Au*ik thou threat to fnatch my prixt away,
*' Due to the deeds of many a dreadful day ?
<< Aprhu m/moU, O tyrant! match'd with thine,
** At thy own a^ont if compar'd with mine.
** Thine in each conqueft in the wtaltty pfty,
« Tho* mine the fweat and daof^er of the iifm
« Some trMal prtfimt to my ihifs 1 bear,
** Or barren praifet pay the wounds of war/'

uainted, the women carry the burdens, while the men

7alk before and carry nothing but their arms; and And again, after upbraiding the general with his ty^

hat women evtn of the highefl rank are not better ranny and want of regard to merit, he add^ with tht

reated. In Siberia, and even in Ruflia, the capual greauft indifference as to the charma of the etromoB,

excepted, men till very lately treated their wives in

!very refpcA like Haves. It might indeed be thought*

ihat animal deifire, were there nothing eUe, (hould have

-aifed women to fome degree of eftimation among men ;

3ut male favages, utter flrangers to decency 'and re-

inement, gratify animal defire with as little ceremony

IS they do hunger or thirft.

** Seiie on Brifeis, whom the Grecians doom'd
** My/rvM 9fw0r^ yet tamely fee rtfum*ds
*' Aodfeise feeure; no more Achilles drsws
** Hi^ conquering fword in any wrmian's caufe«
" The goes command me to forgive the paUl ;
« But let this iit^ imvafim be the latt :
** For know, thy blood, when mast thou dar'ft Vii«e^#,
'* ShaU ftrcam in vengeance on my recking blade.**

** Hence it was that in the early ages of fociety a Pope has made the language of this rough warrior left
mvLTipurchafedz woman to be his wife as one purchafes inconfiftent with the peculiar refentment natural to aa'
an ox or a fheep to be food 5 and valued her only as injured lover than it is in the original (b)j but froia

Pp2 the

(a) The original paflages are :

K«rf In fiot ytpat ti\/lo( afxipn^twOm ATNKfif,
III \iei irvAX* ifioyMveit ioeav It fnot vifc A^ccitfv*
Ov /Ktv 0-01 iro7f tc^Tf \x^ y^f^fi $iemr A;|[aioi

AKKa ro /Kfi^irXfitfv voKtmtKof iroKintoio
Xctpif tfiat titirovf araf m nelt iaa^ftof tnyflittf
In r« ytfat *o\\f ftu^ot, tytt foKtytv n f iXsv rff
^X^f' "X''* *" ***^ "^** xtuMftm irsxi^ijcv*

.1.

AiU^ AkK9 It T9I ipf«, a-v /*cvi fpr^t fieiKkto aiey

Xtfff-i fcfv otiri lyoyt /kc;i^«0>0^«i, ttwtxa %o^nf^
OvTt vot, ev r0 axx», tTu ^*«piXfr6f yt Xo^c*
To9 i'irXX«», « 'fioi wU Ssif wttfm^m fUXStiMi,
> T«v «vx m rt f*fi( amKmi% CfKov7»( i fcci*.

* £< i^ayt /t«F| ititfucati i»a ynourt urn otit
A*^ rot otf/tt* xfXaivov tpttiurt* sftf i /i»i^i.
th this latter paAage the hero lays exprelsly, ** I wiH not fight
with yoii or with any other man for the iake of a giH; but yon
Ihall noC rob me of any other fart of my property ;'* which is
inrdy the language bf a man to Whofe heart love muft have been
an utter Granger. /

Love.

LOV [300! LOV

the laft qaoted paflage, even a8 tran Aated by him, it is find it impofltble to change their lorm lad jirr^
apparent that Achilles would have been equally hurt ftreflea with the lame cafe that they cbe^.j
had Agamemnon threatened to deprive him of any doatht

other part of his plunder. Accordingly he yields up
Brifeis, not yi grief for a miftrefs whom he lofes, but
in fullennefs for an injury that is done him. Nor let it
be imagined, that this coldne{s proceeded from the
pride of the hero> whieh would not permit him to ac*
knowledge his love of a captive* With the generous
affedion of love captives and princefles were equally
incapable of infpiring him. He repeatedly affirmed
indeed that he delighted in his fair Lymefiian flavef
but it wraa only as an inflrument of fenfual gratifica-
for aa to every thing elfe in a woman, he was fo

To this account of love, as it appean ii i-
nations, fome one may pcHiaps oppofe the ft:
of the fofter paffion in the poems of Oikc '
bard defcribes the female chara^er as comsii:!;
fpe^t and efteem, and the Caledonian heron z:^
ing for their miftrefles a flame fo pure and eir=..
never vras furpafTed, and haa fddom bcec e^u.
in thofc ages which we commoniy call moil ciLpL
This is indeed tnie : and it is oneof theiLznym
which have induced Johnfon and others to prr^:
the whole a modern iicUon. Into that debate r.(.
enter. We may admit the authenticity cfd:;.'

tjon

totally indifferent, that he declared he would not, when

he ftiould be difpofed to marry, give himfelf the trouble without acknowledging that they furnifiiaDT cl--

to m9ke9Lchouef but leave the whole matter to his to our general theory. They fumi(h indeed is iirix

which they defcribe a wonderful anomaly is tb
ral hiftory of man. All other nations of whictY: :
were in the hunter-ftate favage and cruel Tt-. .
donian«, as exhibited by Ofuan, are gentk r: -
nanimous. The heroes of Homer fought /ct;:\:.
and felt no clemency for a vanquiOied f^ '. Ti::
of Oflian fought for fame; and when thcrr!:
were fubdued, they took them to their bofuiu '
firft of Greeks committed a mean ini'iiltoa^'j
. body of the firfl of Trojans. Among the CJri a
infults offered to the daul, as well as cnieiif : '.
living, were Condemned as infamous. Tbebrn
Offian 'appear in no inflance as lavages. H.*«:i
came to be polifhed and refined before the? tr j
quainted with agpriculture and the moJl deL.

fether.

^ If beav*n reftore me to my realms with life,
<• 1 he reWend Peleu^ (hall ele^ my wife.**

Even Agamemnon, .of whom Pope and Madahi Da-

cier think more fa\ourably as a lover, fpcaks the very

fiime language when mentioning his favourite captive

Chryfeis. In his furious debate with Achilles he calli

tier indeed

*' A maid, unmatch*d in maorert a» in face,

** iskWyd m each art, and crown'd wuh ev*ry gracc.**^

And adds,

" Not half fo dear were Clytcmncftra** charmr,
** When fit ft her blooiriiog beauties bleft my arms."

But this was faid merely to enhance the value of the
/r/Sf, which for the public good he waa about to re-

lign ; for that (lie was dear to him only as miniihrin^ life, it is not our bufinefs to enquire ; bctib:::!
is his pleafure, is pafl difpute fronrthe language which unqueftionably were (b, their treatment of the i:
he had previoufly held with her fatner, as wcU as horn fez, inftead of oppofing, confirms our theory; :*
kis requiring grattful Greece to pay a jufl equivalenif never conceived rich cloaths, fupeib houfo) ^:
afid to repair his frivate iofi» A man who really loved dreffed food, or even the knowledge of foxrigiL-.-
would have thought nothing an eqiuvakni {or the ob- to be necefiary to the acquifition of a gecfnuJ
jc6l of his love ; nuich lefs would he have infipuated ment. Luxury indeed appears to be as iniiucai:
to her father a poifibility of his difnuifing from his as barbarifm; and we b^eve, that inmodmsiJ
embrace a woman whom he efteemed, when time (hould the tender and exalted affedion which dcPir^-!^
have robbed her of every youthful grace. name is as little known among the higheft orders *i

Since, then, it is fo apparent, that in the heroic age as among' the loweft. Perhaps the Caledoooi^
of Greece even princes and kings were fbrangers to of Oflian refembled in their manners the Gcmt
<lhe generous affeifUon of love, it needs not occafioh of Tacitus, who accompanied their hulbands : 1
much furprif^ that the £ime afFedion has very little chace, fought by their fides in battle, and pi
influence upon mankind in the loweft ranks of themofl with them of every danger. If fo, they coajdcti
]^oliflied focicties of modem Europe. That this is to be refpe^ed by a race of heroes araoag^
adlually the cafe, that among the generality of une- courage took place of all other virtues.: andtiii^-l
ducated men and women there is no other bond of at- circumftance, from whatever caufe it mig)it pni
tachment than the fenfual appetite, every year furniflies will fufficiently accotmt for the eftimation oi^^^
multiplied proofs. We daily fee youths, rejeded by - - . ^

their mifhreflcs, paying their addrefles without delay
to girls who, in looks, temper, and difpofition, are
diametrically oppofite to thoie whoni fo lately they
pretended to love : We daily fee maidens, flighted by
their lovers, receiving the addrefles of men, who, in
aothing but their fex» rcfemble thofe to whom a week
before they wiflied to be married : and we believe It
is not very uncommon to find a giif entertaining feveral
lovers together, that if one or more of them ihould prove
falfe, (he may dill hj^ve a chance not to be totally de-
ferted. Did efteem and benevolence, placed on man-
ners and chara6ler, conftitute ^y part of vulgar love,

thefe peoj)k would aft very differently ; for they would A man can hardly h^ iwo vfomen at the Iaiui^
S ^

chara^er among the ancient Germans and Cale^^
fo different from that in which it has bees h&^:
moft every other barbarous nation.

But if among favages and the vulgar, lo^f
known, it cannot poflibly be an inftiudive dc^
and therefore it may be aflced. How it gctspca^
of the human heart ; and by what means we ca -'
whether in any particular inftance it be real or '•!
nary ? Thefe queftions are of importance, acd ^^
to be fully anfwered; though many circumfUfly^
fpfre to render it no eafy taflc to girc to iheffl i*^-.'
fwers as fhall be perfeftly fatisfaSory. Lovta:^^
fift. only between mdividrnds of the differtci .t^

L O V [ 3^» 1 L V

1 wc believe that a woman ie flat Icfs capable of lu- fure is combined wth the gratification of the fciifaal ^^J;^
g at once more than one man. Love, therefore, has appetite, it is obvious that the fum of enjoyment mutt " '
latural tendency to make men and women pair, or, be greatly mcreafed. The perception of beauty.

other words, it is the fource of marriage : but in therefore, neceffailly direas the energy of the fenfual

liihed fociety, where alone' this afFeaion has any appetite to a particular objed ; but ftill this combina-

ICC, fo many thitfgs befides mutual attachment are tion is a mere felfifti feeling, which regards its objcd

ccffary to make the married life comfortable, that only as the heft of many/iw/tfr inftniinents of pleafure*

2 rarely fee young pcrfons uniting from the impulfe Before it can dcfer\c the name of iove^ it moft be com-
" love, and have therefore but few opportunities of bincd with cfteem, which is never bcHowcd but upon
acing the rife, progrefs, and confeqtfences of the af- moral chara6ler and internal worth ; for let a woman
a:iom We (hall, however, throw together fuch re- be ever fo beautiful, and of courfe ever fo defirable as
ediions as have occurred to us on the fubjea, not an inftrument of fenfual gratification, if (he be not
ithout indulging a hope, that they may be ufcfid to poirefled of the virtues and difpofitions which are pe-
le younger part of our readers when forming the cuhar to hef fex, ihe wUl infpire no man with a gene-
^o^ important conneaion in life. «>«8 afFeaiofu With regard to the outlines, indeed.

We have faid, that the perception of beauty, com- whether of mtcrnal difpofition or of external form,.
►Ined with animal defire, is the firft inducement which P?cn and women are the fame ; but nature, intending.
I man can have to prefer one woman to another. It them for mates, has given them difpofitions, which,
nay be added, that elegance of figure, a placid maf^ thougli concordant, are, however, different, fo as to
-uHne countenance, with a perfon which indicates produce together delicious harmony. " The man,
ftrength and agility, are the qualities which firft tend more rebult, is fitted for fevcre labour, and for field
to attach any woman to a particular man. Beauty cxcrcifies 5 the woman, more delicate, is fitted for fe-
has been defined J, " That particular form, which is dentary occupations, and particularly for nurfing chiU
the moft common of all particular forms to be met drcn. The man, bold and vigorous, is. qualified for
with in the fame fpecics of beings." Let us apply bcmg aproteaor J ; the woman, deUcate and timid, t Shtchs^
this definition to our own fpecies, and try, by means requires proteaion. Hence it is, that a man never ^^'«»
of it, to alcertain what conftitutcs the beauty of the admires a woman for poffeffing bodily ftrength or per-
human face. It is evident, that of countenances we fonal courage ; and women ahirays dti'^iCc men who arc
find a number almoft infinite of different forms, of totally dettitutc of thefcqu^ties. The man, as a prote-
which forma one cnly conftitutcs beauty, whilft the tor, is dircaed by nature to govern; the woman, confci-
reft, however numerous, conftltute what is. 11^ ieauiy, ous of mfenority,is difpofed to obey. Their intellectual
but deformity^ or ugCtnefs. To an attentive obferver^ powers correfpond to the dettination of nature. Men
however, it is evident, that of the numerous particular have penetration and folid jndgment to fit tliem* fol»
forms of nglittefsj there is not one which includes fo governmg > women have fuflicient tinderftanding to-
many feces as afe formed after that particular caft make a decent figure under good government : a great-
which conftkutes beauty. Every particular fpeciea of cr proportion would excite dangerous ri valfhip between-
the animal as well as of the vegeuble creation, may be the fexes, which nature has avoided by glvnig them
faid to have a fixed or determinate form, to which, as different talents* Wom«i haye more imagination and
to a centre, nature la continually inclining. Or it may fenfibility than men, which make all their enjoyment*
be compared to pendulums vibrating in difftrent di- more exquifite 1 at the fame time that they, arc better
reaious over one central point ; and as they all crofs qualified to communicate enjoyment. Add another
the centre^ though only otu paffes through any other capital difference of difpofition : the gentle and infi-
toint ; fo It win be found th^tperfea beauty is oftener nuating manners of the female fcx tend to foften the
produced by nature than deformity : we do not mean roughuefs of the other fex ; and wherever women are
than deformity in general, but than, any m^ itWand indi^^dwith any freedom,they polilhfooner than men.
degree of deformity. To inftance in a particular part ** 'I'hefe are not the only particulars that diftinguirt*
of a human feature : the line which forms the ridge of the fcxes. With refpea to the ultimate end of love,
the nofc is deemed beautifnl when it ]zjlraigbt ; but this it i« the privilege of the male, as fupcrior and protec-
is likewife the central form, which is oftener found tor, to make a choice i the female, preferred, has no
than any out particular degree of concave ^ convex^ or a- privilege but barely toconfent or to rc£ufe. Whether
ny other irregular form tlwt ihaH be propofed. As wc this diiiinaion be the immediate rcfidt of the original*
are then more accuftomed to beauty than deformity, ly different difpofition»-of the fcxes, or only the effei5tr
we may condude that to be the rcafon why we approve of affcici&tions incviubly formed; may be queftioned 5.
and admire it, juft as we approve and admire faihions but among all nations it ia the pracb'ce for men to
©f drefs^ for no other reafon than that wc arc ufed to court,, and for women to be courted : and were the
them. The fame thing may be faid of colour as of moft beautifid woman on earth to invert this pradUce^
form : it iscuftom alone which determines our prefcD- ^^ would forfieit the efteem, however by her external
cnceof thecoli>urof thcjE'ttro^^inj to that of the Ethior^ grace ihe might excite the defirc„ of the man whon%>
p'tansy and which makes them prefer their own colour ihe addreifed. The great moral virtues which may
to ours ; fo that though habit and cuftom cannot be the be comprehended under the general term integrity^ are
tQuje of beauty (£ee Beauty), they are certainly the all abfolutely neccffary to make either men or womexr.
caufe of our liking ft* eftimable ;. but to procure efteem to the female charac«
That we do lUe it cannot be denied* Every one is ter, the modefty peculiar to their fex is a very effential
confcious of a pleafiug emotion when contemplating circumftance. Nature hath provided them with it a»
beauty either in man or woman i and when that plea** a- defence againft the artful folicitationg of the. othex

fiat

d^vr.

L O V

C 30* 1

L O V

Tex before xAarriage, tod alfo as a fuppoit of conjugal
fidelity.?'

A woman, therefore, whofe difpofltions are gentle»
deltcate, and r«ther tiniid than bold, who i% poiTefTei
of a large (hare of fenfibility and mode%i and whofe
manners are foft and infinuating, muft, upon moral
principles (fee Moral PHiLOSorHv), command the
efteem and benevolence of vrery individual of the other

aad if (he have Ukewifc fo much beaaty u tasr
her an object of particulari^^t efUem ai^ ^.>
come fuddenlf combined; and that coobutt:::
flitutes the affe£Uon of lofe. Such, tco, htsts.
of all mental afibciations, that each part of vitki.:
are compofed a'dds ilrength and vividneli to die ..
parts ; io that, in the prcfent iaftance, ddire zsL
imagine virtues in the woman which her cotsu:.

fex who is pofieffed of found underftanding ; but if perhaps does not indicate ; and the virtues vk

her perfon be deformed, or not fuch as to excite fome
degree of animal defire, (he mill attra6t no man's love.
In like manner, a man whofe moral chara^er isgoody
whofe underftanding is acute, and whofe convcrSitioA
i» inftru^ve, mufl command the efteem of every fen-
fible and virtuous woman ; but if his figure be difa-
greeable, his manners unpolifhed, hi8< habits (lovenly,
and above all, if he be deficient in pcrfonal courag^Q^
he will hardly excite defire in the female breaft. It is
only when the qualities whfch command efteem are,
in the fame perfon, united with thofe which excite dc«
fircy -that the individual fo accompliflied can be an ob»
je^ of love to one of the other fex ; but when theie
4}ualities are thus united, each of them increafcs tlie

there a^ually vliible, make us apprehcfid ha i.
ty as more perfect than it ia.

The aftec^on thus generated ia more ork^tp
and will be^more or leiJB permanent* accorJii^<.L
one or the other part of which it is compouijik::
dominates. <' Where defire of poUci&oii Jj prml. :|
our efteem of the perfon and merits of the ctz.
objed, love lofes its benevolent charadcr: isr^
petite for gratification becomes ungoversaUe, asc;:.
violently to its end, regardlefs of themiiJESTthL
follow. In that ftate love ia no longer a iVte ^^
able affection ; it becomes a felfiih, painful pd.
which, hke hung^er and third* produccth so li ^
nefs but in the inftant of fruition ; and whes h:

other in the imagination of the loverw The beauty of is over, difguft and averfion generally fncceed to cc

his miftrefs gives her, in his apprehenfion, a greater
ihare of gentlenefs, modefty, and every thing which
adorns the female charader, than perhaps-, (he really
pofTeffes ; whilft his perfuafion of her internal- v^rth
makes him, on the other hand, apprehend her beauty
to be abfolutely unrivalled.

To this theory an objedion readily offers itfelf,
which it is incumbent upon us to obviate. Meit and
women fometimes fall in love at firft fight, and very
^ften before they have opportunities of mraiing a juft
eftimate of each other's moral chaiader : How is this

On the other hand, where efteem, foui>dcd oa : c:
ous chara<^er and gentle manners, prcvaili ovcr»iL
defire, the lover would not fur the world gniif}.
appetite at the expence of his miftreis'i hocv*:
peace of mind. He wifties, indeed, forcnjoo^
and to him enjoyment is more exquifite thao to tkr
fenfttal lov^r, becaufe it unites fentiroent with tkp
fication of fenfe ; at the fame time thatyfo hikxi'^.^
fucceeded by difguft or averfion^ it increafcs hiib'
volence to the woman, whofe charader and e£z,
he efteemsy and who has contributed fo mud r^

•circumftance to be reconciled with the progreffive ge- pleafure. Benevolence to an individual, baviagif;
neration of love ? We anfwer. By an affociation of neral end, admits of ads without number, aodiiJod:'

ideas which is formed upon principles of phyfiogno-
my. Every paftion and habitual difpofition of mind
gives a particular caft to the conntenahce, and ia apt
to difcover itfelf in fome feature of the face. This we
learn by experience ; and in time^ without any effort

fully accompliftted. Hence mutual love, v\m..^
compofed chiefly of efteem and benevolence, asb)
ly be of a ftiorter duration than its objeds. Fiti^j
enjoyment endears fuch lovers to each other, iii^\
conftancy a pleafure ; and when, the days of fec/ii- t

of our own, the idea of each particular caft of counte- joymeat are ovef, efteem and benevolence willn^.

nance comes to be fo clofely ailbciated in our minds
with the internal difpofition which it indicates, that
the one can never afterwards be prefented to our view
without inftantly fuggefting the other to the imagi-
nation. (See Metafhysics and Physiognomy)*
Hence it is that every man, who has been accuftomed
to make obfervations, naturally forms to himfelf, from
the features and lineaments of a ftranger's face, fome
•opinion of his charader and fortune. We are no
fooner prefented to a perfon for the firft time, 'than we
are immediately imprelfed with the idea of a proud, a
referved, an aftable, or a good-natured man $ and upon
our going into a company of abfolute ftrangers, our
benevolence or averfion,- our awe or contempt, rifet

inftantly towards particular perfons, before we have band,'' has very feldom a chatKe to be tra^
heard them fpeak a word, or kitow fo much as their
names or dclignations. The fame thing happens
when we are prefented to the fair fex. If a woman,

fecn for the firft time, have that particular caft of beg leave to advife fuch of our readen &• nuy '^'*?*
countenance, and that ^xpreflion of Matures, to which themfelves to be in that ftate, to examine their <)^' ,
we have afibciated notions of geniltnefsy modejljy and minds, with a view to diibover, whether, if ^^^ ^^' 1
other female virtues, ihe inftantly commands ^xaeflmnt of their love were old or ugly» they would M^^

1 '

in the mind, aiaking fweet, even in old age, tk
ciety of that pair^ in whom are coUeded thei^
of hulband, wife» lover, friend, thetendcreiliitc^''
of human natttre."

From the whole of this inveiUgation, wc thlfii-
appears» that the affedioii between the itjx% ^^
deferves the name of U^oe^ is infeparably contet;'
with virtue and delicacy ; that a man of loofe o^^- ■
cannot be a faithful or a generouis lover \ that Q '•*
breaft of him who has ranged frnm woman to «»^
for the mere gratification of his fenfinl z^^^^ '
fire muft have effaced all efteem for the feiilccbri
ter ; and that, therefore, the maxim too genei^J^*
ceived, " that a reformed rake makes the bcB ^

think it may likewife be inferred, that thou6iKi^
cy themfelves in love who knpw not what love is, <Jf^*
it is generated in the human breaft : and thcrcto^/^

L O V

t 303 1

L O V

m for the Tirtuei of their character, and the pro*
cty of their manners. Thi« is a queftioii which
crves to be well weighed hy the young and the
orou8y whO) in forming the matrimonial €onne£lion»

too often blindly impelled by mere a^iimal deiire
lamed by beauty. ** It may indeed happen J, after
: pleafure of gratifying that dcfir<; is gone ^and if
t refined by efteem and benevolence, go it muft with
wift pace), that a new bortd of attachment may be
•med upon more dignified and more lading princi-
rs ; but this is a dangerous experiment. Even fup-
fing good fenfe, good temper, and internal worth
every fort, yet a new attachment upon fuch quali*
ations is rarely formed ; becaufe it comrnonlyy or ra-
er -alivaysy happens, that fuch qualifications, the only
lid. foundir*..ion of an indiflbluble connection, if they
d not originally make efieem predominate over ani-
al defire, are afterwards rendered altogether invi-
>le by fatiety of enjoyment creating difguH/*

Lo¥E, in medicine. The fymptoms produced by
13 pafiion as a difeafe, according to medical writers,
e as follow : The eye-lids often twinkle ;' the eyes
e hollow, and yet appear as if full with pleafure :
le pulfe is not peculiar to the pafiion, but the fame
itb that which attends folicitude' and care. When
le objeft of this affeftion is thought of, particularly
■ the idea is fuddcn, the fpirits arc confufed, the pulfe
bangcs, and its force and time are very variable : in
>mc inftances, the perfon is fad and watchful ; in o-
lers, the perfon, not being confcious of his ftate,
ines away, is flothfiil, and regardlefs of food; though
le wifer, when they find themfelvcs in love, feek
Icafant company and adlive entertainments* As the
jrce of Icve prevails, fighs grow deeper ; a tremor af-
f fts the heart and pulfe ; the countenance is alter-
ately pale and red j the voice is fupprefled in the
iuces ; the eyes grow dim ; cold fv^^ats break out ;
ecp abfcnts itfelf, at kail until the morning; tjie fecre-
ions become difturbed ; and a lofs of appetite, a hec-
ic fever, melancholy, or perhaps madfnefs, if not
cath, conllitutes the fad cataftrophc. On this fub-
?«Sl the curious may confalt ^gineta, lib. iii. cap. 17..
>ribat. Synop. lib. viii. cap. 9. or a treatife profcffed-
Y written on love, as it is a diflemper, by James Fer-
ard, Oxford, printed 1640.

The manner of the Greeks and Romans were fimi»
ar to each other in the affairs of loye. ITiey gene-
rally made a difcovery of their paiiion, by vnriting
apon trees, walls, doors, &c. the name of their be-
loved. They ufually decked the door of their dulci-
nea with flowers and garlands, made libations of wino
t>efore their houfes^ fprinkling the pofts with the fame
Liquor, as if the objed of their affe^ion was a real
goddcfs. For a man's garland to be untied, and for
a woman to compofe a garland, were held to be in-
dubitable indications of their love.

When their love was without fuccefs, they ufed fe-
vcral arts to excite aficAion in the objed of their de-
iire* They had rccourfe to inchantrefi*es^ of whom
the Theffalian were in the higheft eftimation. — The
means made ufe oi were rooft commonly philtres <»r
love potions," the operation of which was violent and
danjrcrous, and frequently deprived fuch as drank th'em
of. their reaibn. Some of the moft remarkable iogre**

dients of which they were compofed were thefe : the
hippomanesy'the jyaix, infe6b bred ttata putrefadion,
the filh remora» the lizardj brains of a calf^ the hairs
on the tip of a wolf's tail, his feeret parts, the bones
of the left fide of a toad eaten with ants, the blood
of dove>, bones of fnakes, feathers of fcritch-owlsy.
twifted cords of wool in which a perfon had handed
himfelf, rags, torches, reliqucs, a nell of fwallows bu«
ried and finmifhed in the earth, bones fnatched from
hungry bitches, the marrow of a boy £uni(hed in the
midit of plenty, dried human liver; to thefe may be
addtsd feveral herbs growing out of putrid fubdances.
Such were the ingredients that entered into the com*
.pofition of that infernal draught a iave^ion,-

But, befides the philtres, various other arts were
ufed to excite love, in which the application of certain*
fubilances was to have a magical iniluenoe on the per-
fon againU whom they levelled their (kill. A hyaena's-
udd^r worn under the left arm, they fancied would-
draw the afledions of whatever woman they fixed
their eyes upon. That fpecies of olives called «'•?<'/>«,.
and barley-bran made up into a pafte, lind throws into-
the fire, they thought would excite the flame of love,.
Flour was ufed with the fame intention*- Burning.
laurel, and melting wax, were fuppofed to have the
like effe£k. When one heart was to be hardened, audi
another mollified, clay and. wax were expo&d to the
fame fire together. Images of wax were frequently
ufed, reprefenting the perfons qn whom they wifhed-
to make an imprefiion ; and whatever was done to the-
fubfiitute of wax, they imagined was felt by the per*
fon reprefented. £nchanted medicansents were often
fpriiikled on fome part of the houfe whei-e the perfon
rcfided. L.ove-pledge8 were fuppofed to be of fingu-
lar ufe and efficacy : thefe they placed under their
thrcihold, to preferve the afltfkions of the owner from^
wandering. L*ove-luu)t8 were of fingular power, and
the number three was particularly obi'erved in all they
did. But no good effe6^ was expedked, if the ufe of
thefe things was not attended with charms or magical-
verfen and forms of words; See Magic.

Having mentioned their arts of exciting loTe, it-
may not be amifs to take notice, that the ancients ima*>
gined, that love -excited by magic might be allayed by
more powerful fpells and xaedicamcnts, or by applying.,
to demons more powerful than thofe who had been
concerned in raifing that paiiion. But love infpired^^
without magic had no cure ; Apollo himfelf coidd find*
no re mefly, but cried out-

Ht^i mlia quod nulRs amor efi nudicahtlif hrrbis*
The antidotes^ againft love were. generally agnus cajtus^^
which has the power of weaken! ngt he generative facuky ;
Crinkling the duitin which a mule- had rolled herfelf ;
tying toads in the hide of abeaft newly ilain ; a{>plying
amulets of minerals or herbs, which were fuppofed oi
great efficacy in other cafes ; and invoking the aifiit-
ance of the infernal deities. Another cure for love
was bathing in the waters of tlie river Seiemaus ; to •
which we may add the lover's leap, orjoiBping down^
from the I^eucadlau pf omontory.

lx>y»'yippie^. Sec Solanum.

LOVENTINUM, or LuENTjHuie, (anc* geog.):
a town of the Dcmeta in Britain, near the mouth of:'
the . Tuero bis or • Tivy « Sup}>pf6d to ha VC' been - aft er«> -

wardft"

LOU

Li«;,})W wai-ds fwallowcd up by an earthquake, and to Ijavc
-'**"« flood where is now the lake called Lin Savatan in
BrecknockfhiFc.

LOUGHBOROUGH, a town of Lclceflerflih-e
in England, i lo miles from London. It Is the fe«
cund town in the countyi and was in the Saxons time
a noy^ village. Its market is on Thurfday ; and its
fairs are on April 25th, May 28th, Aiigull ift, and
November 2d. It has a large church, and a free
fchool ; betides a charity fchool for 80 boys and ano-
ther for 20 girls. It has been very much reduced by
fires ; but ia ilill a tery agreeable town, with^rich mea*
doiv-ground, on the Fo{!e> which runs here almoft pa-*
rallel with the river Soar. The new canal has made
the coal-trade here veiy extenfive.

LOUGHBRICKLAND, a fair and pbft town of
Ireland, fituatcd in the county of Down, and province
of Ulllcr, 58 miles from Dublin* The name iignl*
iies the lake of tlie fpukUd trouts y and it was fo called
from a lake near it> which abounds with thofe fifh. It
^onfjfls of one broad ftreet» at the end of which is
the pariih-churdl, faid to have been built by Dr Tay-
lor when biihop of Dromore, foon after the Reilora-
*ion. The linen manufadure is carried on here very
cxtenfively ; and the town is a great thoroughfare,
the turnpike road from Dublin to Belfafl palling
through a red bog near it. The fairs are five in the
yean

LOUGH-DERG, anciently Dcrg^han^ i. e. «< the
river of the woody morafs," from a river which iflues
out of this lake. This lough is fituated in the county
of Donegal and province of Ulfter in Ireland, and is
famous tor having in it the idand that contains St
Patrick's purgatory, which is a narrow little cell,
hewn out of the folid rock, in which a man could
fcarce fland upnght. — ^There is alfo a lake of this
name fituated between the counties of Galway and
Tipperary.

LOUGH-NEACH, a loch or hike of Ireland, ^^
•tuated in the counties of Armagh, Down, Derry, and
Antrim, and province of Ulller. It is the largell in
I£urope, thofe of Ladoga and Onega in Ruiiia, and
that of Geneva in Switzerland, excepted ; being 20
miles long and 1$ broad* The area of this lake is
computed to be 100,000 acres^ It is remarkable for
a healing virtue ; and likewife for petrifying wood,
which is not only found in the water but in the ad-
jacent foil at a confiderable depth. On its fhores
feveral beautiful gems have been difcovered. It» an-
cient name was Loch*€acha or Loeb^Neacb^ from loch^
** a lake,** and Ntach^ ** wonderful> divine, or emi-
nent." Its petrifying powers are not inflantaneous^
as feveral of the ancients have fuppofed, but require a
long feries of ages to bring them to perfection, and
appear to be occasioned by a fine mud. or fand, which
infinuates itfelf intri the pores of the wood^ and which
in procefs of time becomes hard like ftone. On tlie
borders of this lake is Shane's callle^ the elegant feat
of the right honourable John O'NeiL Dr Smyth
feems to doubt whether tlie healing quality in this
lake is not to be confined to one fide of it, called the
Ji/bing'-bank / and he informs us, that this virtue was
difcovered in the reign of Chades 11. in the xnftance
of the fon of one Mr Cunningham, who had an evil
4vhich run on himjn eight or ten places ; and notwith-
S^nding all applicatioas feemcd incurable, at . length

[• 504 3

LOU

he was pcffefljjr healed, after bathing in tWf loagfi L-r*
about eight dajrs. Hence that writer gives us another i''**^'
derivation of the name Lochneacb^ which, (fae favs) ^ "
feems to hint at this quality ; Neafg or Nem^ in Inlb,
fignif)'ing a fore or ulcer," which might not imprc^
bably be coiTupted into Neagb : Hence he apprehend^
this lake was remarked at a much caiiier period f^ir
its healing property. As to its petrifying power, it
is mentibned by Nenlus, a writer of the 9th century,
who {ays, ^* Eft aliud ftagnum quod facit ligna dn-
refcere in lapldes. Homines autem findunt ligna, ct
poft qirnm formaverunt, projiciunt in ftagnum, et ma-
nent in eo ufque ad caput anni, et in capite annt lapis
Jnvenitur, et vocatur ftagnum Lucb-Echach/* Longh-
Neach gives title of bafon to the family of Skcjii^^
ion*

. LOUGH-STRANGFORD, a lake of Trcland,
fituated in the county o£ Down and province of Ul-
fter. It takes its prefent name from a finall port-
to Wrt called Strangfortly featcd on the weft fide jof the
narrow entrance Into the fea. It was fonncrly knowa
by the name of Lougb-Cone or Lough-Coyne. It is a
deep bay or inlet of the fea, about 1 7 miles long and
four or five broad ; it goes weft as farasDownpatrick,
and north as far as Comber and Newtown, and by
computation covers 25,775 acres, Irifh p^ntation
Bieafure. It abounds with excellent fifh, particularly
ihiclts ) and off the bar there is a periodical herring
fifliery in or about Auguft. The bar or entrance
into this lough is about three miles below Strang-
ford. There is a long rock at the entrance in the
middle of the paffage, dangerous to ftrangers on ac-
count of the current ) yet there is a broad paffage on
cither fide, anddeep water. The current here is very
ftrong and rapid, running at the rate of fix or feven
miles an hour. There are but few vefTels that go
higher up than Strangford. A orood maiy vefiels
bound up the channel put in here, if the wind is un-
favourable to their paflage. The iflands in this kke
are numerous ; Doftor Boat enirnierates them at 200.
But from an adiual furvey, made at the time Dr Smyth
wrote his hiftory of that county, it appears, there
are 54 iflands fmall and great, known by particular
names, and many others namelefs; the contents of
thcfe 54 iflands added together amount to 94 acres
and an half* The great and profitable manufa<5iure
carried on in tht:fe iilands,. and the flat ftony coaAs
ftUTOunding the lake, ia the burning of fea-wced into
kolp) which employs a number of hands, and has been
computed to produce to -the feveral proprietors a neat
profit of 1 000 1. per annum and upwards. Four o£
the iflands here are called Swan iftamU^hoxa the num-
ber of fwans that frequent them.

LOUlS, or Knight of St Louis, the name of a
military order in France, iniUtuted by Louis XIV. in
1693. Their colours are of a fiame colour, and pafs
from left to right \ the king is their grtind mailer.
There are in it eight great crolTes, and 24 coroman*
ders; the number of knights is not limited. At the
time of their inilitution, thelting charged bis.revenuc
with a fund of 300,000 livres for the penfious of the
commanders and knights.

Louis, Lewis y Louis (Pory or Lewidore^ a French
coin, firft ftruck in 1640, under the reign of Louis XI I L
and which has now a confiderable currency. See

LOUISIANA,

LOU

Cjdbifiana • LOUISlANA9acoimtr7i0N<nth*AiA*erica|bound*
II ed on the fouth by the gulph of Mexico> oq the eaft
LouTain. ^ |,y i)^^ rjv^r Miflifippi, on the weft by New Mexico^
and on the north by an unknown country. It extends
from the 29th to the 40th degi^e of north latitude,
and from about the 8cth to the 96th or 97th decree
weft longitude from London. The dimate of Lounana
varies according to the latitudes. The fouthem parts
are not fo hot as thofe partsof Africa which lie under
the fame parallel, ahd the northern parts are colder than
the countries of Europe at the fame diftance from the
pole : the caufes of which are fuppofed to be the thick
forefts which over-run the coiwtry, and the great num^
bcr of rivers; the former preventing the fun from heat*
ing the earth, and the latter fupplyiug it with moift
vapours ; befides the cold winds which come from the
north over vail tracts of land. They have bad weather;
but it never lafts long, for the rain generally falls in
ftorms and fudden (howers ; the air is wholefome, the
inhabitants healthy, and they who are temperate live
to a great old age. The country is extremely well wa-
tered ; and ?dmoft all the rivers that run through it fall
into the Mifiifippi> which difchArgtes itfelf into th^
gulph of Florida.

LOUSE, in zoology. See Pidiculus and Lies.

LOUSY DISEASE. See MiRViciKZ^lndex.

LOUTH, a town of Lincolnihire in England, 156
miles from London. It is a town corporate; aAd
•ne of the handfomcft and gayeft in the county, there
being in it not only frequent alTcmblies, concerts, &c*
but even mafquerades. Here are fevend handfom^
houfes. From hence there is a canal to the fea at Til'*
ney, about eight miles. Befides a charity fchool for
40 children, it has a free fchool founded by Ed-
ward VI. with a large church, and a fine fteepk^
\^hich fome think is as high as Grantham fpire, which
is 288 feet high. Its markets are on Wednefday and
Satucday, and its hits on May 24th, and Auguft
i6th.

Louth, a county in the caftem part of Ireland^
which extends in the form of a bow or half-nloon, dfl
the fide of she ocean, being much longer than it is
broad | it is bounded on the fouth and fouth-weft by
the county of £aft*Meath, on the north«we$ by Mo'
naghan, on the north by Armagh, and on the north-*
eaft by the bay of Carlingford, which part» it from
the county of Down : it is watered by feveral fmaU ri<*
Ters which fall into the fea ; and its fouth frontiers are
watered by the river Boyne. Its chief towns are Dun*
dalk and Carlinford ; unlefs we include Drogheda^ a
part whereof is in thia county. It is the fmallefl

t 305 1

LOW

o« a high billy furreunded with fine gardens^ and hat Loovatft*^
a charmin|^ profpcdt all over the country: This town
contains nine market places, 14 water-mills, 126 ftreets^
x6 ftone bridges, and feveral handfome palaces. The
town-houfe is a venerable old building, adorned with
ftatues on the outfide ; and the churches are very hand-
fome 1 particularly the collegiate church of St Peter^
but the principal ornament is the vniverftty^ founded
only in 1426 by John IV. duke of Brabant, with thd
eoncurrence of Pope Martin V. It contains about 40
colleges, four of which are called Pedagogia* Thcrt
is in the number alfo an Englifti college of friars*
preachers, which owes its eftabliftiment to the liberali*
ties of Cardinal Philip Howard, brother to the dukd
of Norfolk, who,^ brfore he was raifed to the purple,
had been private chaplain to Queen Catherine, con-
*fort to Charles II. The Irifh have like wife a femi^
nary, erefted in part under the care of Eugenius Mat*
theus, titular archbiftop of Dublin, anno 1 62 3, which re*
ceives its appointments from the Propaganda at Rome.
Befides the above, there are two convents for the Irifti*
one of RecoUefks and the other of Dominicjans»
where divinity and the Mathefis are taught. In the
laft century thci number of fcholars exceeded 4000, but
in the year 1743 the inhabitants amounted to 12,000,
including 2000 ftudents only.— At the beginning of
the 14th ceiltury, under John III. it Aounfhed con-
iiderably in the manufadufe of woollen cloth : 40^
houfes were then occupied by fubftantial clothiers, wh4
gave employment to an incredible number of weavers^
fo great it is &id, that a bell was rung to prevent an^
injuries' which the children in the ftreet might receive
from the crowd and hurry on their returning from work.
In 1382, thefe weavers, however, took up arms, and
wbcQed againft their (bvereien Prince Wenceflaus»
throwing from the windows of ttie Town-hall 1 7 of the
aldermen and counfdlors, and afterwards proceeded tA
lay wafte great part of Brabant : but being befiegedt
and reduced to great extremities, they fubmilfively im*
plored his clemency : which was granted after the exe*
cution of fome of the principal ringleaders. Thd
weavers, the chief inftigators to this revolt, were ba*
niftied, the greater part of whom* took refuge in Eng*
land f where thcv firft introduced, or at leaft augment*
ed very much, the woollen manufacture. The town,
by this cireumftance, being almoft depopulstcd, th^
univeriity was eftabliihed to fupply in fome theafore th^
lofs of the rebellious clothiers. Since that time th^
mauufa^tire gradually declined, no cloth of any ac*
count being made there at prefent. This impolitic
ftepof the Duke Wenceflaus fenl treafurcs to England^

county in the kingdom ; but very fertile and pfeafanti ^through the hands of thofe exiled people ; an import
and abounding with'- many remains of antiquities, of ant leifon to governors, that tliey ftiould deal with

which Mr Wright, in his Louthiana, has given a vefy
ample definiption. It contains 11 1,1 Ho Irifh 'planta-
tion acres, 50 pariflies, 5 baronies, and 5 boroughs,
■nd returns 10 members to parliament : it is about 22
miles long and 14 broad.

LouTN, a town in the 4ibote county, hariog a
yearly fair.

LOUVAIN, a city in the Auftrian Netherlands, in
the province of Bnd>ant, pleafantly feated on the river
Dylie, in a plentiful and agreeable country. The waHs
arc about eight or nine miles in circumference 5 tut they
include iieveral fields aod vineyards. Tbe caflk ftaadi

Vol. X. Part L

great precaution refpe^ing fuch ufeful members of the
cbmmuoity. Upon the ruins of thefe looms was form-
ed the cloth manufacture of Limbourg, which is car-
ried on with good advantage to this day. There is yet
ftanding at Louvain part of the old drapers-hall, no-#
converted into four public fchools, whe«-e ledlinres in di<«
vinity, philofophy, law, and phyfic, are given, and
the public zSi% are made. Adjoining to the fchoola
is 'the univeriity library, which alto^atlier compofe
k. largtf pile of building. Over the door of the diicf
entrance we read thde words, Safierttia^dificavitjibi
domm.' The p#incipa} church is cc^giatc, dedicated to

CLq St

low

I 3o« 1

LOW

hcKn*t St fcter^ which had formerly three very large towen
l^Qw-sell ^^jj elevated fpiresy one confiderably higher thao the
tsrojcollaterals ;. thcfe were blown ^own in the year re-
corded .by this ciironogr^my oMnIa CaDVnt* From the
name of this church the burghers have acquired the
nick-name of Petermen^ whofe ancedors having clothed
the back by a noble woollen manufa^^ure^ the modern
Petermen now compofe an ignoble mixture for the
bellvy called after them, Peterman heer^ a fort of whitiih
muddy ale» which they notwith (landing fend in large
<iuantities to all parts of the country, as well as to
liollandi by the canals^ Louyain was anciently the
capital of the province, long before Bruxelles had any
claim to that title. £. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 51. 12.

LDUYS, or Louis, (John), an engraver of con-
fiderable eminence, who flourished about the middle of
the 1 6th century. According to Bafan, he was a
native of Flandtrs. He Icai-ned the art of engraving
from Peter Soutman, at the time tliat Suyderhoef ilu-
died under the fame mafter ; and his ufual flyle of en*
graving bears fome refemblance to that of his mailer's.
One of his befl prints is, Diana, with her nymphs, repo-
fing after the chafe ; a middling-fized plate, lengthwife,
from Rubens.

LOW-BELL, in birding, a name given to a bell, by
means of which they take birds in the night, in open
champaign countries, and among ftubble, in Otto*
ber. The method is to go out about nine o'clock at
Aight in a ftill evening, when the air is mild and the
fun does not (hine* llie low-bell ihouM be of a deep
and hollow foundy and of fuch a fize ths|t a man maj
GODvenxently carry it in one Hand. The perfon who
carries it is to niake it toll all the way he goes, aa
nearly as may be, in that manner in which the bell on
the neck of a fheep tolls at it goes on and iecds.
There muft alfo be a box made like a large lantkom,
about a foot fquarct and lined with tin, but with one
fide open. Two or three great lights are to be fet in
this ; and the box is to be fixed to the perfon's breaft,
vrith the open fide forwards^ fo that the light may ht
caft forward to a great diftance. It will fpread as it
goes out of the box } and will diftin6Uy fhow to the per*
2>n that carries it whatever there is iu the larg^ fpacc
of ground o^tcr which it extends, and confequently all
the birds that rooft upon the ground. Two peiibnt
siuil follow him who carries the box and bell, one on
each fide» fo as not to be within the reach of the li^
to (how themfelvesk Each of thefe is to have a hand-
net of about three or four feet fquarc, fafteoed to a long
ftick or pole $ and on whichever fide any bird itfeen
at rooft, the perfon who is. neareft is to lay his net
iwer it, and take it witlv as. little noife as poffiblt*
When the net is over the bird» the pcifon who laid it
is not to be in a hurry to take the hird» but ouxil fta/
till he who carries the light is got beyond .it« that the
iDotions may not be difcovered* The Uaze of the
li^ht and the noife of the. bell teirify and a«aKe the
lurds in fuch a manner that they remain ftiU to be ta-
ken ; but the people who are about the work mu&kirep
the greal;^ quiet and ftilhvefs that may bcr

Some., people are food of going on^ tl^ fchemc
done* Thie p|crfon then fixes the light box to his
Itfcail andc carrias the hell in one. handaiid the. net
in the other; the net in this cafe may bo fomewhat
iioalkr* and the handk ihorter, Wkca xnocc tW

one are out at a time, it is ahvays proper to cany a
gun ; as it is no uncommon thing to fpy a bare wiien
on this expedition.

LOW (East), a town of Cornwall in Englasd^ '
231 miles from London, iu the poil-road from Ply-
mouth. It is an ancient borough by prefcriptiu::,
made a corporation by cliarter of queen Elifabciiiy
confiiling of nine burgcflcs (one of who^ is ycariy
chofen the mayor), a recorder, aldermen, &c, ; and
the mayor, md^ilh-ates, aud freemen, who are •about
68, choofc the meinbers ot parliament. This btnny
a manor of the duchy of Cornwall, was fctiled h^
king William on lord Vomers, and is now held by the
corporation at the fee-farm rent of 20s. a-year. it :--
feated pretty commodionfly on a creek t>f the fea, over
whicli there is a large ftonc bridge, fupported by 15
arche.% which leads to Wfji Lowy ftauding- betweea
two hills. The chief benefit which the inhabitaats
have is in their fiihery. Here is a battery of four
guns, and a fmall chapel. Its macket is on Saturday^ .
and it has two fairs in the year.

Low (IVeft)^ called alfo Pf/rt-P^bam^ a town of
Cornwall, divided from Eaft Low by a ftonc bridge
of 15 arches over the river Low, from whence both
towns, receive their name, as the river does from the
lownefs of its current between its high Hank 3. The
corporation, by charter of queen Elifabeth, confiiis
of 12 burgefTes, one of whom is annually chcfca
mayor, and, with the other burgeffes, has power to
choofe a fteward. Its members, whom it has fent to
parliament ever fi nee the 6th of Edward VI. arc elect-
ed by the corporation and freemen, who are about '
60. There was a chapel of eafe here in the rtrign of
Henry VIII. which was afterwards converted into a
town-haU ; and the town lying in the parish of Tsd-
land> the people go thither to church. The market
it on Saturday, and fiur on April 25. There is a
petty little harbour here ; near the mouth .of which
IS a fiouU iHand caDed St George's, which abounds-
with fea-pies. The river here is navigable for veifels
of 100 tons.

LOWER (Richard), an emincQt Englifltphyficiaa
in the 17th century, was bom in Coniwall>^ and edi^ .
cated at Weftminiter-fchool and Oxford. He entered
on the phyfic line ; and pra^Ufed under Dr Thomas
Willis, whom he infbuded in fome parts oi anatomy, .
efpecially when the latter was writing hia Cerebri cum*
tome. He, with Dr Willis, inj674,^difcovcred the
medicinal, waters at A(hop*. in. Northamptonftuir t ,
which,,upon their recommendations, becanae very much .
frequonted. In 1666 he followed Dx Willie to Lon^
doa; pra£k]fed phyiic under him; and became fdlow.
of the royal fociety, and of. thetCoDege of phy ficianSi. .
in 1669 ke-publi(hed his TraffaUu ^ cordei and|.
after tkc death of Dr Willis in 1675, .he wa% eftecmed .
the nioil emiaent phyitcian^ in London* Upon th*»
hccabng out of.the Popiih pbtvin^i678f. (ays Ma.
Wood in his Athens Oxotuetifist ho^clpM* with.tha
WUgK /fuppoiing that : party woukLcaary all before
them; but, being miftaken^ h< k)ft hia credit, an^'
pra^e*. He deed inrj69<.

LOWERING, among diftili<;v8,. a torn- ufied to .
espvefs the. dehafing the. fbength. of any fpiriitttoua
liquor^ by> mixing water with it. The ftandard $and
aurkfUbie. price of thdGe liquoo k fixed ia itgacd iOL

i>rrT:

LOW

►wUt. n terivin ftretigth in tliem called proofs thit is thsit
ftrcngth which makes them» when fliakeo in a phial or
poured from on high into a glafs, retain a froth or
i:rown of buhbles for foinc time; In this ftate^ fpirits
eonfift of about half puae or totally inflammable fpirit,
and half water ; and if any foreign . or home fpirits
are to be expofed to iaie, and are found to have that
proof wanting, fcarce any body will buy it till it has
been difHlled again and brought, to that ftrength i and
if it is above that ftrength, the proprietor ufually adds
water to it to bring it down to thfit ftandard. See
the article PaooF.

There is another kind of lowering among the re-
tailers of fpirituous liquors to the vulgar, by reducing

[ 3<37 1

LOW

He married Margaret, daughtef of Robert Pitt, Efq; Ltrndk*
of Blandford, by whom he had two fons and three'"*' *
daughters, (fee the next article). He died in 1732,
and vi'as buried by his own orders in. the church-yard
at Buriton. He publifhed, 1 . A vindication of the
divine authority and infpiration of the Old and New
Tefiaments ; 2. Dircdions for the proBtable reading
of the Holy Scripture ; 3. Commentaries on the pro*
phets ; and other works.

LowTH (Robert), D.D. fecond fon of the pre-
ceding Dr William Lowth, and biHiop facceiSvely of
St David's, Oxford, and London, was born on the
29th of November 17109 probably at Buriton in the
county of Hants. He received the rudiments of his

k under the ftandard proof. Whoever has the art of education in Winchefter college, where his fchool ex-

doing this without deftroying tlie bubble proof, which
is eafily done by means of £bmc addition that gives a
greater tenacity to the parts of the fpirits, will de-
ceive all that judge by this proof alone. In this cafe,
the beft way to juoge of liquors is by .the eye and
tongue, and cfpecially by the inftrument called Hy-

BaOMCTSR.

ercifes were diillnguiihed by uncommon elegance;
and having refided the requifite number of years in
that feminary, in 1 730 he fucceeded on the founda*
tion at New College, Oxford* He took the deme of
M. A. Jane 8. X737* Though hit abilities vnxA have
been known to thofe with whom he was conneAedf
he was not forward to appear before the world as a

LOWTH (William), D*D. a learned divine, bom ' writer. At Oxford he continued many years impro-
at London in 1661, was the fon of an apothecavy, and wine his talents, with little norice £rom the great, and
took his degrees at Oxford. His eminent woith and with preferment fo fmall as to have at prefent efeaped
leamiog recommended him to Dr Mew biihop of the difUnd recoOedion of fome of his contempora«
Winchefter, who made him his chaphun, gave him ried.

two livings in Hampfliire, and confencd on him a
prebend in the cathedral of Winchefter. He acquired
an unufual (hare of critical learning. Thus fituated
ui life, the labours of Mr Lowth appear to have been
ilridly confined within the limits of his own province,
and applied folely to the peculiar duties of his func-.
tson : yet, in order that he might acquit himfelf the
better in theology, he had purfued his ftudies with a
more general and extenfive view. Few were more
deeply verfed in critical learning ; there being fcarcely
any ancient'author, Greek or Latin, profane or ecde*
f)aftica], efpecially the latter, but what he had read
with accuracy, conftantly accompanying his reading

He was not, however, fufiered to languifh for ever
in obfcurity. His genius and his learning forced them-
fdves upon the notice of the illuftrious fociety o(
which he was a member ; and he was placed in a fta*
tion where he was eminently qualified to (hine. In
1741 he was eleAcd by the univeriity to the profef-
forfliip of poetry, re-ele^ed in X743» and vMl& he
held that office he read his admirable ledufes De facta
Hebnnrim. In 1744 biftiop Hoaffley collated
im to the redcry of Ovington in the county of
Hants $ added to it, nine years afterwards, thereftory
of Eafk Weedhay in thtf* fame county ; and in the in-
terim raifed him to the dignity of archdeacon of Win-

with critical and philological remarks. Of his col- cheftcr. Thefe repeated nvonrs he fome years after*
lediions in this way he was upon all occafions very wards acknowledged in the fc^owing manly and re-
communicative. Hence his notes on Clemens AlenoMm fpedful terms of gratitude { ** This addrefs. My Lord,

drmtu^ which are to be met with in Potter's edition
of that father. Hence his remarks on Jefephu*^ com-
municated to Hudfon for his edition, and ackno'w*
h-dged in the preface^^ as alfo thofe larger and more
numerous annotations on the Ecdefiaftical Hiftorians,
inierted in Readtfig^i edition of them at Cambridge.
The author of BMotheca BibHca was indebted to him
for the fame kind of aififiance. Chandler, late biftiop
of Durham, while engaged in his ** Defence of Chrifti

is not more necefiary on account of the fubted, thaH
it is in refpedl of the author. Your Lord(hip« unfo-
licited and unaiked, called hfm from ^ne of thofe col-
leges to a ftation of the firft dignity in yonr diocefe,
and took the earlieft oppoitunity of accumulating your
favour upon him, and of adding to that dignity a fuit-
able fuppoitt Thefe obligations he is now the more
ready Uius pubScly to acknowledge, as he \$ removed
out of the reach of further favours of the like kind.

aiiity, from the Prophecies of the Old TefUment, a- And though he hath relinquiihed the advantages fo

gainft the Difcourfe of the Grounds and Reafons of generoufly conferred on him, yet he Hiall always efteem

the Chriftian Religion," and in his <' Vindication of the himfelf highly honoured in having once enjoyed the

Defence, in anfwer to The Scheme of Literal Pro- patronage of tlie i^reat advocate of civil and religious

ph^^T confidered," held a conftant correfpondence with liberty."

Lim, and confulted him upon many difficulties that On the 8tii of July 1 754 the univerfity of Oxford

occurred in the courfe of that work. The moft va- conferred upon him the ^^tt of D. D* by diploma;'

luable part of his charader was that which leaft ap* an honour which, as it is never granted but to diftin-

peared in the eyes of the world, <he private and re- .guilhed merit, was probably conferred on Mr Lowth

tired part, that of the good Chriftian and the ufefid in confequence of his pivledions on tlie Hebrew poetry^

parifli-prieft. His piety, his dih'gence, his hofpitali- which had then been htdy publifhed. Having in 1749

ty and beneficence, rendered his life highly exem- tiavelled with Lord George and Lord Frederick Ca^

plarjr, and greatly enforced his public exhoitations.. vendifb) be had a claim upon the patron^e of th«

Qjl 2 !>«•

LOW

C 308 1

X o w

X-owth. BeronAitrc family ; and in 1755, the late duke{)eing
then lord lieutenant of Ireland* Dr Lowth went to
that kingdom as his grace '« firil chaplain. Soon after
this appointment he was offered the bifhopric of Li-
merick ; but preferring a lefs dignified llation in his
ewn country^ he exchanged it with Dr Leflie^ pre-
bendary of Durham andrcAororScdgefield/forthefe
preferments. In November 1 765 he was chofen F.R.S.
In June 1766 he was, on the death of Dr Squire,
prcfcnrcd to the bifhopric of St David's j which, in the
Oclober following, he refigned for that of Oxford,
vacant by the tranilation of bifhop Hume to Salifbury,
In April i777> he was tranflated to the fee of Lon-
don, vacant by the death of bi(hop Terrick ; and in
1783 he declined the olTer of the primary of all Eng-
land.

Having been long afflided with the done, and having
long borne the fevered fuiFerings of pain and (ickaefa
with the moll exeitplary fortitude and refignatioii, thia
great and good man died at Fulham, Nov. 3. 1787 ;
and on the I ath his remains were privately interred in
% vault at Fulham church, near thofe of his predc-
ceffor. He had married in 1752, Mary, the daughter
of Laurenoe Jackfpn cf Chriil-church, Hants, £fq;
by whom he had two fone and five daughters. His
lady and tv^ children only furvived him.

His literary chara<^er ipay be efllmated from the;
value and the importance of his works; in the account
q{ which we niav begin with his PrekSitmt on the Ht^
brew Poetry^ The choice of fo interefting a fubje6l
' naturally attra£led general attention \ and the work
has been read with equal applaufe abroad and at home*
In theie preledions the author has acquitted himfdif
in the mod maderly manner, as a poet, a critic, and
a divine ; and fuch is the claf&c purity of his fatin
liyle, that though we have read the work with the
elofed attention, and with no other view than to dif-
.cover, if poffible, an Anglicifm in the compofition,
we never found a lingle phraft to which> we believe,
a critic of the Auguilan age could pofiibly have ob-
|e£ied. This is an excellence to which neither Milton
nor Johnfon has attained ; to which iadeed ao other
£nglifh writer of Latin vrith whom we are acquainted
has attained^ unlefs perhaps Atterbury muft be ex-
cepted. To the preledlions was fubjoined a Siprt con*
futation of bifliop Harems fydem gf Hebrew metre ;
which occafioned a Latin letter from Dr Edwards of
Clare-hall, Cambridge, to Dr Lowtb, in vindication
. of the Harian metre. To this the author of the
prele^Uons replied in a largtr confuUUiw^ in which bi-
Ihop Hare's fyflem is completely overthrown, and the
fellacy upon which it was built accurately iaveftigated.
After much attentive confideration, bifhop Lowth hat
pronounced the metre of the Hebrew to be perfe^y
irrecoverable.

In 1758 be publlihed The life of mU'iMt of Wyke-
ham^ bj/bop of IVinehefier^ with a dedication to Biihop
J^ofidley ( which involved him* in a dispute concerning
a decifioiv which that biihop had lately made refped.-
iug the wardenfhip of Wincheder-coUege. This con-
troverfy was oa both iides carried on with fuch abi-
litieB, that, though relating to a private concern^ it
lliay yet be read, if not with pleafnre at lead with
improvement. The Kfc of Wykeham is dravm from
)kc nuift. authwtic iQWfies} and affords much infomui-

t!on eoncermn^ the manneh, and fome •f the pnhSk
tranfadiona of the period m which Wykdiam Ifved,
whild it difplays fome private inteUigence refpe^tiag
the two literary focieties of which he was the fonndcr.
In theie two iocieties Dr Lowth was educated, and
he gratefully exprefles his obligations to them.

In 176a was fird publiflied his Short IntrodmS&om im
£ngU/h Grammar^ which has dnce gone throu^ many
editions. It was originally defigaed only for private
and domedic ufe : but its judicious remarka being too
valuable to be confined to a few, the book was given to
the world ; and the excellence of its method, which
teaches what is right by (bowing what is wrong, has
infured public approbation and very general ufe. In
1765 Dr Lowth vpas engaged with Bifhop Waibnrtoa
in a controverfy, which made much noife at the time,
which attradled the notice eveit of royalty', and of
which tlie memory is dill recent. If we do not wi&
to dwell on the particulars ^f this controverfy, it if
becaufie violent literary contention is an evil, which^
though like other war it may fometimes be unaroid-
able, is yet always to be regretted ; and became the
chara&ers of learned, ingenious, and amiable men,
never i^pear to lefs advantage than under the form
which that date of hodility obL'ges them to affiunc.
The two combatants indeed eng^aged with erudition
and ingenuity fuch as is feldom brought into confiid ;
but it appears that, in the opinion of Dr Johnfon^
Waxbmrton had the mod fcholadic learning, and that
Lowth vms the mod corre^ fcholar ; that, in their con-
ted with eadi other, neither of them had much argu-
ment, and that both were extremely abufive. We
have heard, and we hope it is true, that they were af-
terwards reconciled, and exprefled mutual regret for
the violence of their pad coodutEi.
' In 1778 Bidiop Lowth publifhcd his lad great vrxsk,
A Trauijlatum of Ifaiah. To his h'terary and thedlogkral
abilities, the tranllator joined the mod critical know-
ledge of the charader and fpirit of the cadem poetry,
and, accordingly, the prophecies of Ifaiah (which,
though almod always fublime or elegant, are yet fomr-
timfls obfcure) w«re tranOated in a manner adequate
to the higheft expe6kations of the public. S^venl
Qccafional difcourfes, virhich the Bifhop, by his ftation,
was at different times caHed upon to deliver, were of
courfe published, and are all worthy of their excellent
author ; but there is one on the kingdom of Godj on the
exteafion and progreffive improvement of Chrid*s re-
ligion, and on the means of promoting thefe by the
advancement 'of religious knowledge, by freedom of
inquiry, by toleration, and mutual charity, which
may be didinguifhed above the red, as exhibiting a
mod comprehend ve view of the fucceflive dates of the
Chridian church, and containing the trued principles
of Chridianity.

Of the Biihop *8 poetical pieces, non^difplay great-
er merit than Ferfes on the Genealogy ofChrifl^ and /Aa
Choice of Hercules^ both written very early in his life.
He wrote a fpirited Imitation of an Ode of Horace y ap-
plied to the alarming fituation of this C9iintry in
1745 » ^^^ likewife fome verfet on the death of Frede*
ric prince of IVaJesy vrith a few fmaHer poems. The
following infcription on the tomb of his daughter,
beautifully difplays his patermd' afie6^ion and dalfia

tadc. Ail it i» lhort| and; ia our opiniooi haa all the

merit

fc O X

c 309 1

tax

l^'trmth^ ment of the lacicnt <piuph» the Tcadtr will probably
M^o^*- be plnfcd wkh fuch a fpecimea of his lordihip'^ La-
tiQity*

Carfff valff ingemofr^Jlanti fieiate',pudore^
Etfhifquam naU nomine cara, vaie.

Cara mafia^ vale. At veniet felicius avum^
^tando 'Uerum tecum^Jim modo Sgnus^ ero*

Cardi reJiy Ijda turn dicam voccy patemas^
EjUy age in amplexWf cara Maria^ teH*

Learn '*^' and taftc, however, did not conftitutcBifliop
T-owth's highefl excellence. Eulogium itfclf can fcarce-
ly afcend to e&travagance when fpeaking of him

brown !n ihofe parts where the male is red. ThW
fpecies i^ a conilant inhabitant of Sweden, Geimany,
Poland, Switzerland, RuiTia, and Siberiay where it
breeds; but migrates fometimes in vafl ilocka into
other countries, as is now and then the cafe in refpedt.
to England ; for though in fome years a few arc
met with, yet in otlicrs it has been known to vifit us
by thoufands, fixing on fuch fpots as are planted with
pines, for the fake of the feeds, which are its natural
food : it is obferved to hold the cone in one claw like
the parrot, and to have all the ad^ions of that bird when
kept in a cage. It is alfo found in North America and
Greenland ; ^d is fald to make the neil in the hightd

^either as a private man or as a pallor of the church of parts of the fir-trees, ^aliening k to the branch vv ith

Chrift. His amiable manners rendered him an orna-
ment to his ]|igh fbation, wbilft they endeared him to
all with whom he converfed ; and his zeal for the in-
tereils of true religion made him eager tp promote to
places of trufl and dignity fuch clergymen as he knew
were beft qualilied to fill them. ■ Of his modeily,
gentknefs, and plcafing eonverfation, we have the tefti*
mony of one whofe decifion will hardly be difputed.—
'^ It would anfwer no end (fays Difhop Warburton) to
tell you what I thought of the author of Hebrew poe-
try, before I faw him. But this I may fay, I was never

the refinous matter which exfudes from tlie trees.

%, The coccothrauflesy or hawfinch, is in length,
feyen inches ; breadth, 13 : the bill is funnel-ibaped,
flrong, thick, and of a dull pale pink colour ; the
breafl: and whole under fide are of a dirty flefli colour ;
the neck afh-coloured ; the back and coverts of the
wings of a deep brown, thofe of the tail of a yellowifh-
bay : the greater quill-featliers are black, marked with
white on their inner webs : the tail is fhort, fpotted
with white on the inner fides ; and the legs arc of a flefh*
colour* This fpecies is ranked among the Brttiih birds ;.

more furprifed, when I did fee him» than to find him of but only vifits thefe kingdoms occafionally, and for the

fuch amiable and gentle manners, of fo moded, fenfible,
and diiengaged a deportment." He united, indeed,
in an eminent degree, the qualities of the gentleman
with thofe of the fcholar ; he converfed with elegance,
as he wrote with accuracy. As a hufband, a father,
or the mailer of a family, he was as nearly faultlefs as

mofl part in winter, and never known to breed here.
It \& more plenty in France, coming into Burgundy
in fmall flocks, about the beginning of April ; and foon«
after making the nefi, which is placed between the
bifurcation of the branches of trees, about twelve feet
from the ground : it is compofed of fmall dry fibres.

the imperfe^ions of humanity will eafdy permit. His ^ intermixed with liverwort, and lined with finer ma*
temper, when roufed by what he thought improper con^ terials. The eggs are of a roundiih fhape,. of a bluifh
4u6l, was indeed fufceptible of conuderable warmth } green fpotted with olive brown, with a few irregular
but if he could be highly offended, upon a flight con- black markings interfperfed. It is aUb common in
ceifion he could like wife forgive. His heart was ten- Italy, Germany, Sweden, and the wefl and fouthern

<lc'r and fympathetic. He pofTeifed a mind which felt
its own flrength, and decided on whatever came before
it with promptitude and firmnefs. In thofe trials
where ami£lion was to be fuffered or fubdued, he be-
haved as a man and a Chnflian. His piety had no
tin£lure of morofenefs ; his charity no leaven of oflen-
tatioB. To his whdle diocefe he was endeared by his
laudable difcretion and his ufeful zeal* To the
world he was a benefit by his examplar^ life and his
fplendid abilities. And whilft virtue and learning are
reverenced among men, the memory ^f Lowth will be.
refpeded and admired.
LOXI A, in zoology ; the name of a genus of birds

partit of Ruffia, where the wild fruits grow. It feeds,
on berries, kernels, &c.and from the great flicngth of
the bill» it cracks the flones of the ^uit of the haws,.
cherries,'^, the greateil with eafe«

3* The enucleator* or pine-gro&heak« 10 nine inches
in length, and weighs two ouikces. The biU is flrong,.
duiky, and forked at the end: the head, back, neck, and
breaft, arc of a rich crimfon ; the bottoms of the fear
thers afh-colour;. the quiMeathecs and tail dufky,^
their exterior edges of a dirty white:, the kgs are-
black. ' This fpecies frequents the nooft northern partB.
of this kiagdom, being only Riet with- in Scotland,
and efpecially the Highlands, where it breeds, and.

«f the order of pafferes, the diilinguilhing chara£lers of inhabits the pine*foreft9, feeding on the feeds, like the
which are thefe : The bill is flron^, convex above and crofs-bill. It is alfq found in all the pine-forefls of

' ' ' ' ' ' " " Siberia, Lapland^ and the northern parta of Ruifia :

it is common about St Peterfburgh in autumn, and it*
caught in great plenty at. that time for the ufe of the
table ; returning north in fpring. They are Kkewife^
common to the northern parts of America ; appearinflr

below, and very thick at the bale : the nofbrils are
fmall and round : the tongue is as if cut off at th€
end : the toes are four, placed three before and one
behind ; excepting in one fpecies^ which has only two.
toes before and one behind.

I. The curviroflra, or common crofs-bDl, which ia at Hudfon'sBay in May, to which place they are faid

to cpme from the fouth, and. are obferved to. feed on^
the buds of willow. The fouthern fettlements are:
inhabited by .them throughout the yeac, but the
northern only in thefummerfeafon. Ourlaflvoyagcrss.
met with this bird in Norton Sound %. it was aUb^

wings and tail are brown ; the legs black. The fe- &und at Aoonalafhkat

qaak 18 of a green colour, more or lefs mixed ;with 4. The gyrrhuhi, or. bullfinch,, is fo generally kno%vn'

about the fize of a lark, is known by the fingukrity
«f ha bill, both mandibles of which curve oppofite
ways and crofs each other : The general colour of the
plumage in the oaalc is of a red-lead inch'ning to rofe-
colour, and more or le£i mixed with brown : the

Loxia.

1 O X

" C 3'o 1

L O X

^Atia. as almoftto fuperfede defcriptlon : The head« wlngt,
and tail, are black ; the breaft and belly red ; the tipper
tail coverts and vent whiter and the breaft afli-colour«
The female difierB in haring the ander parts of a red-
^di(h brown. Tliis fpecies is common in moft parts of
the continent of Europe, and throughout Ruffia and
Siberia, at which laft placed it is caught for the table.
It is pretty common in England ; and builds in the
buihes, five or fix feet from the ground. ' The neft is
compofed chiefly of mo£9 ; aitd the eggs, which are
five or fix in number, arc dirty bhiifh white, marked
at the large end with dark.fpots. The time of breed-
ing is about .the end of May or beginning of June.
In the fummer it moftly frequents woods and the
• more retired places. -Cn winter it approaches gardens
and orchards, and has been generaUy ftigmfttiied for
r making havock among 'the buds of trees. From foae
late obfervations, however, it voidd appear, thUt the
<obje^ of thcfe birds is not the bud, but ** the worm in
the bud ;*' and that thia fpecies, in conjundion with
•various other fpecies of finall birds, are the frequent
means of defending the embryo-fruits, and thence pro-
moting their growth to maturity : for the warmth
that fweUs the buds, not only hatches nidos (eggs) of
•unnumbered tribes of infects, whofe parent flies, by
^an unerring inftin^, laid them there, ^^btitbrin^ for-
ward a numerous race already in a taterpilhr ftaftet
*thatnow iffue from their xonce^ments, and ra&t
'their excurfion along.thebttddinj^ branches, and would
j^robably deftroy every hope of fruitage, but for thofe
•ufcful inftruments. for its prefervation, whofe young
are principally fed by eating cateipillaors.— The boll-
finch, in its wild flate, -has only a plain note ; but
when tamed it becomes remarkably docile, and m^y
*^be taught any tunc afterm pipe, or to whiftle any notes
in the juftcil manner: it -feldom forgets what it has
learned ; and will become -fo tame as to come at call,
perch on its mailer's (houUers, and (at conunand) go
•through a difficult muiical lefibn. They may be alfo
taught tofpcak, and fome thus inftrud^d are dAnosXtf
■brought to London from Germany.

and tail dullertitan thereft, tB^brownilli wfthia: tise
legs are the colour of the bilL The femate diffcrd
from the nude, beinof mofUy of a rcddKh browa«
This fpecies is met with in fevend parts of North A«
merica; and has attained the name of nighttngaie
frt)m the fincnefs of its fong, the note of which
refembles that of the nightingale. In fpringf, and moA
part of the fummer, it fits on the tops of the higheft
trees, flngiitg early in the morning, and piercxiig tbe
ear with its loud pipe. Thefe birds are frequently
kept in cages, in which they flng through our fhe year»
with only (hort intervals of mntenefs. They are fbcd
of maixt and huck-wbeat $ and will cret togrether ^eal
hoards of thefe, often as much as a bufhel, which they
artfuQy cover with leaves and Imall twigs, leaving
only a fmall hole for entrance into tlft magazine*
They are alfo fond of bees. They come the begiuolng
df April mto New York and the Jerfeys, and frc-
quait the MagnoUa fwamps during the fummer : ii
autumn they depart towards Caitilina. They are
pretty tame, frequently hopping along the road be-
fore the traveller ; but are not gregarious* fcarce etcr
more than three or four being met with tognether.
From their being familiar birds, attempts have beeo
made to breed them in cages, but without focceis.

8. The orix, or grrenadier grofsbeak, is about the
fize of a houfe-lparrow. The forehead, fides of the
head, and chin, are black ; the breaft and bdly the
(ame i the vrings are brown, with pak edges ; and
the reft oi the body of a beautiful red colour : the legs
are pale. Thefe birds are inhabitants of Saint Helena ;
they are alfo in plenty at the Cape of Good Hope,
where they frequent watery places that abound with
rteds, among which they are fuppofed to make their
neft. If (as is fuppofed) this be the fame with Kolben's
Finch, he fays that the neft is of a peculiar contri-
vance, made with (mail twigs, interwoven very dofely
and tightly with cotton, and divided into two apart-
ments with but one entrance (the upper for the male*
the lower for the female), and is fo tight as not to be
penetrated by any weather. He adds, that the. bird is

5. The ^osridea, or blue grolsbeak, is the fize of fcarlet only in fummer, being in the vnnter wholly

the bullfinch : The bill is ftout, brown, and the bafe
of it furrounded jwith black feathers which reach on
each fide as fsr as the eye i the whole plumage befides
is of a deep blue, except the quills and tail, which are
:hrown, with a.mixtare of gveen, and acrofs the wing
'Coverts a«band of red.: the legs are duflcy. It is an
inhabitant of South America ; but is fometimes found
in Carolina, where it is a very folitary bird, and feen
■only in pairs, but difappear in winter. It 'has only
a Angle note.

6. The violacea, or piu^ie grofsbeak, is about the
-fize of a fparrow s The bill is black : the plumage,
violet blaok^ except the irides, a ftreak over the eye,
the chin, end the vent, which are red-: the legs are
duiky grey. Tliis fpecies inhabits the Bahama Ifiands,
Jamaica, and the warmer parts of America.

7. The cardiualls, or cardinal grofsbeak, is sear

afh-coloured. Thefe birds, feen among the green
reeds, are laid to have a wonder&l effed ; for, from
the brightnefs of their colours, they appear like fo
mznj jearlet iiS£S»

9. The Philippina, or Philippine grofsbeak, is about
t^ie fize of a fparrow 1 the top of the head, the hied
part of the neck and back, and the (capulars, areyel-
loWf the middle of the feathers brown : the lower part
of the back is brown, with whitiih margins : the fore
part of the neck and breaft are yellow; and from,
thence to the vent yellowifti white ; the wing-coverts
brown, edged widi white : the quills are brown«
with pale rufous or whittfh edges ; and the tail the
iame : the legs are yellowifh. Thefe birds inhabit the
Pliilippine Iflands ; and are noted for making a moft
curious neft, in form of a long cylinder, fwelling oat
into a globofe form in the middle. This is compoied

eight inches in length. ^ The bIH is ftout, and of a of the fine fibres of leaves, &c. and faftened by the
pale red colour : tlie irides are hazel : the head is upper part to the extreme branch of a tree. The
greatly crefted, the feathers rifing up to a point when entrance is from beneath ; and, after afcending the
oredl : round die bill, and on the throat, the colour is cylinder as far as the globular cavity, the true neft is
•Idack I the reft of the bird of a fine red j the quills placed on one fide of it ; where this Uttlc archite^

lays

t O X [3

liys her tgg^ sad hatches her brood in fcxi€& ttcvb-

rity.

A variety of this fpecies, tht Bf^glafieiai (Duff. uL
469)9 an inhabitant of Abyifinia, makes a. very curi-
ous nefl like the former, but a little different in fliape ;
and 18 laid to have fomewhat of a fpiral form, not un-
like that of a nautilus. It fufpends it, like the other^
on the extreme twig of fomt tree, chiefly one that
hangs over fome ftUl-water ; and always turns the
opening towards that quarter from whence leali laia
may be expe6ted.

10. The Abyifinica, or Abyffioian grofsbeak, is
about the fizc of the hawfinch : the bill is black : tlie
irides ace red : the top and fides of tlie head, throat,
and breaf^, are black : the upper parts of the body,
belly, and thighs, pale yellow, inclining to brown where
the two colours divide : the fcapulars are blacki(h ; the
Ming-ooverts brown, bordered with grey ; the quills and
tail brown, edged with yellow t the legs are of a red-

. dl(h gi'ey- This bird is found in Abyilinia ; and makes
a curious neit of a pyramidal (hape, which is fufpended
from the ends of branches like the others. The open-
ing is on one fide, facing the eaft : the cavity is fb-
parated in the middle by a partition ; up which the
bird rifes perfendicularly about half-way, when de-
fcending, the ne(i is within the cavity on one fide.
l}y this means the brood is defended from fnakcs,
fquirrels, monkeys, and other miichievous animals, be*
fides being fecure from^ rain^ which in that country
fometimes lafts for fix* noonths together.

11. The penfilis, or peniile.grofsbeak, (the ToiUy-^
bird of Fryer), is about the iize of the houfe-fpacrokW :
the bill isj>lack .:. the irides are yellow: the head, throats
and fore part of the neck,. the iame : from the.noftrils
fprings a- dull green ilnpe,- which paffes tlurough the
eye and beyond.it, where it. is broader: the hindpar(
of the- head, and neck, the back, rump» and wmg-
covertSf are of the fame colour : the quills are black,
edged, with, green \ the belly is deep. grey>. and the
"vent of a rufous red :. the ti&il and legs. are black*
Thisfpecies isfound at Madagai€ar;«and fabncatesaneft
of a curious conffradUoB* .coiiipofedi>f ftraw and reeds

/ interwoven in fliape of a. bag, the. opening beneath^
It is fattened above to a twig of fome tree ; moftly ta
thofe growing, on .the. borders of.ftreams... Qn one (ide.
ff this, wIthiDy.is the true neft. . The bird does not
form a new neil every year, but faftens a new^one to
the endjof the laft ; and oftev as hx as iUe in number,
one faangjung fma another*. Thefe build in .fociety, hke
rooks ;.ofton five or fix hundred being feen oa one
tree. They. have three young at each. hatch.

KKflspfer t mentions a. bird fimilar to this, i£ not
the fame,, which imakes the noft^., near Siam> on a tree
with narrow, leaves and fpreading. braaehes, ,the Jize of
an applcrtreo: thf ndl in the fliape of a^pudfe^ with a
long neck, made of dry.grafs and other materials, and
fufpended al.the ends.of/the branches ; the opening
always to the northrweft. He. counted fiftyvon one
tree only } and defcribes the l^rd itfelf-as being like. a
Canary^rfaird, of a darkyellonr, ud obixpf like a ipari*
r9w.

9/ * Fryer j: • alfi^ < talks of the .ingeHnitf of t tKe ToiUy
Birdf Slaking a neft *< like a fteepk; with winding
ngcanders/' and tying it by a ilenderihreadto the

II 1 t o X

bough of ^ tree* ^V Hundreds, of thefe pendulous
. nefts may be feen on thefe trees."

1 2. The chloris, or greenEnch, is a well-known bird :
the general colour is a yellowifh green, palefl on the
rump and breafl, and inclining to white on the belly ;^
the quills are edged with yellow, and the four outer
tail-feathers are yellow from the middle to the baft ;
the bill is pale-brown, and ilout ; and the legs are of
a flefh-colour. — This fpecies is pretty common in Bii*
tain, and flies in troops' during the printer. It makes >
the neii in fome low bufh or hedge, compofed of dry
grais, and lined with liair, wool, &c. laying: five or fix
greeniftieggs, marked at the larger end with red brown; .
and the male takes his turn in fitting. This bivd foou
becomes tame ;. even old ones.being familiar almoft at
foon as caught i. it lives five or fix years. Like the
chaffinch, . it is apt to grow blind, if . expofed to the

. fun. This fpecies is aUo pretty common every where
on the continent of Europe : but not very frequent in;
Ruffia ; and is not at all. found in Siberia, though it
has been, met with. in Kamtfchatka. It is Sufficiently
common both in Cumberlaad and Scotland : yet iu .
the firily.itis fcarce ever obfervedin the^vinterfeafon}.v
hilt the laft week in March. becomes plentiful, and.
breeds as in .other part»4>f Eogbmd...

1 3. The Bengalenfif , or Ben^ grofsbeak, is a trifle
big|^er than a,hoiifi&Jparrow; thebillis of a flefh-colour ;.
theiridesarewhitifh | the top of the hes^is of agolden yeU
low ; the upper .pacta o£sthe body are. brown, with paler
edges; the fides of the. head and under parts rufous v
tidiite ; acrofs the. breafl is & brown band, unitin&r to,
and of the fame colour with> the upper parts of the
body ; .the legs are of a pale yellow, the claws grey.
This fpecies (thus defcribed by MtLatham) feeins to
be the fiunc with the Ind2sn grofsbeak. defcribed as.,
follows ilk the JifieUk Refearcbes. " This little bird,
called bayH in Hindis. hrberaSxL Sanfcrit, bHui in the
diale£i Of Bengal, ctbh in Perfian, and tenatuwk i%
Arabic, from his remarkably pendant nefl, is rather
larger than a fparrow, with yellow-bxown plumage^
ayellowifhhead and>feet, a light-coloured bread, and'
a conic beak very thick in proportion to his body*
This bird is exceedingly common in Hindoflan : .he is
aflonifhingly fenfible, faithful^ and. docile, never vo-
luntarily defcrting the place where his young were
hatched^ but not avcrfe, like moil other birds, to the
fociety of mankind^ and eafdy taught to perch on the
hand of his mallei'. In a flate of nature he generally
builds his nefl on the highcfl tree that h&caafind, efpe-
cially^on the palmyra#i or on the Indian fig-tree, and he
prefers tliat which happens to overhang a welFor a rivu-

' let ! he makes it of grafs, which he weaves like cloth
and fhapes like a krge . bottle, fufpending it firmly
on the branches, but fo as to rock with tlie wind, ai;d
placing it with its entrance, downwards to feourc it
from. birds of prey. His nefl ufually confifts of two
or three chamber j ; and it is the popular btlief that
lie lights them with fire-flies, which he catches alive •
at night, aiid contiDc* with moift clay or with cow*
dung: That fuch flies are often found in his neft^.
where pieces of. row-dung are aHb flnck, is indubi- *
table ; but as then*, light could be of little ufe to him^ *
it. feems probable that he only feeds on them. He may.
be. taught with eafe to fetch a piece .of paper, or any .:

imaOa

Loxis>

L O % I 31^ H L X

^LoaiSt. fmsJl thing that hk nufter points out to him : It is an they feem to hate fele6Ud for that pnipofey aivdot Ui'
attefled'faft, that if a ring be dropped into a deep well, accoant of its ampk head, and the great ftrength of *y^
and a fignal given to him, he will fly dftwn with ama- its branches, calculated to admit and to fuppoit the ex-
zing celerity, catch the ring before it touches the wa- tenfive buildings which they have to ere A, as for the
ter, and bring it up to his mafter with apparent exul-
tation ; and it is confidently aflerted, that if a houfe
or any other place be (hown to him once or twice, he
will carry a note thither immediately on a proper fig-

tallnefs and fmoothaeft of its trunk, which their grrat
enemies, the ferpent-tribe, are und>le to climb. The
Jttcthod ia which the nefts theniifelTes are fabiiatd,
is highly curious. In the one defcribed by Mr Pater*

nal being made. One inftance of his docility I can my- foA there could be no lefs a number (he fays) thaa
Celf mention with confidence, baring often been an eye- from ^00 to 1000 refiding under, the iamerooff . He'^^

t^itnefs of it« The youiig Hindoo women at Benares,
and in other places, wear very thin plates of gold,
called itcasf flightly fixed by way 6f ornun^nt between
their eye-brows; and when they pafs through the
ilreets, it is not uncommon for the youthful libertines,
who amufe themfelves with training bay as, to give
them a fignal, which they underftand, and fend them

calls it a roof, becaufe it perfedly refembles that of 1 . ,,
thatched houfe ; and the ri^e fonns an aogl^fo scute « ^
and fo imooth, projecting over the entrance of the set a
below, that it is impoflible for any reptile to approach
them. The induftry of thefe birds ** feems ahnoA
equal (fays our author) to that of the bee ; through* ;»«
out the day they appear to be bufily employed in csr <^>

to pluck the pieces of gold from the foreheads of their lying a fine fpecies of grafs^ which is the priacipalna-';^'

miftreiTes, which they bring in triumph to the lovers
The bayk feeds naturally on grafshoppers and other
infers ; but will fubfift, when tame, on pulfe macera-
ted in water : his flefh is warm and drying, of eafy
digeflion, and recommended in medical books as a fol-
vent of ftoue in the bladder or kidneys ; but of that
virtue there is no fufficient proof. Tlie female lays
many beautiful eggs refembling large pearis ; the white
of them, when they are boiled, is tranfparent, and
the flavour of them is exquifitdy delicate. When
many bayas are alTembled on a high tree, they make
a h'vely din ; but it is rather chirping than fingring ;
^Bheir want of mufical talents is however amply fup*
plied by their wonderful fagacity, in which they are
not excelled by any feathered inhabitant of the fo*

14. The nigra, or black grofsbcak, is about the fize
of a Canary bird : the bill is black, ftout, and deeply
notched in the middle of the upper mandible : the
plumage is black, except a little white on the fore part
of the wing and bafe of the two firft quills : the legs
are black. It inhabits Mexico.

15. The minuta, or minute grofsbeak, is about the
fize of a wren : the bill is ftout, thick, fhort, and
brown : the upper parts of the plumage are grey brown,
the under parts and r^mp ferruginous chefnut ; the
fourth, fifth, and fixth quills are white at the bafe :
the legs are brown. It inhabits Surinam and Cayenne.
—-It is (aid to keep paired to its mate the whole year }
and is a lively, and not very tame bird. It moftly
frequents lands which have Iain for fome time unculti<*
vated ; and lives both on fruits and feeds. It makes
a roundifh neft, the hollow of which is two inches
zn diameter, compofed of a reddifii herb, and placed
en the trees which it frequents*. The female lays three
or four eggs; *

16. The focia, or fociable grofsbeak, is about the fize
of a bullfinch : The general colour of the body above
is a rufous brown, the under parts yellovrifh : the beak
and muzzle are black ; the legs brown ; and the tail
is fhort. It inhabits the interior country at the Cape
of Good Hope ; where it was difcovered by Mr Pater-

• fon.— Thefe birds, according to our author, live toge-
ther in large focieties, and their mode of nidification
as extremely uncommon. They build in a fpecies of

^Mkiwfa which grows to an uncommon fiaei an4 which
IT i88.

terid they employ for the purpofe of eredUng thisci-j^
traordinary work, as welt as for additions and rcpaini' [^
Though my (hort flay in the country was not fuffid-^
ent to fatisfy me by ocular proofs that they added to
their neft as they annually increafed in numbers, M
from the many trees which I have feen bone down with
the weight, and others which I have ebfcrved with
their boughs completely covered over, it would appear
that this is really the eafe ; ^riien the tree which if
the fupport of thjs aerial city h obliged to giire way
to the increafe of wei^t, it is obvious that they are os
longer proteded, and are under the neceifity of reboiki*
kig in other trees. One of thefe deferted nefts 1 bd
the curiofity to break down, fo as to infbnn myfelf of
the internal ftnidture of it, and found it equally iDgeni*
ous wkh that of the external. There are roasyn*
trances, each of which forms a regular (beet, withae^
tn both fides, at about two inches difiance from odi
other. The grafs with which they build is called tk
Boflunan s grafs: and I believe the feed of it to be
their principal food ; though, on examining their oeH^
I found the wings aod legs of different infects. Frod
every appearance, the neft which I diiFedied had beei
inhabited for many years ; and fome parts of it vat
much more complete than others : this therefore I
conceive nearly to amount to a proof, that the aniinah
added to it at different times, as they found neccOarji
from the increafe of the family^ or rather of the oaudl
or community."

1 7. The tridaayla, or three-toe'd grofchcak (th<
guifso balito of Buffon)^ has only three toes, one he*
fore and one behind. The bill is toothed on the edges:
the head, throat, and fore-part of the neck are of 2
beautiful red, which is prolonged in a narrow bacd
quite to the vent ; the upper part of the neck, back,
and tail, are black ; the wing coverts brown, edged with
white ; quills brown, vrith grecnifh edges 5 and leg* a
dull red : the wings reach half way on the tail.-*
This fpecies inhabits AbyfTmia ; whe« it freqoeiitt
woods, and is a foliiary fpecies. It feeds oa kemeli
of feeds, which it breaks with eafe with its bill 1^'
name in its native place is gttifjo ^aiit9 dmmo-vwjtrt^'
Bufion's figure is from Mr Bruce's drawings.

i here are 76 other fpecies of this genus ; the whole

number, befides varieties, enumerated in the Sj^*^^

(Gmelin), Mid ia Mr Latham's Indetc Ormth. bdot^J*
« Oa

^^£xruv.

Bale OOLKSiy.

.a^tSj^oL-KSX^a./:.^

L U B

C 3»3 ]

L U B

On Phtfe CCLXKIV. are given fpectment of fix* €»«•
Ay the Caemlea f B» the Longicauda ; Ct the Socia i
D, the Cardinal!* j E, the Nigra ; F, the Violacea*

LOYOLA (Ipiatiut), See Ipnatius.

LOZENGEy in heraldry, a four-cornered figure,
refembling a pane of giafa'in old cafcnents. See He*
KALDRYy p.455*'coL t* Though all heralds agree, that

An alliance ftill fubfifts between Lubec/Haniburft ^'^
and BrenMn i and thefc citie$» ufider the name of iJj^^
Hanff'iavmif neg^ciate treaties with foreign powers*. ^«
Here are divers manufadures, and the city's territory
is about 60 miles in compaib. In thtrdict of the em-
pire Lubet is polTeired of the third feat among the Rhe«
niAi imperial cities ; and among thofe of the circle, hat

(ingle ladies are to placf their arms on lotenges, yet the firft. In the matricula, its aflefiment is 480 Ac-

they differ with refpe^ to the caufes that gave rife to rins, and to the chamber of Wetzlar it pays 557 rix-

it. Plutarch lays, in the life of Thefeus, that inMc« dollars and 88 kruitzen. The city is a republic with*

gara, an ancient town of Greece, the tomb-ftones, un- in itfelf, and both makes and executes laws in regard

der which the bodies of the Amazons lay, were (haped to civil and criminal matters, &c. A father and fon*

after that form ; which fome eonje^lure to be the caufe
why ladies have their arms on loaenges. Sm Peira San8a
will have this (hield to reprefent a cuflnon^ whereupon
women ufed to fit and fpin» or do other houfewifery.
Sir J. Feme thinks it is formed from the fhield called
tejfera^ which the Romans finding unfit for war, did
allow to women to place their enfigns upon* with one
of its angles always uppermoft.

LozENOBs> among jewellers^ are common to bril*
liant and rofe diamonds. In brilliants, they are form-
cd by the meeting of the fkill and ftar facets on the
bezil ; ifi the latter, by the meeting of the facets in the
horizontal ribs of the crown. See Facets.

Lozenge is alfo a form of medicine, made into
fmall pieces, to be held or chewed in the mouth till

or two brothers, cannot be in the regency at the fame
time. The famous league of the Hanfe-towns was be*
gun here in 11 64. This city had its charter of privi-
leges from the emperor Frederic II. Formerly it car-
ried on wars, both ofTenfive and defenfive, for feveral
years, not only againft the dukes of Mecklenburg, but
againil the kings of Sweden and Denmark \ particu-
larly in 1428, when it fitted out 250 (hips of force
againft Eric X. king of Denmark. There are about
20 churches in Lubec, with lofty ileeples or fpires.
The Trave brings (hips of burden into the very heart
of the city \ but the largeft unload at Travemunde^
f. e, the mouth of the Trave, eight or ten miles di-
ftant. Formerly it is faid to have employed no lefs
than 600 (hips. In the famous cellar here, it is faid

they are melted there : the fame with what are other- there is wine 200 years old. The church of St Ma-
ry's, a noble lofty pile, is fupported by tall pillars^
all of one ftone each, and has a high fpire, covered
with gilt lead. The town's garrifon confifts of about
700 or 800 men. The revenue of its Lutheran bi(hop,
though he is a prince of the empire, is faid not to exceed
3000 pounds.

LUBEN, a city of Germany, in the marquifate of
Lower Lufatia. It is fituated on the river Spree,. and

wife called trcchifch " troches.^

LUBEC, a city and port-town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony and duchy of HoLftein, in
£. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 54. 20. It ftands at the
conflux of feveral rivers, the largefl of which is the
Trave, 1 2 miles from the Baltic, where it has a fine
)iarbour, and 40 north-eaft of Hamburg. By the Stec-
kenitz, another of thofe river^, it has a communica-
tion with the Elbe, and confequently with the Ger- ta the capital of a fmall circle of the fame name. It
man ocean. The city lies on the fide of a hill, with is the feat of the diets, and of the chief tribunala
the Trave, increafed by the Steckenttz on the one fide, and offices ; and has feveral chnrches, with a noble
and the Wackenitz on the other ; and is ftrongly for- land-houfe and hofpital. E* Long. 14. 25. N. Lah
tified with bailions, moats, walls, and ramparts \ the 52. o.

laft of which are pknted with trees, and form an a- LUBIENIETSKI {Staniflaus), a Poh'(h gentle-
greeable walk. Lubec being formerly the .chief of the man, defcended from a noble family, and bom at
Hanfe towns, was very powerful in confequence of Cracow in 1623, was educated by hi^ father with
the vafl trade it carried on $ but a great part of that great attention. He became a celebrated Socinian mi-
trade is now transferred to Hamburg : however, it is nifter ; and took great pains to obtain a toleration
fliU faid to employ 150 of its own (hips, and has a from the German princes for lis Socinian brethren,
great (hare of the Baltic trade. It is about two miles His labours, however, were ineffe^ual ; ^ing himfelf
in length, ai^d more than one in breadth. The houfes perfecuted by the Lutheran minifters, and bani(hed
are all of ftone, but old-fa(hioned. Several of the from place to place ; until at length he was bani(hed
ilreets have on each fide rows of lime-trees, with canals out of the world, with his two daughters, by poifon»
in the middle, like thofe of Holland. The public his wife narrowly efcaping, in 1675. Wehaveofhia
ftru6turcs confifl of the ancient cathedral of the bifliop- ^ writing yf blfiory of the reformation in Polmut ; A frea-
ric of Lubec, and feveral other Luthetan churches ; a ^ on comett ; with other works in Latin,
nunnery for zz ladies, with an abbefs and priorefs; a *. LUBIN (Eilhard), was profeffor of poetry in the
poor-houfe, an ahns-houfe, and houfe of corredion^ nniverfity of Roftock in 1595 ; and ten years after,
an orphan-houfe ; an hofpital dedicated to the Holy- was promoted to the pro£e(ror(hip ^f divinity. He
Ghoft ; a houfe in which poor travellers are entertain- wrote notes 00 Anacreon, Juvenau, Peffius, &c. and
cd three days> and then fent forward, with a pafs; but fevieral other works ; but that which made the moft
fiich as happen to be fick, are ptovided with all necef- noife is a Treatife on the nature and origin of evil, in-
iaries till they recover .or die ; the city-armoury, a titled, Pbofpbonu de Qoufa prima et natura mati^ printed
grammar-fchool of fcven daifes, the Calvinift ^church, at Roftock in 1596 ; in which we have a curious hy-
and the P6pi(h chapel. The deputies of the Hanfe- pothefis to account for the origin of mora! evil He
towns ufed to meet here formerly inthetowa4K»ifc« Roofed two co-eternal principles; not ma//^ and v^^

Vol. X. Part L R r riw»»

LUC [3

CMum^ a6 Epicurus did ; but Gody and KUniam or No-
thinjg. This b<innc publifked againft by Grtwer, wa§
defended by Lubin ; but after idl, he is deemed better
acquainted with polite literature tban with divinity,
lie died in 162 1. #

LU5LIN> a handfome and cpnfiderable towa of
Poland* capiul of the palatinate of the fame namey
with a ciudelt a bi/liop's fee* an univerfity» and a
Ijandfome Jewn(h fynagogue. Here the judicial courts
fur all Polaud are held. It has three feirs, frequented
by merchants from all nations. It is ieated on the n*
vcr Byftrzna. £, Loa^. a2. 51. N. Lat. 51. a6,

LUCA» (anc. geog. j» a town of £truria» oa the
river Aufer; a colony and a municipittm. Now
/.ufiCtfy capital of the republic of that name^ near the
river Sechia. £. Long. 11. ao. Lat, 43. 45.

LUCANIA, a countiy of Italy, aad a part of
Magna Grsecia ; bounded on the north by the river
Silaros by which it ti'as feparated from the Picentini»
and by the river Bradanus by which it was parted from
the Apuli Peucetii ; on the fouth by the Laus, which
feparated it from the Bruttii ; on the eaft by the Si«
Aus Tarcntinus ; and on the well by the Tu&an fea,
Lucami^ the people, defoendants of the Samnites, Lu*
fantu the epithet, (Horace). Ltu4s boves denoted ele-
phants ; firft feen in Pyrrhus's wars in Lucania, whence
the appellation (Pliny),

LUCANUS 7 Marcus Aiinxns)* a Latin poet, bom

at Cordoba in Spain, about A. C. 39b He was the

fon of Anncus Mela» the youagcft brother of Seneca ;

and was conveyed to Rome from the place of his na*

tivity at the age of eight months : a eircumftance, as

kjft more indulgent critics obienre, which fufficiently

• refutes the cenfure of thofe who cojifider his language

as provincial. At Rome he waa educated under the

Stoic Comutus, £^ warmly celebrated by his dtfciple

Perfius the iatirtfl^ who was the intimate firiend of our

poet. In the dofe of his education, Locaa is faid to

have pafTed fome time at Athens, On his return to

Rome he rofe to the office of quzftor, befere he had

attained the legal age. He was afterwards inroDed

among the augurs ; and married a lady of noble birth,

and of a mo^l amiable cbarader, Luean bad for fome

time been admitted to familiarity with Nero, when

the emperor cbofe to contend for poetical honours by

the pubh'c recital of a poem he had compofed on Niobe 1

and fome Tcrfes of this imperial prodn^lion are fup-

pdfed to be preferred in the firft iatire of Perfiua, Lu*

can had the hardinefs to repeat a poem on Orphma,

in competition with that of Nero % and, what is more

remarkable, the judges of the conteii were juft and

bold enough to decide againU the emperor. From

hence Nero became the perfecutor of his fuccefsful ri*

val, and forbade him to produce any poetry in public

The wcU-Juown confpiracy of Pifo againft the tyrant

foon followed \ and Tacitos, with his ufual iarcailic

feverity, concludes that Lucan engaged in the cnter>

priae from the poetical injuries he hui received : ** a

^ remark (fays Mr Hayley*, who has endeavoured to

j^Jj^** j^.^ refute the imputation) which does little credit to the

Secomd Eft- Candour of die hiftorian ; wbo might have found a

fUom Bfk much nobler^ aad, I will add, a more probable motive

£utry, for his condud, iti the generous ardor of his chancer,

and his paffionate adoration of freedom, la the fequel

of }m narration, Tacitus allege a charge againil our

14 ] LUC I

poet, which, if it were true, muft kad us to ddcS I«a|
him as the moft abjeft of mankind The hiftnnao^ nH
ferta» that Locan, when accufed of the coufpiracr, for
fome time denied the charge ;. hot corrupted at U&by
a promife of impunity^ aad defiroua to atone ix ui
tardinefs .of hit coofeflbn, aecufed bis mother Atilu
as his accomplice. This circum&ancc is fo improbable
sn itfclf, and fo little confonaiit to the general charadci
of Lucan, that fome writers have treated it with coo*
tempt, as a calumny invented by Nero, to rilif)- tk
obfed of his envious abhorrence. But the Bain: of
Tacitus has given fuch an siir of authority \d the ftory,
that it may feem to deierve a more ferious difculHoj,
particularly as there are two fubfequent eveats ndatcd
by the fame hiiloriao, which have a tendency to [qt^
lidate the accu&tion fo iiijunous to our poet. The
events I mean arc, the fate of Annseus, aiidtheefape
of Atilla, the two pfirents of Lucan. The fonna died
in confequence of an accufation brought agaiuR him,
after the death of his fon, by Fabiua Roman a% wha
bad been an intimate with Lucan, and forged fome let*
ters in his name^ witb the defign of proving his&dur
concerned in the confpiracy, Thcfe letters were pro*
duced to Nero» who feat them to Anaxus, {rum u
eager defire, fays Tacitus, to get poflcffion of his vealtJv
Fpom this bJEt two inferences may be drawn, acconl-
ing to the different lights in which it may be coniidcr*
ed I'-^If the accufatiott againil Anaaeus was juii, it ii
clear that Liccan had not betrayed his father, aodhe a]K
pears the lefs Ixkdy to have endangered by his cud-
feffion the life of a parent, to whom he owed a fUU tcit*
devtr regard —-If Anns us was not involved in the con-
fpiracy, and merely put co deatb by Nero for the lab
of his treafure, we may the more readily believe, thit
the tyrant who mordered the father fromavarioe, migiit
calunmiate tlie ion £rom envy. But the dcape of Atilb
affords us the ffrongeff reafbn to conclude that Likao
was perfe^y innocent of the abje^ and unnstunl
treachery of which Tacitus has fuppofed him gviky.
Had tbe poet reaDy named his mother as an sccom*
plice, would the vindi6Uve and ianguinary Nero have
fpared the life of a woman whofe family he deteilolt
particularly when other females were put to death for
their (hare in the confpiracy ? That Atilla was not in
that niunber, die hiftorian himfelf informs u» in the
foUowittg remarkable iientenoe> ^ Atilla mater Annxi
Lucani, fine abfolutione» fine fupplicio, diffimuiata ;"
thus traoflated by Gordon : ** The information agaiuA
Atilla, the mother of Lucan, was diilcmbled ; andt
without being cleared, ihe efcapcd ui^MwiAied/'*

The preceding remarks will, our author hopes, vio*
dicate to every candid mind the honour of Lucao,
vriiofe firmnefs and intrepidity of charader are indeed
Tery forcibly difplayed in that piatire of his deatii
which Tacitus himfldf hat given ua» He was condemocd
to have his veins cut, aa his nncle Seneca had befixv
him. Lucan, «« while his blood iffued in ftrcami, p^
ceiving his feet and hands to grow cold and iUwi,
and life to retire by h'ttle and little to the eztremitie*,
while his heart was ftill beating with vital warmth,
and his faculties nowife impaired, recoUeded k^
lines of his own, which defcribed a wousded ibUiff
aspiring in a manner that icfembled this. The \a^
themftlvet he ichearfed ; and they were tbekft «n^

he ever uttered," The critics diffier coaocmiag the

Tcriei

ails.

LUC r 3

Tcrfea of the PkarMa whidi the author quoted in fo
memorable a manner. The two paflagea he U fuppofed
to have repeated are the following^ of which Lipfiua
contends for the ktter.

S»n]n'>t9 erant lacryms : qarccooqtte f«»ramif» nova
Hnrnor, ab hi» largu* manat croor : ora redumluit,
hi patulx »are« : fudor lulxst : (kmt.ia plenis
:Mtnibra fluiint venis : totum eft pro vulncrc corpu§.

Lib. ix. 814.
Now the warm blood at oricc, from every j^ait,
Han porple poifon i]owd, and drain'dthe fainting heart.
Blood falls for tears; and o*er his nioumfiil face
The ruddy drops their tainted pafTage trace.
Whcrc*cr the liquid juice* find a waj',
There ftreams of blood, there a*iinfoii rivers dray.
His mouth and giifliiiig noftrik pour a flood«
And e*en the pore^t ouze out the tricklinfr blood ;
In the re<l deluge all the paru He dro>wo'd.
And the whofe body feemH one bleeding wound.

Rowc.
ScindituraviiMtn; nee iicut vukere fanguis'
Emicuit feotus ; ruptis cadit undique venis,
Difciirfufque aniniz, diverfa in membra meantis,
loterceptu^aquis. Lib. iii. v. 638.

No fingle wound the gapiftf? rupture feems,

Where trickling crimfon wdb in (lender ftreaant ;

fiot, from an op'ning horrible and wide,

A thoufaiid veflfels pour the burftinpr tide :

At once the windine channers c< urfe was broke.

Where wand'ring life her mazy inurncy took ;

At once rhe ciirrciits all forgot their way, r

And loA their purple in tlie azure fea. Rows*

l>cich was the death of Lucan before he had completed
his 27th year. — His wife, PoUa Argentaria, is bSd to
have tranfcribed and corre^ed the three (rril books of
4hc Pharfalia after his death. It is much to be re-
gretted (Mr Hayley obferves) that we poilefs not the
poem which he wrote oa the merits of this amiable
and accompliihed woman ; but her name is immorta-
lized by two furvtving poets of that age* The vene-

15 ] . LUC

ration which flic paid to the memory of her hufband I'^canw.
is recorded by Martial ; and more poetically defcribed
in thai pleaiing and elegant little produdion of Statius,
Genethllacon Lucanij a poem {aid to have been written
at the requeft of Argentaria. The author, after in-*
voking the poetical deities to attend the ceremony,
touches with great delicacy and fptrit on the compo-
fittons of Lucan's childhood, whidi are k>ft, and the
Pharfalia, the produdion of his early youth : he then
pays a fhort compliinent to the beauty and talents of
Argentaria; laments the cruel fate which deprived her
fo immatqrely of domeftic happinefsi and concludes
with an addrefs to the fhade of Lucan, which, with
Mr Hayley's tranflation, we (haU fabjotn in a Note»
as it ieems to fumHh a ftrong prefumption of Lucan's
jnnooence in regard to one of the accufations mention-
ed above (a). ** Had he been really guilty of bafely
cndangerii^ the life of his mother (fays Mr Hayley),
it is not probable that Jiis wife would have honoured
his memory with fuch enthufiailic veneration; or that
Ststius, in vetfes defigned to do him honour, would
have alluded to the mother of Nero. If his chara6ler
as a man has been injured by the hiftorian (continues
Mr Hayley), his poetical reputation has been treated
not lefs injurioufly by the critics. Quintilian, by a
frivolous diflin^^ion, difputes his title to be claiFed
among the poets ; and Scaliger fays, with a brutality
of language difgraceful only to himfelf, that he feems
rather to bark than to Jtng, But thefe infults may ap>
pear amply compenfated, when we remember, that in
the mod polifhed nations of modern Europe the moft
elevated and poetic fpirits have beert his warmefl ad-
mirers ; that in France he was idolized by CorneiUe»
and in England tranflated by Rowe. — ^The fevereft
cenfures on Lucan have proceeded from thofe who

R r 2 have

(a) At tu, feu rapidnm poli per axem
Fama& curribus arduis levatus,
. Qua furjrunt animjc f otentiores,
1 erras defpici*, et (cpulchra rides :
Scu paciff merttum nemus reclufse
Felix Fiyfiis tenes i 1 oris,
Quo Pharialica turba congregatur s
£t te nobile caroien infi nantem
Pompeii contitantur et C^xonc* :
Tu magna facer et fuperbus umbra
Nelcis l*arcaraii, at procnl nocentum
Audi* verbera, pallidumque vifa
Matris lampade refpicis Neroncm.
Adils lucidus ; et vocaote Pulla
Unam, quaefa, diem deos filentum
Ezorea ; folet hoc paterc limen
Ad iiuptAs rcdeuntibus maritis.
Hsc te non thiafis procax dolofis
Fain nuniinis induit figuras;
Ipfum fed coUt, et frtauentafipfum
Imis akiDs infttum medutli. ;
Ac foUtia vana* fubminxftrat
Vultus, qui fimiii notatus auro
Stratis pitenitet, excubatque fnmno
Securse. Procui hioc abite mortes;
Hjtc vitK grnitaiis eft orti^o;
Cedat Iu<S:lu8 atrox, genifque manenc
Jam dulce* lacrymo:, dolorque fcftus
Q^icquid fieverac ante nunc adoret.

Bat yon, O ! whedur to the ikies
On Fame's triumphant car you rife,
(Wlicrc mightier foub new life afiumot)

And mock the confines of the tumb $
Or whether in Elyfium bleft
You grace the groves of farred reft,
Where the Pharfalian heroes dwell;
And, as you ftrikeyour epic fbell,
llie Pompeys and the Catos throng
To catch the Animating fong ;
Of Tartarus the dread controul
Binds 'not your high and hallow'd foul ;
Diftant you hear mat wailing coaft,
And fee'the guilty Nero's ghoft
Grow pale with anguifli aiMl affright,
I lis mother flafbing on his light.

Be prefcDt to your Potla's vows,
While to your honoured name (he bows !
One day let your intreaties gain
From thofe who rule the ftiadowy train !
Their gates have op*d to blefs a wife,
And given a hufband back to life.
In you the tender fair iuvites
No fancied god with frantic rites:
You are the obj<A of her prayers,
Yuu in her iiimoft heart (he bears :
And, ft a nipt on mimic gold, your head
Adorns the faithful mourner's bed,
And f>)Oths her eyes before they clofe,
The guardian of her chafte repofc.

Away with all funereal ftate !
From hence his nobler life we da^c :
X^ mourning change the pang fever c
Vo foad devotion's grarefui tear !
And fcftal grief, its anguifli o*er.
What it lamented, now adore 1

LUC C 31

Lueanui, have unfairly icomparcd his language to that of Virpli
' tiucv. jj^^ how unjuft and abfurd is luch a coxnparifon ! k is
comparing an uneven block of porphyry, taken rough
from the quarry, to the moft beautiful fuperficies of po«
lifhed marble. How differently (hould we think of
Virgil as a poet, if we pofleffed only the verfes which
he wrote at that period of life when Lucan compofed
his Pharfalia ! In the difpofition of his fubjed, in the
propriety and elegance of di£b'on, he is undoubtedly
far inferior to Virgil : but if we attend to the bold
originalit^r of his defign, and to the vigour of his fen*
timents ; if we confider the Pharfalia as the rapid and
uncorre^ed Iketch of a young poet, executed in an agq
when the fpirit of his countrymen was broken, and
their taflc m literature corrupted ; it nmy juftly be
eiteemed as one of the moft noble and moft wonderful
productions of the human mind«''— Lucan wrote fc«
veral poems ; but we have none remaining befide his
PharfoRat of which an excellent £agU(h verfion hjSB
been given by Mr Nicholas Rowe.

LUCANUS, the Stag«beetle, in zoology ;a genus
of infeCls of the order coleoptera ; The antennae end in
a dub or knob, which is comprefTed or flattened on one
fide, and divided into (hort laminae refembUng the teeth
of a comb ; the jaws are porreded or advanced before
-j-™^y the head, and -arc denuted. There are 20 fpecies.
' The hu'^eft, as wdl as the moft finguhr, is the cenrus ;
which IS eafy tp be known by two targe moveable
maxillae, re'fembling in form the horns of a ftag, which
projed from its head, and have in a fpecial manner
acquired it the appellation of Stag-Beetle. Thofe
maxiUaB, broad and flat, equal to one third of the in*
fe£l's length, have in the middle, towards their inner
part, a fmall branch, and at their extremity are forked,
Bcfides thist they lave feveral fmall teeth throughout
"'tfieir whole length. The head that bears thefc
maxillae is veiy irregular^ very broad and (hort. The
thorax is ibmething narrower than the head and bodyi
and margined rounds The elytra are very plain, with-
out either ftreaks or lines. The whole animal is of a
dbep brown colour. 2t is commonly found upon the
oak, but is fcarce in the neighbourhood of X^ondoui
and though the largeft of coleopterous infers to be
met with in this part oi the woiJd, it is much imaller
than thofe of the fame fpecies that are found in woody
countries. This creature is ftrong and vigorous, and
its homsi with which it pinches feverely, are cartfully
to be avoided.— «The jaws are fometimes as red as co*
val, which gives this in(e6fc a very beautiful appear-
ance ; the female is diftinguiihed by th^ fltortnefa dF the
jaws» which ave a^ot h^lt (b long as thofe of the male.
\ «— Thefe infe6^« fbed oa the Hquer that oozes from

oaks, which they fuck with their trunk or tongue.
The females depofit their eggs in the trunka of decayed
trees, fucK aa the oak and the afli. The larvae or
gruba lodge under the bark and in the holfow* of
old trees,, which they eat into and reduce into Gn«
powder, and there transform thcn^felves into chryfalids.
They are cominpn in Kent and Sufiex, and are fome-
times met with in oAer parts q/t England; The poii-
ce£led jawa are particuhvly ufefiol to thefc animals*, itk
gripping off the bai^ from trees,, and aSjun|^ theav
Uvea thereby to the tree, while they fuck with their
trunk the juice that oozes from it.
JUUCAR u Baranbda (St}, .a handfiunc and

6 ] L TJ e

coniiderable tow^ of Spain, with a very goodhuiiosr.

well defended, in A^ndalufla. It wa^ once the _
port in Spain,.before the galleons unloaded their
lure at Cadiz. It ii feated at the mouth of the rmr
Quadalquiver. W. Long. 6. 5. N. JLat. 36. 40-

LucAR ^ GuaJiana (St), a "ftrong town of Spsia^
in Andalofla, on the confines of Algarve ; icatcd oa
the river Guadiana, with a little harbour. W. LMmg^
5. 59. N. Lat, 37. 32.

LuCAR la Major (St), a fiaiaU town of Spaisi^ ia
Andalufia, with the title of a duchy. It ia feated 00
the river Guadiana, in W. Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 37-21.
LUC ARIA, a feaft celebrated at Rcaiie on the
1 8th of July, in memory of the flight of the Romans
into a great wood, where (hey found an afylum, and
faved themfelves from deftrwftion* This wood, in
which they found protection, was fitnatcd between
Tyber and the Fut Solaria. Tlie cnenues £rom whom,
the Romans fled were the Gauls. — On this feftival*
Plutarch tells us, it was cuftomary to pay the adof%.
and fuch as contributed to the public amufement, with
the, nvoney ariiing from the felling of wood. This
money was called iucar. It is obvious, from what has
been obferved, that iucar and lucaria are derived froa
hiattf a grove.

LUCAS (Jacobs), an eminent artift, more genc^
rally known by the name of Lucas vam Lmtdsn^ or
Hugenfe^ was bom at Ley den i&.i494« He received
his firft inftru6tions in the art of painting from his fa*
thcr Hugues Jacobs; but completed his ftudies in
the fchool of Cornelius Engelbrecht. He gained
much money by his profeffion ; and being of 9 gCDc^^
rous turn of mind» he fpent it freely, dxelTed w<ll, and
lived in a fuperior ftyle. It is (aid, that, a few ycais
before his death, he made a tour into Zealand and
Brabant ; and during hia journey, a painter of Flulh«>
ing, envious of his great abilities, gave him poifon at
an entertainment ; which, though very flow, was too
fatal in its effed, and put an end to hts life, after fix.
years languiflung under its cr6el influence. Otixeis^
denying the ftory of the poifon, attribute his death
to his incefiant induftry. The fuperiority of thi»
artift's genius manifefted itfelf in his infancy ; for his.
works, even from the age! of nine, were fo excellent^
as to excite the admiration oEid^contcmporary artiftsj^
and when he was about. 15;, he'^'pSkioted. a. St Hubert^
which gained him great applaufe* His ^onc of colour-
ing (Mr Filkington gbferves) is good, -his attitudes
(making a reafonable allowance for the ftiS German.
tafte) are. well-choCen, his figures have a confideinbk
cxpreflion in their faces, and his piftuces are very
highly finifhedi, He endeavoured to proportion the
ftrength of his colouring to the different degrees of
diftance in which bis obxe<5is were placed ; for in that
early time, the true principles of perfpe^ve were but
little known* and the piudice of it was much lefa
obferved* In the town-hall at Leyden* the moft en*
ital piduise of Luoas,. the fubjeft of which is. the Lafl
udgement, is prefcrved witb great care;- the magi-
rates hawing refufed.very large fums which, hasrebceik
o&red for it.

This axtift painted^ npt oaTy in oil', )^ut alfo in dif*.
temper and upoivglaftu Noi^ was he lc& eminent for
his engraying than for his painting. He carried on as
fiuniliar and firieiidly conefpoaocnce with Albert

LUC , . .t 3

DorcTy iriio WIS hit cotemporary $ and^ it ii &id» that
ms regularly as Albert Durer publiihed one priiit> Lu»
cas publiihed another, without the ieaft iealoufy on
cither fidcs or wifh to depreciate each other's merit.
And when Albert came into Holland upon his travelsy
he was received by Lucas in a moil cordial and afifec'
tionate manner. His ftyle of engraving, however, ac«
cording to Mr Strutt, differed confiderably from that of
Albert Durer, <'and feems evidently to have been foiuid-
cd upon the works of lihielvan Mechlen^ His prints
njre very neat and clear, but without any powerful
effed. The ftrokes are as fine and delicate unon the
obje^s m the front, as upon thofe in the diftances ;
and this want^of variety, joined with the feeblenefs of
the maifes of fliadow, give his engravings, with all
their neatnefs, an unfinifted appearance, much unlike
the firm fubftantial effed which we find in the works
of Albert Durer. He was attentive to the minutiae
of his art. Every thing is carefully made out in his
prints, and no part of them is negleded. He gave great
character and expteflion to the heads of his figures ;
but, on examination of his works, we find the fame
heads too often repeated. The hands and feet are
rather mannered than correct ; and when he attempted
to draw the naked figure, he fucceeded but very indi£«
ferently. He affe£ked to make the folds of his dra-
peries long and Bowing ; but his female figures are
frequently fo exceifively loaded with'girdles, bandages,
mnd other ornamental trappings, that much of th^ ele-
gance of the defign is loft^ He engraved on wood, as
well 88 on copper; but his works on the former are by no
means nXimerous. They are, however, very fpirited ; tho'
not equal, upon the whole, to thofe oiF his friend Albert.
The prints of this mailer are pretty numerous, but
very feldom met with complete ;^ efpecially fitae im'
preffions of them. For though they are, generally
fpeaking, executed with the graver only, yet, fix>m
the delicacy of the execution, they foon fuffered in the
printing. Of his engpravings the few following may
be mentioned as among the principal, i. Mahomet
JUepingi npltb a prieft murdered'' by bis Jidi^ and another
Jigure^eedmg hitfwordf a middling-fized upright plate,
dated 1508, (aid to be one of his moil early produc*
tions. a. An ecce homo^ a large plate, length wife,
dated 1310. 3. 7*be crucifixion on Mount Xlahaty^
the fame. 4. The wife mens offtrin^^ the fame,
dated 15 13. 5. Return of the frod^M fon^ a mid-
dling-fized plate, length wii«, dated 1518. 6. A
krge print lengthw^e called the dance of Magdaien^
dated 15 19. 7* His ovm portrait^ a msall upright
plate, dat«i IS^S* ^' -^^^ f^^y^g before Saui^ a
middliag-fized u|^ht plate, dbted This is a

very fine print ; the expreffion of Saul's countenance,
in particnlav^ is admirable. 9. A prmt known by
the name of Ulefpieglef which is the fcaroeft of all the
works of this matter. It is in the colledioa of the
king of Fiance ; and iaid by Marofles,, and other
mafleri, to be unique. But Bafan infoons us, that
M. Maricttc hod alfo.an io^reflion of this.phte ^. and
is has been fince foundinoneor two other collt^iona.
It reprefents a travelhng hog-pipei witb kis.fieuaify.;
kimfielf ptayittg as ht goesi along,, and carrying two
diildren) in a iNifket at hit back; his wife trudging by
hi> fidb, fiipporting with one hand an> infiuit on her
ftisldttri aad ttith tht othoc kadinf sa n& kiadcd

LttceriSk

17 1 LUC

with two baikets^ having two children in eaeh-; and !*««■»
another child going before, with a little dog, completes H
the fingxikur groupe. This rare print is dated 15201
and is known to have been fold fof 16 louisKi'ors.— ^
It is nearly 7 j- inches high by 4I broad ;. and has
been twice copied* One of the copies is the reverfe
way : but the other is the fame way with the origi.>
nal ; and though not fo well executed,, might without
a comparifon be miftaken fbr it.

Lucas (Richard)^ D. D. a kamed £ngli(h di-
vine, was born in 1648, and fludied at Oxford : after-
which he entered into holy orders,, and was for fome
time mafter of the free fchool at Abergavenny. Be-
ing efleemed an excellent preacher,, he became vicar or
St Stephen's, Coleman ilreet, in London, and lec-
turer of St Olave'a in Southwark. He was do6ior or
divinity; and in 1696 was inflalled prebendary of
Wefiminfter. His fi^ht began to fail him in his youth ;.
and he totally loft it in his middle age. He was great-
ly efteemed for his piety and learning ;. and publifhed
feveral works, particularly, i.- Pra&ical Chriflianity.
2. An inquiry after happmefs. 3. Several fermons.
4. A Latin trandation of the whole duty of man. He
died in i7i5.

LUCCA» a fmall republic of Italy on the coaft o£
the Mediterranean, between the territory of Genoa
on the weft, Modena on the north,, and Tufcany on.
the eaft. According to Key flee, it is only about 3Qr
miles in circumference^ but is. exceeding fertile and po--
pulous. It contains, befides the city of Lucca, 150 viU
lages. The number of inhabitants are computed at
120,000. The government is lodged in a gofa-^
lonier, whofe power is much the fame with that of
the doges of Venice and Genoa. He is ailifted by
nine counfellors ^ but the power of all the ten conti*
nues only for two months ; during which time they
live in the ftate-palace, and at the public expence.
They' are chofen out of the great council^, which, coi^-
fifts of 240 nobles ;. but even this council is changed by
a new ele6kion every two years. The revenues of the
republic are about 400,000 fcudi or crowns ; out of'
which they maintain 500 men by way of regular force^,
and 70 Swifs as a guard to their a£Ung magiftrates.
The city of Lucca is fituated in a plain, terminating in
moil delightful eminences, adorned with villas, fum*-
mer-houfes, corn-fields, and plantations of every kind^
fo that nothing eitlier for ufe or pltafure is here want-
ing. The city, whi::h is about three Italian miles in-
circumference, has cegular welL-lined. fortifications^,
and its ftreets,. though irregular,, are wide, well paved,,
and full of handfome houles. The number of its in-
hi^tants are computisd to be above 40,000 ; andthey
carry on large manufadtures, efpecially of ftlk-ftuffs.
Lucca has a hifhop, who enjoys feveral cxtisiordinary-
privileses v and its cathedod isu Gothic* llie city*
Hands in £. Long. 1 1*. 27. N« Lat,. 43* 52^

XJLJCENTI,, LiVcnicriA, oriLucentum, a«town o£r
thc: Hitther Spain, now Alicant, a. fearport. of Va^^
kncia^ W..Long. 3 i',JLat. 58^3^7'..

LUCEJIES, in. Roman, axitiquity, the third in o»»
dec of the three tribes into vahich .Rooxulus. divided,
the people^, indudtng all foreigners.; fo called frook.
the lucue or grave, vdbere Romulus opened an afylunu
LUCERIA (anc. geog.), a- town of Aj»ulia im
Ixaiji whick ia Strabo'stimc ftilL exhibited marks of

SiAmcd!a»

.■i>-

LUC [ 318 ] LUC

X.€cerius Diomcd'a fovcrcignty in tliofe parts. Ptolemy has Alt/- relief of part ^ the cantons of LitoetH«, Zng^ aai ^

" ceria; whethtr from miilake, or the cuftom of his Berne^ and tin? whc^e of Schweitz^ Uri« and Uoder- ^

jicfH'c. ^jj^p^ uncertain. Now Nocera de Pa^ani^ in the king* wald, executed by General Pfiffier on a l^K^ fcak. ^^

<dom of Nsiples. ^, Long* 15. O. N. Lat. 40. 40. He has completeid about 60 fquare leagues ; tii« pla

LUC£RIUS» in mythology, a name given' to Ju- is 12 feet long, and nine and a half bn^ad :' CTcry

piter, as Z/^^/<7 was given to juno, as the deities which mountain is accurately meafured; and evicsy objcd

gave light to the world. diftinftly placed.

LUCEJINE, one of the 13 cantons of SwiiTcr- Tbe Lake of Lnemnu cxhiluta greater i?aH€ty aad

land. It holdr. the third place among th£ 13 ; and w more pi£kurefque Iccncry than any other of the Swiii

■the head of tlie Catholic cantons. Though lefs than lakes. It is feven leagues long in a nglit line* aod

Zuric, and confequentlv much lefs than Berne, it is, three wide about Kufihacht ; but the (hape is '^txy vs*

however, far more extefifive than any of the reft, be- regular. The whole ibuth- fide is bordered hj h%;ii

ing 15 or 16 leagues long, and eight broad. The po- tnountains; but the north exhibitt hOIs of bo ^le^i

pulation is eiHmated at 100,000. Even the moun- height. The narrow gulph that extendi towards the

tainoas part is not barren^ but abundant in wood and weft, is bordered on the north and north^weft by mouii'

paikure, furniftiing cattle, hides, cheefe, and butter, Piht, which is a ftngle mountain rifing bokUy morr

for exportation. All the north part is fertile in grain, than 6000 feet above the hd^e ; and on the Coradi by

fruit, and hay ; fupplying fufficient for the con- mount Bur^enberg. Stanz->Stadt, belonging to the

fumption of the inhabitants : but as the mountaineers canton of Underwald, is on this fide ; and hereabouts

of the little cantons come to their market for corn, the lake is deqseft. Kuflhacht is on the point of the

tlie people of Lucerne purchafe this commodity from other gidph, which extends towards the eaft, and i'»

other parts of Swifierland, but efpeciaUy from Alface wider than the former. AD the country to the vedk

anid Suabia. Their manufadures are very inconfide* of -theie go^s, and part of it to the north of the

rable ; confiding only in a little filk and cotton thread, latter, belongs to the canton of Lucerne ; but that

-—The government is oligarchical. The councils are ^which is to the fouth and north«eaft- is dependant oa

chofen from among 500 citizens only. The great the canton of Zug. AH the mountains on the kfe

cooncil of 64 members is the nominal fovereign ; but ftiore of the lake belong to the canton of Undcrwaid ;

in fa£l the power re/ides in the fenate, or little coun- thofe on the right, partly to the canton of Uri, partly

cil of 36, having for their chiefs the two Avoyers.-— to that of Schweitz, partly to the little republic of

The whole canton profeffes the Roman Catholic re- Gerfaw, but princtpaUy to the canton of L•occ^M^
ligibn. The pope's nuncio, with the title of legate Luce kne, in botany. See Medicaoo*-— Ffur the

a latere^ ufually refides at Lucerne. — They threw off culture of this plant, fee AcaicuLTuaE, nOi85.
xhe Auftrian yoke in 1352, and by entering into a LUCIA (St), one of the Caribbee Iflands in the

perpetual alliance with the three ancient cantons, they Wejl Indies, abont 22 miles long, and 1 1 broad, the

gave fuch weight to the confederacy, as to enable it aiiddle of it lying in N. Lat. 39* 14- W. Long. 2 7. a

in 11^86 to renft aH the eftbrts of the enemy at the It was firft fetded by the French in 1650; bat wat

bkody battle of Sempach. reduced by the Engliih in 16649 who evacuated it ia

The town 0/ Lueente is fkuated at the extremity of 1666. The French immediately re-fettled the iflaadi

a moil beautiful lake of the fame name, where the but were again driven away by the Caribbs. Aa fooa

xiver Reufs iiTues from it. The buildings are ancient^ as the favages were gone, the former inhabitants le-

aod the iireets narrow; nor is Lucerne popiUous in turned, but only for a ihort time; for being afraid of

proportion to its extent, the inhabitants being only ialh'ng a prey to the firft privateer that fhould vifit

between 3 and 4000. SinCe this is the great paiiage their coails, they removed either to other French fet*

to Italy by Mount St Gothard, and the merchandize tkments that were ilronger, or which they mi^fat ex-

which pafles the Alps on nudes, and is to be tranf- pe£t to be better defended. There was then no re^

ported by the nvers Reufs, Aar, and Rhine, is all gular culture or colony at St Lucia ; it was onljr frc*

depofited here, it might have a flouriihing trade if quented by the inhabitants of Martinico, who caoic

arts and manufa^iures wei-e attended to. The Reufs thither to cut wood, and to build canoes, and who

feparates the town iaito two unequal parts, which are had conliderable docks on the ifland. In 17 18

«onne£led by three bridges; one wide for carriages ; it was again fettled by the French; but four yeais

and two narrow coVered ones for foot paflengers : be- after, it was given by the court of London to the duke

fides thefe, there is a fourth over an arm of the lake, of Montague, ^'ho was fent to take pofTeffion of iu

to pafs to the cathedral. Three of thefe bridges have This occafioned fome dxfturbance between the two

old bad paintings of the Dance of Death, and the Hi* courts ; which was 'fettled, however, by an agrement

ilory of the Bible, and of SwifTeriand. They make made in 173 1, that, till the refpe£^ive claims fliould

zi commodious dry walk for the inhabitants.— -Of rep> be finally adjufted* the ifiand fhould be evacuated by

lip[ioiiB edilkes, the principal are the cathedral, or col- both nations, but that both (hould wood and vratcr

-legiate church of St Leger ; the convent of Corde- there. This precarious agreement fiimifked an op-

liers; the college of the Jefuits; the convent of Capu- portunity for private intereft to exert itfelf. The

chins ; and two. convents of mins^r Of the feadar EngliHi no longer molefted the French in their habt-

4)uildingfi, the hutel de Ville is the principal. * The tations ; but employed them as their afilAants in

arfenal 19 well fiirnifbed. The water tower is re- rying en with richer colonies a finuggling tfade, which

narkable only for its pofition and antiquity : it is fafd the fiibje^U of both governments thouj^t eqnaUy ad»>

to have been a pharos or h'ghthoufe.-»-.What greatly irantageous to them. This trade has been more or

attrads mod the notice <^> ftrangeia is, m plan in leis coafiderablc till the. tnatf.of. I76> when the

.1 4 pio-

LUC [31

property of St Lwcia was fccurcd to the crown oS
France* , After that time the colony flourifhed con&>
icnhij* lu the beginning of the year 1772, the
BUjnbcr of white peopk amounted to 201 S fouls, men^
iv'ointn» and children ; tkst of the blacks to 665 free*
men, and 12^79^ davcrfi. The cattle confiiled of 928
inules or horfes, 207c head of homed cattle, and 31^4
ilieep or goats. There were 3M fogar plantations,
which occupied 978 pieces of land; 5»395»889 coffee*
trees ; 1,32 i>6oo cocoa plants 'y and 367 plots of cot-
ton. There were 706 dwelling places. The annual
revenue at tluct time was about 1 75,000 1. which, ac-
cording to the Abb6 Raynal, niufl have increafed one-
eighth yearly for fome time. It was taken by the
Britifti fleet under admirals Byron and Barrington, ia
the year t7^^; but was reftored to France at the

peace of 1 7^ ^«

The foil oi* St Lucia is tolerably good, even at the
lea fide; and is VMch better the farther one advances
into the country. The whole of it is capable of cul-
tivation, except fome high amd craggy mountains which
bear evident marks of old volcanoes. In one deep
valJey tliere are ftill eight or ten ponds, the water of
which boils up in a dreadful manner, and retains fome
of its heat at the diftance of 6000 toifes from its re*
fervoirs. The air in the inland parts, like that of aO
other uninhabited countries, is foul and unwholesome ;
but grows lefs noxious as the woods are cleared and
the ground laid open. On fome p&rts of the fea-
coafl> the air is ft ill more unhesdthy, on account of
fome iinall rivers which fpring from the foot of the
aioontainSf and have not lu£cient flopc to wafh dovi'n
the (ands with which' the influx of the ocean ftops
uptlieir months,, by which means th^y fpread them-
fclves into unwboleibme marihes on the neighbouring
grounds. •

JLuciA (St)^ a high and mountainous ifland of
Africa, and one of thofe of Cape Verde, is about nine
leagues l»ng, and lies in the latitude of 16" 18' N.
according to the Englifli geographers ; but according
to all others, it is a degree farther to the northward.
On the eaft-fiouth-eaft fide is a haibour, with a bot-
tom and fliOK of white (and ; but its befi road is oppo-
fite to St Vincent's to the fbuth-weft, wftere there art
at kail ao fiithoms of water. On the weft fide there
is no water: it abounds with goats, fea and land fowl,
tortoifes, 5cc. but whether it hath any inhabitants is
not oertainiy known.

LUCIAN» a celebrated Greek author in the firft
century, was bom at Samofata, of obfcure parents, ia
the reign of the emperor Trajan. He ftudied law, and
pradifed fome time as an ad%(ocate; but growing weary
of the wrangling oratory of the bar, he commenced
rhetoriciast. He lived to the time of Marcus Aure-
lius, who made him regifter of Alexandria in Egypt ;
and, accor£ng to Sufias, he was at laft worried by .
do^« Lucian was one of the fineft wits ia all anti-
quity. His Dialogues, and other works, are written
in Greek. In thefe he has joined the ufeful to thfl
agreeable, bfkrudion to fatire, and erudition to ele-
gance ; and we cverT where meet with that ^ne and
delicate raillery whidi chara6kerife8 the Attic tafte.^—
Thofe who cenfune him as an impious fcofier at reli*
gion, have zcafon on thenr ide, if reh'g^n condfted in

9 ] LUC

the theology of the Pagan poets, or in the extravagant Laciaaifts
opinions of philofophers ; for he perpetually throwfr '!..
fuch ridicule on the gods and philofophers, with thefr
vices, as infpircs hatred and contempt for them ; but
it cannot be faid that he writes any where againft ai^
over^ruling providence.

L.UC1ANISTS, or Luca^nists, a religious fe£l^
fo called from Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the
fecond century, being a difciple of Marcion, whofe
errors he followed, adding fome new ones to them.
Hpiphanius fays he abandoned Marcion ; teaching that
people ought not to marry, for fear of enriching the
Creator : and yet other authors mention that he held
this error in common with Marcion and other Gno-
ftics. ' He denied the immortality of the foi^l ; aflert*
ing it to be material.

There was another ied^ of l^ucianifts, who appear*
ed fome time after the Arians% They taught, that
the Father had been a Father always, add that he
had the name even before he begot the Son; as liaving
in him the power or faculty of generation : and in thi»*
manner they accounted for the eternity of the Son.

LUCID INTERVALS, thc fits of luuatics or ma^
niacs^ wherein the phrenay leaves them in poffeffioi^
of their reafon..

LUCIFER, acGordin? to the poets, vras the foa
of Jupiter and Aurora : m aftronomy, Lacifer is the
bright planet Venus, which cither goes before the fuit
in the morning, and is our morning ftar ; or in the
evening follows the fun, and then Is c^led Hefparux or
the evening ftar.-

LUCIFERA, in mytkology, a furname given tcr
Diana> under which title (he was invoked by the
Greeks in childbed. She was reprefented as cover*
ed with a large veil, iivterfperfed with* ftars,. bearing
• ciefcent on her head,, and holding in her hand »
lighted flambeau.

^UCIFERIANS, a religious fed, who adhered^
to the fchtfm of Lucifer^ biftiop of Cagliari, in the
fourth century, who' was baniihed by the emperor
Conftantius f«r having defended the Nicene doctrine
concerning the three perfons in the godhead.— ^St Au^
guftine feems to intimate, that they beHeved the foul^
which they confidered as of a carnal nature, to be
tranfinitted to the children from their fathers. Theo-
doret fays, that Luci&r was the author of a nevr
error. - The Luciferians increafed mightily in Gaul;,
Spaing Egypty &e The occafion of the fchifin was,
that Lucifer wouU not allow any a£ls he had done tO'
be aboliftied. There were but two Ludferian biihops^,
but a great number of priefts and deacons. The Lu»
ciferians bore a peculiar averfion to the Ariana.

LUCILIUS (Caius), a Roman knight, and a L»*
tin poet, was bom at Suefta in Italy, about 140 B. C
He ferved under Scipio Afncanus in the war with the
Numantines; and was in great favour with that oele«
brated general, and with IJaelius. He wrote 50 books
of fatires, in which he lafhed feveral perfons of quality
very fharply. Some learned men afcribe the invention
of fatire to him ; but M. Dacier has maintained, with*
great probability, that Lucilius only gave a better
turn to tliat kind of poetry, and wrote it jvith more
wit and humour than his predeceflbra. Ennius and Par
cums* had done. His fragments have been carefuUy

coUe^ed

LUC

tl
X;ucuUut.

coHeftcd by Francis Douta at Ltjitn in I599f with
notes. But they require iliJl to be better lUuftrated
hj (omc learned critic.

LUC IN Ay a ^oddefs among the Romanty who

Jreiided ^vcr women in labour. Some take her to be
)iana, others Juno. She is called Luc'tna^ becaufe
Ihe brought chiltiren to the light; firom the Latin word
^*, «« light."

LUCIUS, in ichthyology. See Esox. .
LUCONIA. See Manila.
LUCOPHEREA, in ichthyology. Sec PsacA.

I 3^0 ]

L U D

difengaged him. AS Pontus then fubmitted to Ls. U
cullu8<; who t'^sng continued in his govcnimciit d
Afia, entered the territories of Tigranes^ the mo^ J**
powerful king in Afia* That prince marched with i
formidable army againft LucuOus : who defeated kio
with a handful of moa, and killed great nomben of
his forces; took Tigranocertes» the ca[Htal of hiskii}^
dom ; and was ready to put an end to the war, wkeo
the intrigues of a tribune got him depofed, and Pompcy
nominated in his room. Lucullus having brought boat
prodigious riches, now gave himielf up to exceffive k

LUCRETIA, the famous Roman matron, wife of. aury; and his table-was Tenred with a prolblioii till tie:
Collatinus, and the caufe of the revolution in Rome time unknown. He brought from the £aft a great biic<
^m a monarchy to a republic : this lady being ra- her of books, which h^ formed into a library, and gait
"vinied by Sextus, the eldeft fou of Tarquin king of admittance to all men of learning, who frequented it in

Rome, ftabbed herfelf, 509 B.C. See the article
Chastity. The bloody poinard, with her dead body
expofed to the fenate, was the fignal of Roman li-
berty ; the expuliion of the Tarqutns, and abolition
of the regal dignity, was inilantly refolved on, and
•carried into execution. See Rome.

LUCRETIUS, orTiTus Lucretius Caius, one

great numbers. Toward the end of hit life, he Miito
a kind of madnefs; and Lucullus, his brother, was ap-
pointed his guardian. He is faid to have been the fid
who brought cherries into Europe, having brought tk
grafts from the kingdom of Pontus.

LUCUS, in general, denotes a wood or groie &-
cred to a deity ; fo called a lucendo^ becaufe a great

ef the moil celebrated of the Latin poets, was bom of number of lights were ufually burning in honour of

an ancient and noble Roman family, and ftudied at
Athens, where he became one of Epicurus's fe6l. He
acquired great reputation by his learning and elo-
quence ; but in the £ower of his age fell into a frenzy,
•ccafioned by a phihre given him by his wife, who
was diflra^iedly fond of him. Lucretius, during the
intervals of his madnefs, put Epicurus's do^lrines into
Terfe, and compofed his fix books De rerum natura^
which are fbill extant. It is (aid that he killed him*
felf in a fit of madnefs, in the 54th year before the
Chriftian ara, when 51 years old. The moft correft
edition of Lucwtius is that of Simon de Coline, The
cardinal de Polignac has refuted Lucrettus's arguments
in his excellent Latin poem intitled Antl-Lucretius.
His poem De rerum nahura has been tranfiated i^to
Engliih by Mr Creech.

LUCRINUS LAcus (anc. geog.), a lake of Cam-
pania, between Baia; and Puteoli, famous for tts oy-
ilers (Horace, Martial, Juvenal); Lucrinenfer^QifXio)^
the people dwelling on it. No:vir a perfe£i bay- fince
-the earthquake in 1 53 8.

LUCULLUS (Lucius Lucinius), a Roman gene*
ral, celebrated fer his eloquence, his viftories, and his
riches. In hts youth he made a figure at the bar; and
being afterwards made quaeilor in Afia, and praetor in
Africa, governed. thofeprorinces with great modera-
tion and juftice. Scarce was he known as a military
man, when he twice beat the fleet of Amilcar, and
gained two gpreat ^vidories over him. His happy ge-
nius was greatly improved by.lludy; for he employed
his leifure in reading the beil authora on military af-
fairs. Being made conful with Aurelius Cotta, du*
ring the third war whh Mithridates Jking of Pontus,

the god (Ifidorus); a prance comnaon with iddip
ters, as we learn from Scripture: hence Homer'!

LUD, a Britiffi king mentioned in our old chro-
nicles, and faid to have reigned about the yearoftbe
world 3878. He is reported to have enlarged aad
walled about Trcynovantt or New Troy, where he iqjt
his court, and made it hie capital. The name of Zm-
tian is hence derived from Lud*i ttntm ; and Lm^^
from his being buried near it': but this i» calf one
.among many other derivations of the name of Loodci;
which are at leaft equally probable. See Lokdok.

LUD I, a term ufed for (hows and public reprefea*
tations made by the Romans, for the cntertainmait of
the people. See Games.

For an account of the particular games of Grecoe
and Rome, as the Ifthmian, Nemaean« Olympic, &c
fee Isthmian, Isfc.

LUDIUS, a celebrated painter, lived in the rrigi
of Auguftus Csefar, and excelled in grand compofitio&s.
He was the firft who painted the fronts of houfes a
the ftreeta of Rome ; which he beautified with great
variety of landfcapes, and many other different fub-
jedls.

LUDLOW (Edmund), fon of Sir Henry Ludlcw
was born at Maidenhead, and educsEted in Trifiitr
college, Oxford. His father oppofing the king's m-
tereft, Mr Ludlow joined with the fame party, suai
was prefent at the battle of Edgehittas a volunteer uc*
der the earl of Effex. Upon the death of his father,
he was chofen knight of the -Hune for Wilta* and ob-
tained the conunand 4Qf a regiment of horfe for die de-
fence of .that county. He was one of King Cha. i.'i

he was fent againft this prince : and this expedition Judges^ after whofe death lie was fent by the parHa-
was attended with a feries .of vidories, which did him jnent into Ireland, in quality of lieutenant-oencral fif

«j»m « r\ ^ i* \ m * M M.\. 1. ^ 1 * a a a a * i* 1 ir * t I*

lefs honour than an a£l «f generofity towards his col-
league ; who^ willing to take advantage of his abfence
to fignalize himfelf by fome great exploit, ^haftened to
fight Mithridates ; but was defeated and (hut up in
Calcedonia; where he muA have perifhed, if Luoudlua^
iicriiicing his refentment to the pleafure of faring a
Roman citizen, had not flown to his affifiance, and

the horfe; which employment he diibharged with di-
ligence and fuccefa tiU the death of the lord-deputy
Iretouj when he a6ied for fome time as genend, thQUgJi
without that tide ; Cromwell, who knew him to l)e
fmcerdy in ithe intereft of the commonwcakhy alsrays
finding out fome pretex.t te hinder the oonfemng of
that chara&er .upon him. The laft ftroke had been

givea

L U D t 321 1 L U F

given by Ludlow to the Irifti rebeUion, if the ufurpa- 30 poor people, and two charity-fchoob where jobojrs I'tt^«V>

tion of Cromwell had not prevented it. Under his and 30 g^rls are both taught and clothed. It has a, . 'L
power he tfcvcr a£led ; and though Cromwell ufed his . market on Monday, and three lefler ones on Wednef-

-iitmoft efforts, he remained inflexible. After Crom- day, Friday, and Saturday. Its fairs are on the Tuef-

■ well's death, he endeavoured to reftore the common^ day Eailer, Whit-Wednefday, Augufl 21. iJept. 28.

wealth ; but Charles ll. being recalled, he thought and Dec» 8. Provifibns are very cheap here ; and at

proper to conceal hSihfelf, and efcaped into Switzer- the annual horfe-races there is the bed of company^

land, where he fettled* After the revolution, he came The country round is exceedingly pleafant, fruitful^

over into .England, in order to be employed in Ire- and popi^lousi efpecially that part called the Corvef»

land againft King James: but appearing publicly </a/^, being the vale on the banks of the river Corve^

in London, it gave great offence; and an addrefs Ludlow fends t\Vo members to parliament.
was pi-efented by Sir Edward Seymour to King LUDOLPH (Job), a very learned writer of the

William III. for a proclamation in onierto apprehend 17th century, was born at Erfurt in Thuringia. He

Colonel Ludlow, attainted for the murder of King travelled much, and was mailer of 25 languages ; vi«

Charles I. Upon this he returned to Switzerland, fited libraries, fearched after natural curiofities and an-

where he died. During his retirement in Switzer- tiquities every where, and converfed with learned men

land he wrote his Memoirs. ' of all nations. He publifhM A Hiflory of Ethiopia^

Ludlow, a town of Shropfhire in England, ^tua- and other curious books,
ted at the conflux of the Teme and Corve,,i8 miles * Lu dol»h (Henry William), nephew of Job above*
from Shrewfbury, and 138 from London. The pre- mentioned, was born at £«rfurt in 16 55* He came
lident of the council of the marches, eilablifhed by over to England at Secretary to M. Lcntbc, envoy from
Henry VII L generally kept his courts in it, b^ which the court of Copenhagen to that of London; and be*'
the town was much benefited, thefe courts not having iifg recommended to Prince George of Denmark, was
been aboliihed till the 1ft of William and Mary. Its received as his fecretary. He enjoyed this office for
neighbourhood to' Wales makes it a gi^t thorough- fome years, until he was incapacitated by a violent dif-
farc, and engages many of the Welch to fend their order ; when he was difchai^ed with a handfome pen-
children o: both fekes to it for education. It was in- fion : after he recovered, he travelled into Mufcovy,
corporated by Edward IV. and among other privi- where be was well received by the czar, and where
leges has that of trying and executing criminak within his knowledge made the Mufcovite priefts fumpofiq him
itfelf. It is one of the neateft towns in England, to be a conjuror. On his retwn to London in 16949
with walls and feven gates. It is divided, into four he was cMt for the fl;one; and as foon as his health
wards ; and is governed by 2 bailiifs, 12 aldermen, 25 would permit, in acknowledgment of the civilities he
common-councilmen, a recorder, a town -clerk, ftevirard, . had received in Mufcovy, he wrote a grammar of their
chamberlain, coroner, &:c. From the caftle on the top language, that the natives might learn their own tongue
of the hill on which the tovrn ftands is a moft delight* in a regular method. He then travelled into the Eaft,
ful profped. In an apartment of the outer gatehoufe to inform himfelf of the ftate of the Chrtftian church
Samuel Butler is faid to have written the firit part of in the Levant ; the dei^orable condition of which in-
Hudibras. Of this caftle, which was befieged and ta- duced him, after his return, with the aid of the bifhop
ken by King Stephen, fome of the offices are fallen of Worcefter, to print an edition of the New Tefia-
down, and great part ofit turned into a bowling-green; ment in the vulgar Greek, to prefent to the Greek
but part of the royal apartments and the fword of church. In 1 709, when fuch numbers of Palatines
ftate are ftill left. The wall^.were at firft a mile in came over to England, Mr Liidolph was appointed by
compafe, and there was a lawn before it for near two Queen Anne one of the commiffioners to manage the
miles, of which much is now indofed. The battle- charities raifed for them \ and he died early the fol-
ments are very high and thick, and adorned with lowing year. His collected works were publiihed ia
towers. It has a neat chapel, where are the coats of 171a.

arms of abundance of Welch gentry, and over the LUDWIDGIA, in botany: A genus pf the mo*

ftable-doors are the arms of Queen Elizabeth, the earis nogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of

of Pembroke, &c. This caftle was a palace of the plants \ and in the natural method ranking under the
prince of Wales, in right of his principality. The 1 7tli order, Calycanthem^t* The corolla is tetiapeta-

river Teme has a good bridge over it, feveral wears a- lous ; the calyx quadripartite, fuperior ; the capfule

ci ufs it, and turns a great many mills. Here is a tetragonal, quadrilocular, inferior, and polyfpermous.
large parochial church, which was formerly collegiate ; LUES, among phy fidans, is in general ufed for p

in the choir whereof is an infcription relating to Prince difeafe of any kind 4 but in a more particular fenfe ta

Arthur, dder brother to King Henry VIII. who died reftrained to oontagioos and peftilential difeafes^ thus
here, and whofe bowels were here depoiited, though the lues Gal/kaf ,or venerea^ fignifies the venereal dif-

it is faid his heart was taken up fome time ago in a eafe« See MEDiciNE-/0//4fx.

leaden box. In this choir is a dofet, commonly call- LUFF, the oader from the pilot to the fteer&nan
ed God's ffou/et where the priefts ufed to keep their to put the hehn towards the /er-lide of the ftiip, in

cohfecrated utenfik; and in the market-^lace is aeon-, order to make the (hip fail nearer the dirr£lion of die

duit, with a long ftone crofs on it, and a niche wherein >m*ind. Hence, luff round, or luff a-lee, is the excelt
is the image of ^t Laurence, to whom the church was of this movement, by which it u intended to throw
dedicated. On the north fide of the town there was a the (hip's head up in the vrind, in order to tack h^«
rich priory, whereof there are few ruins to be fe^ ex- &c. A (hip is accordingly iaid to fpring her hiff
cept thofe of its church... Here are an alms4ioufe f or when (he yields to the effort of the helm, by faiHqg
Vou X. Part I. ' S f nearer

L U K

t 32* 1

L U M

nearer to the line of the ^nd th^n flit had done before.
See alfo HjiutiNG the fVim/m

Lvfr'Tackk^ a name given by failors to any large
tackle that is not' deftincd for a particular place> but
may be variouily employed as occafion requires. It
il generally fome^%'llat larger than the jigger tackle,
although fmaller than thofe which fei-ve to hoift the
heavier materials into and out of the veflel, which lat-
ter are the main and /ore-tackles, the flay and quar^
tcr-tacklesy &c.

LUG-SAIL, a fquare^fail, hoifled occafionally on
the mad of a boat or fmall veffel upon a yard wliich
hangs nearly at right angles with the maft. Thefe are
moi-e particularly ufed in the barca longas» navigated
by the Spaniards in the Mediterranean.

LUGDUNUM (anc.geog.), the capital of the Se-
'gufiani in Gallia Celtica, fituated at the conflux of the
Arar and Rhodanus, on an eminence, as the Celtic
term done iigniiies ; Jbuilt by Manutius JE'kncus under
Auguftus, while commanding in that part of Gaul ;

in Achaia about the year 55 ; and, ten ycKn titer,
the A&.S of the Apomes, ^i^ch contains si Itiftory of
30 years. Of all the infpircd writers of tlic New Te-
ftamenu his works are written in the mod: ciegaiit
Greek. It is believed that St Luke died at Rome, or
in Achaia.

GofpdofSl LuKEy a canonical book of tKc NewTc-
ftamett. Some tliink that it was propeiiy St Paol'i
Gofpcl ; and that, when the apoiUe fpeaks of Ihs Gt>-
fpel, he means w^at is called St Luie'tm Ivcnxns iaji,
that St Luke digefted into writing what St Paul pncaHi-
ed to the Gentiles; and Gregory Nazianzea tells cs^
that St Luke wrote with the ailiftance of St PauL

St LuKR the EvangeUfi^s Dajy a feftival in the Qiri-
ftian church, obferved on the i8th of O&obcr.

LULA, a town of Swedi/h Lapland ; leated at the
mouth of the river Lula, on the woft fide of the gnlpii
of Bothnia, 42 miles fouth-weft of Tornea. £. Long.
21.0. N« Lat. 64. 30.

Lula Lafmari^ a province of Swedifh Laplaad;

Let.

and whither he led a colony. Now Lyonty capital of bounded by that of Tornea on the north, bj the Botb-

th( Lyonois. nic Gulph on the eaft, by Pithia Lapmark on the Ibntfa,

LooDvuuM Batavonrm (anc. geog), a town of the and Norway on the weft.

Batavi in Gallia Belgica. IJow Leydnt in Holland. LULLl (John Baptiil), the moft celebrated and

LuGDVKUM Converarum (anc. geog.), a town of moft excellent muiScian that has appeared in' Fraoce

Gaul in Aqnitain, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Now fince the revival of learning, was bom at FloHntcc. He

S^ Bertrandj in Gafcony.

LUGEUS LACcs (anc. ^eog.), a lake of Japydia,
the ]Kreftmoft diftri^ of lUyncum, to the fouth of the
^avcf and near the head of the Arfia. Now commonly
called the ZiricimAz Lair^ from a fmall adjoining town.
It is locked on every fide with mountains; from which
fcanty currents run down ; the iefs in quantity their
waters, becaufe drttnk up by the earth | till at length
they are fwailowed up in rocky furrows, fo formed as
to refemble artlitcial. In thefe the water being fo redun-
dant as to refufe receiving any more, they regurgitate,
and retnm the water with extraordinary celerity; which
thus fpreading itfelf, forms a lake, in moft places 18

was taken to France when very yoang by a perfoa of
quafa'ty ; and he carried the art of playing qn the vio-
lin to the higheft perfe6kion. ' Louis XIV. made him
fuperintendant of muiic. Some time after Perinoa ha-
ving introduced operas into France, and quarrefiiag
with his company, he refigned his privilege to Lufli
Operas were then carried to the utmoft. perfe&ion by
this celebrated mniician, and were attended with con-
tinual appiaufe. LuUi every year, after this tinae, gate
a piece of his own compoiition, till his death, whicli
happened in 1687.

LULLY ( Raymond )» a famous writer, (umamei
the EnUgUoMi Dodor, was bom in the iflaiid of Ma-

<:ubits hi^h. Thefe waters afterwai^s retire with jorca in 1225. He applied himlelf with inde&tigabk

no ^efs celerity than they came on, not only through labour to th^ ftudy of the Arabian philofophy, to cbe-

the furrows, but pafs through the whole of the bottom, miftry, phyiic, anddirinity; and acquired great re-

afS through* a iieve ; which when perceived by the in- putation by his works. He at length went to preadi

habitants, they dire6Uy ftop up the larger apertures, the gofpel in Africa; and was ftoned to death in Mxs-

and thus take large quantities of Bik t when the lake
is dry, they cut down their harveft on the fpot where
ahey fowed, and fow again before the inundation comes
•n t and grafs iliootsio quidc on it, that it may be cut
down in three weeks time (Laaius, Wemherus).

LUGGERSHALL, a borough ofWiltftire, 12
miles north of Sali/bury, atjd 75 north by weft of Lon-
dbn. It is an ancient borough by preicrtption, though
^ut a fmall hamkt, near the foreft of Chute, in a de-
Kghtful country ; and was the refidence o'f feveral
kings. It had formerly a caftle» It is governed by
a bailiff chofen yearly at the loid of tjie manor's courts
ket. On the neighbouring downs there ufed to be
horfe -races. It has a fair on the -25th of July, and
fends two members to parliament.

LUKE (St), the evangclift, and the difciple of the
apoftles, was originally of Antioch in Syria, and by
yrofei&on a phyfician. He parriciilarly attached him-
Jdi to St Pad, and was his faithful companion in his
%avel9 and labours. He went with him to Troas in
IKlce^onia aboct the year 51. He wrote . his Gk^fpel

ritania, at the age of 80 He is honoured as a martvr
at Majorca, whither his body was carried. He wrote
many trcatiles on all the fciences, in which he fhov's
much ftudy and fubtilty, but little judgment or foli-
dity. A complete edition of his works has been print-
ed at Mentz.---He ought not to be confminded wid
Raymond Lully of Terraca, fuT^aamed Neop^ta^ who
from bein^ a Jew turned Dominican itvxr^ This iai
Lully maintained feveral opinions that were condem-
ned by Pope Gregory XI.

LUMBAGO, a lixed pun in the fmall of the bacL
See MEDiciNis-/9dSfx.

LUMBARIS, a name given to the arteries and
veins which fpread over the loins.

LUMBRICAL, a name given to Four mufcles of
the fingers and to as many of the toes.

LUMBRICUS, the Woum,. in zoology ; a genus
of infc^ belonging to the order of vermea inteftina.
The body is cylindrical, annulated, with an elevated
belt near the middle, and a vent-hole on its fide. There
aiK! two (pecies of this^anittaL
3 . a»l«nm-

r&i

ions.

1 U M t 3»3

V .L9Unbnciist£rreftric^|heearth0r(lewworm,Mr-Bar«
but oUenresy difiiers eztremely in colour and exteroal ap-
pearance in the different periods of its grrowth» which
has occafioned peo]^e little acquainted with the variationi
of this kind of animab to make four or five different fpe

3 L U M

LUMINOUSNESS or tki Sea. See L^enr^ LumtRfuT^

and SiA. ^^ i

LvmvousKMfi of Putrefcait Subftawes. SeeLtoHr. x-unanuhL
LUMP-FISH, SeeCvcLorTfRus.
LUNA (anc. gtog,}, a forefl of Gennany^at nq

cies of them : The general colour is a dufky red,— <• great diftance from the Hercynia; below which wer^

They live tinder ground, never quitting the earth but

after heavy rains or at the approach ot ftormsy and in

^he feafon of their amours. The method to forc<

them out is, either to water the ground with infufions

of bitter plants, or to trample on it« The bare mo*

tion on the furface of the foil drives them up, in fear

of being iurprifed by their formidable enemy the mole.

The winding progteffion of the worm is facih'tated by

the inequalities of its body, armed with fmall, (tiff,

(harp-pointed briflles : when it means to infinuate it-

felf into the earth, there oozes from its body a clammy

liquor, by means of which it Aides down. It never

damages the roots of vegetables. Its food is a fmall

portion of earth, which it' has the frculty of digefling: pqffitn.

the Boemi : it was therefore in Moravia, near th^
fprings of the Marus, now March, which runs inta
the Danube over againfl Camutum.

LvNAf or Lufma\ a. town of GaUia Cdtica. Noir
Clugny in Burgundy.

LuNA^'a town and port of Liguria, at ihe mouth'
of the Macra. The town was but fmall, but the port
large and beautiful, according to Strabo. Now ea«
tia6L and its ruins called Luna DifiruUa. It was fa«-
mous for its quarries of white marble, thence called
Luntnfe ; and for its cheefen remarkable rather for
its (i^ie than goodnefs, each being a thoufand weight*

LuKAi ip aftronomy, the moon. See AsraoNOMr^

Ute

The fuperfluity is eje^ed byway of excrement, under
a vermicular appearance. Earth-worms are herma*
phrodites, and have the parts of generation placed
near the neck : their copulation is performed on the
ground $ nothing being more ufrtal than to fee it full
of holes, whieh holes are thought to be made by thofe
kind of worms coming to the furface in quefl of fe*
males. During their coition they would fooner foficr
themfelves to be crufhed than parted.

2. The marinus, marine worm, or lug, Is of a pale

tVTi

Luna, in the jargon of the alchcmifls, Hgnifies^/-
fo called from the fuppofed influence of the moon
thereupon.

LvN4 ComeHf in chemiilry, is the combination of
marine acid with filver. See Chemist K^^Ituiex*

LUNACY, a fpecies pf madneds. See Lcnatici
and MBPiciNS-/m/<w.

Lunacy^ in law. See loiocvt and Luhatk:.

LUN£ MONS (ancgcog.}, a promontory of lL\x&-k
tania. * Now Rofk of Lifbon. W. Long. lo. N. Lat«

XXIV ^^ colour, and the body is compofed of a number of 38. |o."-*-Another Ximis ilfoJi/ of Ethiopia* from which
annular joints ; the (kin is fcabrous, and all the rings the Nile was fuppofed to take its rife

or jomts are covered with little prominences, which
render it extremely rough to th^ touch. It is an in-
habitant of the mud about the fea fhores, and ferves
for food to many kinds of £fh : furprifmg large ones
are to be met with about the Bognor rocks in Suffez.
The fifhermen bait their hooks and nets with it.

For the ej9e& of thefe animals in the human body^
and the method of expelling them, fee Me]>icinb»
Index.

LUMELLO, a village in Itahr, which gives name
to the Lumellin, a fmall diftri& m the duchy of Mi-
lan, lying along the river Po, and of which Mortaria
and Valencia are the principal places. It was ceded
to the duke of Savoy m 1 707, and confirmed by the
treaty of Utrecht in 1713. £. LongI 8 42. N^Lat.

45- 5-
LUMINOUS* an epithet applied to any thing that

ihines or enuu light*

LvMivov\ EmanatiotUf have been obferved from

human bodies, as alfo from thofe of brutes. The

light arifing from currjring a horfe, or from ^rubbing

a cat's back, are known to moft Inflances of a like

kind have been known on combing a woman's head.

Bartholin gives us an account, which he intitles muJier

ffknderuf o£ a lady in Italy whofe body would fhine

whenever (lightly touched with a piece of linen. Thefe

effluvia of animal bodies have many properties in com^

mon with thofe produced from glafr $ fuch as their

being lucid, their fnapping, and their not being ex-

cited without fome degree of friflion ; and are un*^

douhtcdly deftrical, as a cat'a back has been found

ftrongly eledricfd when ftroaked* See £LS£TaiciTr»

aodLiGHT.

LuN^ PortWf a very cxtcnfivc port| or more truly
a bay, of Liguria, between Fortus Veneris and Portuf
EriciSf ao nules ii\ compafs. Now // Goifo deUa Spmia^
on the eaft coafl of the territory of Genoa.

LUNAR, fomething relating to the Moon.

LvN4k Mtmfb* See Month.

LvN4ti Tear% confifts of 354 daysy or I2 fynodicaf
months. See Ye.ar* .

LvNAK Dial. See Dialling.

LUNA RE 08, in anatomy, is the fepond bofie ia
the firft row of the carpus. It has its name from the
Latin, li^a ** the o^qou/' becaufe one of its fides is ii|
form of a crefcent

LUNARIA, Sattin-flower, or Moonwortf i4|
botany : A genus of the iiliculofa order, belonging t»
the tetradynamia clafs of plants ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 39th order, SUiguofa, The
filicula is entire, elliptical, comprelfed-planej^ and pe«
dicellated i with the valyes equal to tlu: partition, pa-
rallel and plane ; the leaves of the calyx are alternately
fritted at the bafe. This plant is famous in fome partf
of the kingdom for its medicinal virtues, though it has
not the . fortune to be received in tiie, (hops. The'
people in the northern countries dry the whole
plant in an oven, and give as much as will lie on a
Aiiling for a dofe twice a^lay in hemorrhages of all
kinds, particularly in the too abiicdant flowing of the
menfea, and with great fuccefs. The Welch, among
whom it is not uncommon, Dr Ncedham infonns^us^
make an ointment of it, which they ufe extemallyi
and pretend it cures dylenteries.

LUNARJUM (a»p. geog.), 9 promontory of thf
Hit&er Spain^ between Bbinda and Betulo* Com*

S f a flMnly

(•

L U N

I 324 1

L U N

Ln^i^ Bionl^ called ei Cabo de PcdafUgeU in Cktaloma, on the

' Mediterranean ; or Caho dt Tofa^ on the fame coaili

and in Catalonia, 1 5 miles from the former, to the well.

LUNATIC, a perfoa afFcAed with that fpeciea
of madnefs termed lunacy. The word is indeed pro-
perly apphed to one that hath lucid intervals ; fome-
times enjoying his fcnftrs, and fometimes not ; and
. that frequcintly fuppofed to depend on the influence
of the moon.

Lunatic, in law; Under the general term of non
tomfo* mentu (which Sir Edward Coke fays is the
moft legaT name) are comprized not only lunatics, hut
perfons under frenzies, or who lofe their intelle^s by
difeafe ; thofe that grow deaf, dumb, and blind, not
^ being born fo ; or fuch, in fliort, as are judged by the
court of chancery incapable of condu^ling their own
affairs. To thefe alfo, as well as idiots, the king is
guardian, but to a very different purpofe. For the
Jaw always imagines, that thefe accidental misfortunes
may be removed ; and therefore only conHitutes the
crown a truftee for the unfortunate perfons, to protect
their property, and to account to them for all profits
received, if they recover, or after their deceafe to their
reprefentatives. And therefore 'it*^ is declared by the
Aatute 17 £dw. II. c. 10. that the king fhall provide
for the cuftody and fuflentation of lunatics, and pre-
serve their lands, and the profits of them, for their ufe
when they come to their right mind ; and the king
fhall take nothing to his own ufe : and if the parties
die in fuch eflate, the refidue fhall be diflribuVd for
their fouls by the advice of the ordinary, and of courfe
(by the fubfcquent amendments of the law of admi-
niftrations) fhall now go to their executors or admini-
ibrators*

On the firfk attack of lunacy, or other occafional
infanity, when there may be hopes of a fpeedy refli-
ttttion of reafon, it is ufual to confine the unhappy ob-
jcdls in private cuflody under the dire^ion of their
nearefl friends and relations : and the legiflature, to
prevent all abufes incident to fuch private cuflody.
Lath thouflrht proper to interpofe its authority, . by
14. Geo. III. c. 49* for regulating private mad-houfes.
But when the diforder is grown permanent, and the
eircumflances of the party will bear fuch additional
czpence, it is thought proper to apply to the royal
authority to warrant a laftmg confinement.

The method of proving a perfon turn compos is very
limilar to that of proving him an idiot. The lord
chancellor, to whom, by fpecial authority from the
kipg, the cuftody of idiots and lunatics is intrufted,
upon petition or Information, grants a commiifion in
nature of the writ de idiota inqulrmdo^ to inquire into
the party's fUte of mind ; and if he be found non com^
pot^ he ufually commits the care of his perfon, with a
fuitable allowance for his maintenance, to fome friend*
who is then called his committee. . However, to pre-
vent finifler pra^ices, the next heir is feldom permit-
ted to be of this committee of the perfon ; becaufe it
is his intereft that the party fhouM die. But, it hath
been faid, there Hes not the fame obje^on againfl his
neat of kin, provided he be not his heir \ for it is his
interefl to preferve the lunatic's life, in order to in«
creafe the perfonal eflate by favtngs, which he or his
lumily may hereafter be entitled to enjoy. The heir

is generally made the manager or committee of tk Lrr
eflate, it being clearly his interefl by good iDaiu|t-
ment to keep it in condition : accountable, hovTcYcr,{)' -n
the court of chancery, and to the 90s compos bimiiLr, ^^
if he recovers ; or otherwife, to bis adminillratQr%
See Idiocy. {

LUNATION, the period or fpace of timebca
one new moon and another j alfo caSltdJjModical mn^L
S«:e Ctcls and Epact.

LUNDEN, or Lund, a confiderable town d
Sweden, in Gothland ; and capital of the territory of
Schonen, vrith an archbifhop's fee and an univatUT.
It was ceded to the Swedes by the Danes k 165:.
E. Long. 13. 2 J. N. Lat. ^$» 40.

LUNDY ISLAND, fituated 50 miles in the frt,off
the N. W. coaft of Devonfhire, is 5 miles long acd
2 broad, but fo encompaffcd with inacceflibic rocks
that it has but one entrance to it, fo narrow thatt^tj
men can fcarce go abreafL It is reckoned in ttc
hundred of Bran ton. It had once both a fort aod a
chapel. The fouth part of it is indifferent good foil,bii
the north part of it is barren, and has a high pyrafflidi*
cal rock called the Conilable. Here are horles, Hjh,
hogs, and goats, with great flore of fheep and rabbits »
but the chief commodity is fowl, with which i:
abounds much, their eggs being very thick on tu
ground at their feafon of breeding. No veaomoui
creature will live in this ifland. In the reign of Kicg
Henry VIII. one William Morifco, who had confp-
red to murder him at Woodilock, fled to this ilkd,
which he fortified, turned pirate, and did much da*
mage to this coaft, but was taken by furprizc at
length, with 16 of his accomplices, and put to death.

LUNE, Lunula, in Geometry^ a plane in fomof
a crefcent or half-moon, terminated by the circom-
ference of two circles, that interfedt each other vitih

LUNENBURG, or Luneburg ZeB^ a princi*
lity of Germany, bounded to the fouth by that of Ci-
lenberg, the diocefe of Hildefheim, and the duchy cf
Brunfvac ; to the north, by the duchy of Laueobuig
and the Elbe, by the laft of which it is feparated
from the territory of the imperial city of Hamburg?
to the eafl, by the duchy of Brunfwic, the Alte Mark,
and the duchy of Mecklenburg ; and to the weft, br
the duchies of Bremen and Verden, the countj <^
Hdya, and the principality of Calenbcrg. The foil
except along the Elbe, Alkr, and Jetz, is either ^
heath, or moors. In the more firuitful parts of ic a^
produced wheat, rye, barley, oats, peafe, buck wh«ati
flax, hemp, hops, pulfe, oak, beech, firs, pines, birch,
and alder, together with black cattle andhorfe. T^^
heaths fibound with bees and honey, and a fmall kind
of fheep whofe wool is long and courfe. LuncnbuJ^
is well fumifhed with fait fprings ^and limeflooei and
the forcft of Gorde with venifon. The xvim Elbe, II-
menau, and AUer, are navigable; and confquentlf
very advantageous to the country, independent of '•f^
fifti which they yield. The generaldieto of this pno*
dpality ape convened by the fovereign twice a y«^''
and held at Zell. They confifl of the deputies of ttj
nobility and the towns of Lunenbuig> Udzcsi »i
Zell, who have the nomination of the members 0/ »e
high co&eges, and other officers, jointly with the k^

L U N

C 125 1

L U N

h/nr^ reigfu There arc near 200 Lutheran churches in
the country, under two general and 15 fubordioate
fupenntendantSy feveral grammar-fchoolsi two Calvinift
churches at Zell, and an academy of exercifes at
JLunenburg. The manufadnres are chiefly linen dotli,
cottons, ribbons, ftockings, hats, (larch, bleached wax,
refined fugar,- gold and filver wires, all kinds of wOodeii
ifrares, barges, boats, and fhips. The exports of tliefc
to Hamburg, Lubec, and AItcn«» are confiderable*

by the emperor Otho, and prefented to this church ; Lvmentt

but in 1698, a gang of thieves ilripped it of 200
rubies and emeralds, together with a large diamond,
and moil of the gold, fo that at prefent but a fraall
part of it remains. Here are fome very rich falt«
fprings. Formerly, when there was a greater demand
for'thtt falt,^ upwards of 1 2o,coo tons have been an-
nually boiled here, and fold off : but fince the com-
mencement of the prefent century, the fait trade hath

The neighbourhood of thefe cities, with the facility of declined greatly. A fifth of the fait made here be«

conveying goods and merchanxiize to them and other
]»laces, either by land or water, is very advantageous
to this country, and contributes greatly to its fubfifl-
ence. On account of this principality, the king of
Oreat Britain has a feat and voice both in the col-
lege of the princes of the empire and of the circle
ct Lower Saxony. Its quota in the Matricula is
20 horfes and 120 foot, or 720 florins in lieu of
them. The revenues of the principality arife chiefly
irom the demefnes, tolls on the Elbe, contributions,
duties on cattle, beer, wine, brandy^ and other com-
modities, which all together mufl be very confiderable,
fome bailiwics alone yielding upwards of 20,000 rix-
dollars.

• Lunenburg, the capit^ of the principality of the
lame name, is a pretty large town of Gennany , on the-
river Elmen, or the llmenau, which is navigable from
the town to the Elbe, at the diflance of 13 miles. It
is 27 miles from Hamburgh, 43 from Zell> 65 from
Brunfwic, 76 from Bremen, 68 from Hanover ;. and
ilanda in E. Long. 10. 40. N. Lat, 53, 28. Its in-
habitants are reckoned at between 8000 and 9000.
Formerly this town was one of the Hanfe> and an im-»
perial city. Some derive its name horn Lina, the
ancient name of the llmenau ; others from X.una, tho
moon, an image of which is faid to have been wor«
fhipped by the inhabitants in the times of Paganifm^
Here were anciently feveral convents, viz. one of Mi-
nims, another of Premonftratenfians, another of Be-*
nedidines, and a fourth of Minorites* Out of there-
venues of the Benedi6tine monaftery waa founded an
academy for the martial exercifes, where young
fpentlemen of the principality of Lunenbuig are main*
tained gratis, and taught French, fencing, ridings and
dancing; but foreigners are educatedr at a certain
fixed price. A Latin fohool was alfo founded, con^
Ming of four claiTes, and well endowed «ur of thefe
levenues. The fuperintendency and management of
thefe, and the eftates appropriated to their mainte-^
nance, belongs to the iandfchaft direAor, and the
aufreiter, who are both chofen from among the Lune*
burg nobilftyv The firll came in place ot the Popifh
abbot, and as fueh is head of the tiates of the princi«
pality, and prefident. of -the provincial- oolleg^. He
has the title of ixcellency^; and in public inilruments
%les himfelf^ by the grace of God^ Iandfchaft dircSor^ and
hrd of the manfidn of St Michael in < Luneburg^ The
chief public edifices are- three pariih^hurches, the
ducal palace^ three hofpitals, the town-houfe, the falt«>
magazine, the anatomical theatre, the academy ; the
conventual church of St Michael, in which. lie interred
the ancient dnkes ; and* in- 'which is the famous table
eight feet long, and focv wide, pbted over with chafed

longs to the king, but is farmed out. It is (aid to
excel all the other fait made in C^rmany. This toym
is well fortified ; and ban a garrifon, which is lodged
in barracks. In the neighboiufaood is a good lime-
it one quarry ; and along the llmenau are ware-houfe^
in which are lodged goods brought from all parts ot
Gennany, to be forwarded by the Ehnenau to Ham-
burg, or by the Afchc to Lubec, from whence other
goods are brought back the fame way. The town
itfelf drives a confiderable traffic in w^x^ honey, wool,
flax, linen, fait, lime, and beer.

LUNENSE MARMOR, in the natural hillory of the
ancients,, the name of that fpecies of white marble^
new known among us by the name of the Carraru'
marble f and dtflinguifhed^from thcilatuary kind by its
greater hardnels and lefs fplendour. It was ever great->
ly efleemed in building and ornamental works, and is
fo ftill. It is of & very dofe and fine -texture, of a
very pure white, and much more tranfparent tlian any*
other of the white marbles. It has always been found
in great quantities in Italy, and is fo to this day* See-
Lu^A.

LUNETTE, in fortification, an enveloped counter-
guard,* or elevarion-of carthi made beyond the fecond-.
ditch, oppofite to the places -of arms ; differing from
the ravelina only in their fituatlon.-Ziifi^/tf/ are ufually
made in ditches full of water, and ferve 'te the faniei
purpofe as faufTtbrays, to difpute the. paffage of tlie
ditch. See Fortification.

LuNETTi, in the manege,, is a half horfe-fhoe, or
fuch.a fhoe as wants thefpungc, i. r. that part of the
branch which runs towards the quarters of the foot.

Lunette is alfo the name of- two fmall pieces o*.
felt, made round and hollow^ to-clajp upon the eyes
of a vicious horfc. that is apt to bite, and ilrike with
his fore feet, or that will not fu£Fer his rider to mount .
himA

LUNGS, in anatomy, a part of the human body,
ferving for refpiration. See Anatomy, n° 117.

In the Journal de MeiMnr for June 1789 is a de-
fcription of an.^

Inflrumetit for InjUiirig thcLvifGi^ invented by M.
Gorcy phyfician tothe military hofpital atNeufbrifack, •..
which .appeavs to be exterernly well adapted ' to the
purpofe, whilft it may be u(ed with the greatefl eafe
and facility.

.This inilrument, : which th^ inventor flyles opodopicj
that is, >* reftorer o£ refpiration^" confiUs of a doubk
pair jof bellows,. BCLM, fig. i , th£ two different parts pigte *
of which have no communication with each other. In CCLXXV.
the lower, fide B M, is. an aperture A for a valve con-
ibu£led on.the priaciples.of thofe of Mr Nairne's air*
pump. It confifis of a. rim of copper, clofed at one

* gold, with* a rim embeQifhed with precious llones^ of end by a p^te of the fame metal, in which plat&are
an immcnfc value^ which, was takea irQm the Saracens fevcn imall holes placed at e^ual difiance9« This plate

L U N

tut*!!*,

'h coTcred xftth a puce of lilk coated with daftic gvarXf
in which are fix tranfverfe incinons of two or three
lines in length. Each incifion is fo made as to be
fituated between two of the holesi and at an equal dif»
tance from each : fee D, %. 2. The filk mufl: be
made very fecurey by a thread paffing feveral times
round the rim. It is obvious^ that a ftream of air ap-
plied to that fide* of the plate which is oppofite the
iilk, win pafs through the holes, and» lifting op the
iilky eCcape through the incifions. On the contrary,
a fkream of air applied to the other fide will prefs the
filk upon the plate, and thus dofe the holes, fo that
•it will be impcAible for it to pafs through them. This
^alve opens internally, fo as to admit the air from with*
Mt« At B is another valve, on the (ame conftru6lion,
mt opening in a contrary dire^ion, thus permitting
the air to efcape out of the lower part into the tube
£ F, but preventing its entrance. At C is another valve,
•opening internally to admit the air from (he tube
£ F ; and at D there is a fourth, opening externally,
to difcharge the air from the upper part.

The flexible tube E F, fcrewed on at the end C B,
l)eing introduced into one of the nofhrils, whilft the
mouth and the other noftril are dofed by an afiiftant,
if we feparate the two handles L-M, which were dofe-
together at the introdu£Uon of the tube, it is evident,
that the air in the lungs wiU ruih into the upper part
through the valve C, whilft the external air will fill
the lower part through the valve A : the two handles
heing again brought into contaft, the atmofpheric air
will be forced into the lungs through the valve B,
and at the fame time the air in the upper part will be
difcharged at the valve D. Thutf by the alternate
phy of the double beUows, the lungs will be alter-
nately filled and emptied as in refpiration. In ufing the
inftrument care ihould be taken not to be too violent |
as the more perfe&ly the natural motion of refpiration
is imitated the better.

To prevent any fubflances from without injuring
the valves A, D, tig. l, the rim is made with a fcrcw,
B, fig. 3, in order to receive a cap A A, Bg* 3, full
of fmall holes. This fcrcw has alio another ufe. If
deplilogtfticated air be preferred, a bladder filled with
it, fig.'4, may, by means of the fcrew A, be faftened
to the valve A, fig* i ; and, to prevent wafle, as this
air may ferve fevetal times, a flexible tube may be
fcrewed on the valve D, fig. i. communicating with
the bladder by means of the opening //, fig. 4 : thus it
may be employed as often as the operator thmks proper*

There is a handle K to the partition in the middle,
in order that, if it be at any time neceflary to ufe
either of the diviflons alone, the 'other may be confined
from adking. Cf 3, fig. 5, reprefent the two valves
to be applied at the end of the tnflrument C, B, fig. i ;
' and fig. 6. is a feCbion of the end C B, fhowing the
valves in their proper places.

It ia proper to add, that the capacity of the fn-
ftrument fhould be proportioned to the quantity of air

C i26 ]

t U P

532 comrnon y<ars; found by naultipljing the cyckof laA
the fun by that of the moon*

LUNULA. SeeLuNB.

LUP£RCALIA, leafts inftituted in andent RoBe»
in honour of the god Pto.— •The word comes from
LupercaU the name of a place under the Palatine nous*
tain, where the facrifices were performed.

The Lupercalia were cdebrated 00 the 15th of tk
kalends of March, ^hat is, on the 15th of February,
or, as Ovid obferves, on the third day after the idek
They are fuppofed to lUve been eftabli(hed by £vandcr.

On the morning of this feaft, the Lupcrci, orpricfii
of Pan, ran naked through die fbreets ofKonie,ftnkiag
the married women they met on the hands and bdif
vrith a thong or fbap of goat's leather, which was
held an omen promifing them fecundity and happy
deliveries. See LvPEaci. '

This feafl was aboliihed in the time of Ao^^us; but
afterwards leflored, and continued to the time of the
emperor Anafiafius.^— Baronius fays it was aboliflied
by the pope in 496.

LUP£RCI, a name given to the priefts of the go4
Pan. See Lupercalia.

The luperci were the moil ancient order of prieftf
in Rome; they were divided in;^ two coDeges or
companies, the one called FMizxk^ the other ^jutfi&
To thefe Caefar added a third, which he calkd^ff^.

LUPINUS, LUPINE, in botany : A genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the diaddphia dais of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
3 2d Older, Pafi&^naceit, The calyx is bilabiated ; there
are five oblong and five roundilh antherap ; the lego*
men is coriaceous. There are feven fpecies, fix of
them hardy herbaceous flowery annuals, and one per*
ennial, rifing with upright ftalks from one to three
or four feet high, ornamented with digiute or finger-
ed leaves, and terminated by long whorled fpiketof
papilionaceous flowers, white, blue, yellow, and rofc-
coloured. They are all eafily raifed from feed ; vA
fucceed in any open borders, where they make a &k
variety.

The feeds of the white hipine, which have a lega-
minous tafte accompanied with a dtiagreeable bit-
ter one, are fiud to be anthehnintic, both iotC'
naUy taken, and applied externally. Cafpar Hoff*
man cautions againft their external ufe, and telU ui
(from one of the Arstbian writers) that they hsTC
fometimes ocaifioned death. Simon Pauli aUb iayii
that he faw a boy of eight or ten years of l^> ^ba
taking a dram of thefe feeds in powder, fci^ed with
cxquifite pains in the abdomen, a difficulty of rdp'*
ration, and almofl total lo(s of voice ; and that he wtf
relieved from thefe complainu by a glyfter of rsSk
and fugar, which brou^rht away a vil quantity of
worms. But Mr Geofiwy obferves, very juftly» dat
either thefe fymptoms were owine to the wonnsi m»
not to the medicine ; or that thefe feeds, if they have
any noxious quality, Ufe it with their bitteroeuis

received into the lungs in infpiration, which Dr boiling ) fince they were commonly ufed among the

.Gopdwyn has afcertained to be twelve cubical inches Greeks as food, and recommended by G^en as vcT

<or fomewhat more. Each dtvifion of the inftrument, wholefome.

therefore, fltouldbe capable of containing that quantity* LUPULUS, in botany. See Hvmo l vs.

LvtiG-Wmrt^ in botany. See PuLMowaa^A. LUPUS, in zoology. See Cam is.

LfJNISOLAR YBAt, ia chronoksgy, the ^oeof Lvnt^MMrmiu. See AiiAaaHiciiAs.

anil*

itim.

Lupus» in aftronoray. See there, n* 406,

LURCHER, a kind of hunting^og much like a
mongrel gpr-hoand, with pricked ears, a (hagged coat,
and generally of a yellowifli white colour ; they arc
very fwift nmners, fo that if they get between the
burrows and the conies they feldom mifs ; and this
IB their common pradlice in hunting : yet they ufe
other fubtilttes,* as the tumbler docs, Ibmc of them
bringing in their game, and thofe arc the bcft. It is
alfo obfervable, that a lurcher will run down a hare at
ftretch.

LURE, in falconry, a deWcfe of leather, in the
/hape of two winga, ftuck with feathers, and baited
with a piece of flcfli, to call back a hawk when at con-
fiderable diftance.

♦ LURGAN, a poft and fair town in the county of
Armagh and province of Ulftcr in Ireland, 67 miles
from feublin. It is a flouriihing town, agreeably fitua-
ted in the midft of a much improved country ; and
tlic inhabitants are cxtcnfively engaged in the linen
manufa^ure. It ftands on a gentle eminence, about
two miles from Lough Nf?gli; of which it commands
a moft beautiful and extenfive profpedl. The fairs
are three in the year. N* Lar. 54. 35. W, Long. 6. 3 1 .

LuacAN-GatCN, a poft and fair town of Ireland, in

•the county of Louth and province ofr'Lcinfter, 37

miles from Dublin ; a mile beyond which is a hand-

fomc feat of the earl of Ch:irlemont< It has three

fcurs in the year,

LURID-^, the name of the 28th order in Lin-
nteus's fragments of a natural method. See Botany,
p. 462.

LUSATIA, a marquifatc of Germany, in Upper
Saxony; bounded to the eaft by Silclia, to the weft by
Mifnia, to the I'outh by Bohemia, and to the north by
the marouifatc of Brandenburgh. Till tovrards the
middle of the 15th century, the Upper Lufatia was
called the Marky i. e. the marqulfite or tht land of Bu*
ift/zin and GorStz; and the Lower only Lvfatta^ which,
it is faid, in the Sclavonic, ftgnifies ** a woody or
marfhy country." The air of the Upper Lufatia,
which 18 hiBy or mountainous, is better than that of
the Lower, a great part of which is moorifh and bog-
gy. Both abound in wood, efpecfaBy the Lower, and
turf for fuel. The heathy and mountainous tfa£^8 are
rcneraliy barren ; but the lower champaign and marfli
lands are tolerably fertile, produdng paRure, wheats
Tye, oats, barley, buck-wheat, pcafc, lentils, beans,
and millet ; together with flax, hops, tobacco, fomc
white and red wine, and what is called manna. Of
fevcral of thefe articles, however, confiderable quan-
tities are imported. In this country are found alfo
quanics of ftone, medicinal fprings, baftard diamonds,
agates, and jafpers, earths and clays for tobacco-
pipes and all foits of earthen ware, alum, good iroii,
none, vitriolic and copper water ; nor is it deftitute
of cattle, fifh, and venifon. The rivers Spree, the
Schwarze or Black Elfter, and tht Pulznitz, have
their fources in the Lufatias, which are alfo watered
by the Kciffe and Queis. The ancient inhabitants of
this country were the Saxons, who were fucceeded by
the Vandals, and thefe by the Sober-Wends, a Scla-
Tonian people. The prefent inhabitants, the defcen-
dants of the Wends, have an odd dreis ; and the Ian-
(uage i» fo inarticulate and guuoral, that it hath been

27 1 L V S

faid, it might be pronounced without lips, ttctK, 6t
tongue: but tlic towns are almoll wholly peopled by
Germans.

In the Upper Lufatia are Ctx towns which appear
at the land-diets, 16 fmaller country-toi^'ns, and four
market towns. Iri the Lower arc four diet-towns, 1 3
country-towns, and two market ones. Both marqui-
fates were formerly fubjed either to the kings of Bo-
hemia, the archdukes of Auftria, or elcAors of Bran-
denburgh; but, in 1636, both were abfolutely ceded
to the eleftor of Saxony, in lieu of the 72 tons of
gold which he expended in aflfifting the emperor Fer-
dinand II. againft the Bohemians..

ChriiUanity was firft planted in Lufatia in the fe-
venth century ; but it was feveral centuries after that
before Popery was fully eftablifhcd. In the nth cen-
tury many doifters werC ere^^ed in the country ) but
at the reformation fuch numbers embraced Lutheran-
ifra, that it became the predominant religion, and ftHl"
continues, though there are ftill feveral Roman Ca-
tholic foundations, churches, market-towns, and vil-
lages. The enthufiaftic fed of Hernhuters poflefTcs
a great influence and cftccm here. There arc con-
fiderable manufactures of woollen and linen ftuffs in
the Lufatias, efpecially the Upper. At Budiffen, and
in the adjacent country, prodigious quantities of ftock^
ings, fpatterdafhes, caps, and gloves are made. The
Knen manufa6lures alfo floiu-ifh here, chiefly in the Up-
per Lufatia^ where all forts of linen are made, print-
ed, and dyed. Exclufive of thefe, there are confider-
able manufactures of hats, leather, paper, gunpowder,,
iron, glafs, bleached wax, &c. Though the demand
and exportation of thefe commodities, particularly li-
nens and woollens, is not fo great as formerly, yet rt
is ftill confiderable, and more than overbalances their
importations in wool, yarn, filk, * wines, fpices, corn,
freih and baked fruits^ garden ftulT, and hops. Dif-
putes of many rears ftanding have fubfifted between
the country-artificers and linen-manufridurers on the
one fide, and the diet-towns on the other ; the latter
unjuftly feeking to exclude the former froif^ any fharc
an the linen trade. The natives of this country are ihid
to have quick natural patts, but to be fordidly penu-
rious. We arc told they oWcnre the Saxon laws much
better than they did die Bohemian. Learning hath
been much efteemed and encouraged in both marqui-
fates fince the reformation. The fchools in the fix .
diet-towns. of Upper Lufatia^ particularly at Gorlitz,.
BudifiTen, and Zittau, greatly diftioguifh themftlves,
having handfome ftipendsw In -Lower Lufatia alfo are
fome good fchools, with ftipends for the maintenance
of ftudehts. Printing is (kid to He much foUowed, and '
brought to great perfeflion in this country.

In Upper Lufatia,. the ftatea confift, ift, of thofe
oaXitdJfatc-^'ords / 2dly, of the prelates ; 3dly, of the
gentry and commonalty, under which are comprehend-
ed the counts, barons> nobles^ and burgeffe^, poOef-
fors of fees and fief-eftates^ and, 4th}y, of the repre-
fentatives of the fix principal town?* Without the
confent of thefe ftates no taxes can be impofed, nor
any thing of importance, that regards the public, tranf-
aded. The diets are ordinary or extraordinary. The
ordinary meet once in three years, and the extraordl*^
nary when fummonedbythe fovereign upon particular
eipergencies. As to ecdefiaiUcai matters, the dean o£s

fill-

Luf.it -a.

1 XT S

C 3^8 1

L U S

I.iTIkih Budlflen and his confiftory cxcrclfe all manner of cpif-
l a ] ^opal jurIfdi6lion ; and, among the Proteftanta, the
« ' ' jurifdidlion belongs either to the fuperior, the upper-
office, or the patrons. The revenues an'fing to the
fuperior or fovereign, from Upper Lufatia, confiil
l^artly of the fubftdies granted by the ilates^ among
which, at prefcnt, are reckoned capitation and cilaie*-
money ; and partly of the beer-tax, excife, tolls, &c.
—Upper Lufatia is divided into two great circles, viz.
thofe of Budiifen auid GorlitZ) \i'hich are again divided
• into lefitr circles.

The land-flates of Lower Lufatia confifl, like thofe
of the Upper, of prelates, lords, and knights, and
-the rcprefcntativesofthc Hate towns, which are Luc-
'kau, Gubben-Lubbin, and Kalau. Two land diet«
-are yearly held "at Lubben, called voluntarydieh ; but
•when the fuperior caufes the flates to be fummoned
. together' at his difcretion, and propoiitions to be laid
before them, by trommiflariee deputed for that pur-
. ])ofe, fuch convention ia called a great land-dut. The
. marquifate is divided into five circles, >«ach of which
, holds a circle-aifcmbly in its circle-town. The chief
officers appointed either by the .fuperior or the dates,
dre» the preiident of the upper-office, the land-captain,
and the land-judge. The principal tribunals are, the
land-court, and the upper-ofHce, to which lie appeals
.fronv the inferior judicatories. There are alfo ofiSceni
. for tlie ftveral circles. Spiritual matters belong here
to a confiftory, ere6ted in 1 668. The ordinary taxes
arc paid into the cheilofthe circle ; and from thence
configned to the general cheft, of which the upper
; tax-receiver is fuperintendant. By him an atmual ac-
count of the receipts is made out, which is examined
-and pafled by the deputies of the flates.

LUSITANIA (anc.> g^og«)» ^"^ ®^ '^^ divifiofts of

Spain, extending to the noith of the Tagus, quite to

the fea of Cantabria, at leaft to the Promontorium

. Celticum. But Auguftus, by a new regulation, made

. the Anas its boundary to the fouth, the Durius to

the north ; and thus conHituting only a part of the

modem Portugal. LufUam the peopk, (Diodorusy

.Stephanus). .

LUSTRAL, aln epithet given T>y the ancients to
the water ufed in their ceremonies to iprinkle and pu-
.rify the people. JE*rom;them^e Rqmanifts havcbor-
. rowed the holy water uled in their chiprches.

LvsTHjtL Dayf (Dies LufiricvsJ^ that whereon the
lufl rations wet;e performed for a child, and its name
given ; .which was ufually the ninth day from the birth
. of a boy, and the eighth from that of a girL Tho'
others performed 4he ceremony on the laft day of that
-week, wherein the child was horn, and others on the
fifth day from its birlh.

Over this feaft-day the goddefs Nun din a was fup-

pbfcd to prefide; the midwifes, nurfes, and domcllics,

handed the child backwards and forwards, around a

fire burning on the altars of the gods, after whicli they

Sprinkled it with water; hence this feaft had the name'

.of mnphidromla. The old women mixed faliva and duft

..with the water. The whole ended with a fumptuous

-entertainment. The parents received gifts from their

.friends on this occaflon. If the child was a male, their

^door was decked with an olive garland ; li a female,

with wool, denoting tlie work .about which women

Avere to be employed.

LUSTRATION, in antiquity, i&ctificcs or cml.

monies ky which the ancients purified their dtiss,
fields, armies, or people, defiled by any crime or im-
purity. Some of thefc luilrations were public, othcn
private. There were three fpecies or manners of per-
forming luilration, vi». by fire and fulphur» by water,
and by air ; which lafl was done by fanning and agi-
tating the air round the thing to be purified. S<nx
of thcfe luilrations were neceffary, i e» could not be
difpenfed with; as luflrations of houfes in time (^\
plague, or upon the death of any perfon : others agati
were done out -of choice, and at pleafure. The publk
luflrations at Rome were celebrated every fifth year;
in which they led a vii^im thrice round the plice ta
be purified, and in the mean time burnt a great qoa:^-
tity of perfumes. Their country lufb-ations, whidi
they called amlmrvalia^ were celebrated before they
began to reap their com ; in thofe of the aumiesy whick
they called armiluftria^ fome chofen foldiera, crownt d
with laurel, led the vi£Ums, which were a cow, a ihecp,
and a bull, thrice round the army ranged in battk*
array in the field of Mars, to which deity the Ti^ina
were afterwards facrificed, after pouring out maiif
imprecations upon the enemies of the Romans. The
luftrations of their flocks were performed in this man-
ner: the fliq>herd fprinkled them with pure wato,
and thrice furrounded his fheepfold with a compofitioa
of favin, laurel, and brimflone fet on fire ; and after-
wards facrificed to the goddefs Pales an afiering of
milk boiled, wine, a cake, and millet. As for private
houfes, they were luflrated with water, a fumigatioa
of laurel, juniper, olive-tree, favin, and fuch like ; and
the vidlim conunonly was a pig. Luil:ratioas made
for particular perfons were commonly called expiahsm^
and iht vi^lims fiacula. There was alfo a kind of
luilration ufed for infants, by which they were purified,
girls the third, and boys the ninth, day after their birth ;
which ceremony was performed with pure water aai
fpittle. See the artide Ambarvalia. — In their Ib-
ilratory facrifices, the Athenians (acrificed two mee,
one lor the men of their city, and the other for the
Mr omen. Divers of thefe expiations were auftere : iocie
fafted ; others abftained from aU fenfual pleafures ; and
fome, as the prieils of Cybele, caflrated themfclrei.
The poilures of the penitents were different accoidfcg
tt> the different facrifices. The priefls changed their ha-
bits according to the ceremony to be performed ; white,
purple, and black,- were the mofl ufual colours* They
cafl into the river, or at leafl out of the city, the aci*
mals or other things that had ferved for a luflration or
facrifice of atonement ; and thought themielves threa-
tened with .fome great misfortune when by chance they
trod upon tliem. Part of thefe ceremonies were abo-
lifhed oy the emperor Conflantine, and his fuccefTors:
the refl fubiifled till tlie Gothic kings were mailers of
Rome ; under whom they expired* excepting what
the popes thought proper to adopt and bring into the
cliurch.

For the luflration, or rather expiationi of the ancient
Jews, fee Expiation.

LUSTRE, the glofs or brightncfs appearing on
any thing, particularly on manuia^ures of filk, wog],
or fluff. It is likewife ufed to denote the compofitioa
or manner of giving that giofs.

The luflre of filks is^iven tliem by wafhiog in fo^p%

thn

L U S

t 3^9 ]

L U T

then dear ^rateri «nd dipping thm an alum water cold.
"Po give ftuAa beautiful luibre ; For eveiy eight pounds
of ftufF allow a quarter of a pound of linfeod $ boil it
lialf an hour, and tken ftrain it through a cloth» and
let it ftand tfll it is turned almoft to a jelly : afta>
^nrards pat an ounce and a half of gum to diflblve 24
tiours ; then mix the liquor, and put the cloth into
^is mixture > take it out, dry it in the ftiade, and prefs
it. If once doing i% not fufficient, repeat the operation.
<^iirriers give a luftre to black leather firft 'with Juice
of barberries, then with gum*arabic, ale, vinegar, and
Ftanders-glue, boiled together. For coloured leather,
they ufe the white of an tgg beaten in water. M6-
roccocs have their luftre from juice of barberries, and
lemon or orange. For hats, the luibie is frequentlv'
givCT with common water ; fbmetiknes a Uttle black
dye is added: the fame luftre'ferves for furs, except
tiiat for very black furs they fometimes prepare a luftrc
of gedls, copperas, Roman alum, ox's marrow, and other
ingredients.

Lustre, an appellation given to a branched candle-
ftick, when made of glafs. ' See B ra n c h and Jesse.

LUSTRINGS. A company was incorporated for
making, dreffing, and lufbrating alamodes and luftrings
in England, who were to have the fole benefit thereof,
by ibit. 4 and 5 William and Mary. And no foreign
filks known by the name of lu/lrings or alamodes are to
be imported but at the port of London, &c. Stat.
9. and 10. W. III. c. 43. Sec Silk,

L.USTRUM, in Roman antiquitv, a general mufter
and review of all the citizens and tneir goods, which
was performed by the cenfois every fifth year, who
afterwards mack a folemn lufbration. See the article
Lustration.

This cuftom was firft inftituted by Servhis Tullius,
about 180 years after the foundation of Rome. In

vitas* Julum the apoftate refided tbeie lor fettle time* ^^^^
It IB now PAMtSf the capital of France 1 fo cailed from
its name Paryu in the lower age.

LUTHER (Martin), the celebrated author of the
Reformation, was a native of Eifleben in Saxony, and
bom in 1483. Though his parents were poor, he re-
ceived a learned education ; during the progreb of
which, he gave many indications of uncommon vigour
and acutenefs of geniusl ' As his mind was aaturally
fufccptible of ferions impreffions, and tin8:ured with
fomewhat of that religious melancholy which delights
in the folitude and devotion of a monaflic life, he re-
tired into a convent of Auguftinian friars ; where he
acquired great reputation, not only for piety, but for
love of knowledge and unwearied application to ftudy.
The cattfe of this retirement is (aid to have been, that
he was once ftruckby lightning, and his companion kiW
led by his fide by the urnne flafh. He had been taught
the fcholaftic philofophy which was in vogue in thofe
days, and made confiderable progrefs in it : but hap-
pening to find a copy of the bible which lay negle«^ed
m the library of his mopaflery, he applied himfelf to
the ftudy of it with fach cagemefs and aifiduity, aa
quite aftonifhed the monks ; and increafed his reputa-
tion fot fandity fo much, that he was chofen profeflbr
firft of philofophy, and afterwards of theology, ^at Wit*
temberg on the Elbe, where Frederic eleSor of Saxony
had founded an univerfity.

While Luther continued to enjoy the highefl repu*
tation for fan&ity and learning, Tetzel, a Dominican
friar, came to Wittemberg in order to publiflijndut*
gences. Luther behdd his fuccefs with great con-
cem I and having firil inveighed againft indulgences
from the pulpit, he afterwards publifhed 95 thefes*
containing his fentiments on that fubje£L Thdc he
propofed, aot as points fully eftaUiihed, but as fub«

courfe of time the laftra were not celebrated fo often ; je£)ts of inquiry and difputation. • He appointed a day

for we find the fifth lufbrum celebrated at Rome only
in the 574th year of that city.

LUTE, or LuTiMO, among chemifls, a mixed, te-
nacious, du6^ile fubftance, which grows folid by di-y-
tng, and, being applied to thejunftureof vefTcls, flops
them up fo as to prevent the air from getting either in
or out. See C h e m 1 s t a y 'Index.

Lute, is alfo a mufical inflrument with ftrings.—
The lute confifls of four parts, W«. the table, the body
or belly^, which has nine or ten fides ; the neck, which
has nine or ten (lops or divifions, marked with ftrfngs ;
and the head or crofs, where the fcrew for raifine and
lowering the firings to a proper pitch of tone are fixed.
In the middle of the taWe khere is a rofe or pafTage for
the found ; there is alfo a bridge that the fhings are
fattened to, and a piece. of ivory between the head and
the neck to whidi the other extremities of the ftringi
are fitted. In playing, the firings are ftruck with the
right hand, and with the left the flops are preiTed.
The lutes of Bologna are efleemed the bcft on account
of the wood, which is faid to have an uncommon dif*
pofition for producing a fweet found.

LUTETIA FAKisioftUM, (anc geog.), a town
of the Farifii, in Gidlia Cekica, fituatedin an ifland in
the Sequana or Seine. It received its name, as fome
fuppofe, from the qnantity of clay, luhim^ which is in its
neighbouriiood. J. Cxfar fortified and embellifhed it>
from which circtimfince font authors caB it Juii Ci^

Vol. X. Part L "*

on which the learned were invited to impugn th^nl
either in pierfon or by writing \ and to the whole he
fubjoined folemn protellations of his high refpedl for
the apoftolic fee, and of his implicit fabmiflion to ita
authority. No opponent appeared at the time pre«
fixed ; the thefes fpread over Germany with aftonifh*
ing rapidity, and were read with the greatell eagernefv
Though Luther met with no oppofition. for 'fome
little time after he began to publifh his newdo6brines^
it wa^ not long before many zealous champions arofe
to defend thofe opinions with which the weakh and
power oi the clergy were fo ilri6Uy conneded. Their
caufe, however, was by no means promoted by theft
endeavours ; the people began tx> call in quefbion evea
the authority of the canon hw and of the pope him^
fclf«.^The couit of Rome at firfi defpifed thefe new
dodrines and difputes; but at lafl the attention of
the pope being raifed by the great fuccefa of the re*
farmer, and the coR^>laint6 of his advofaries, Luther
was fummoned, in the month of July 15 18, to ap-
pear at Rome, within 60 days, before the auditor of
the chamber. One of Luther's adveriaries, named
Prierias, who had vmtten againft him, was appointed
to examine hts.do^lrines, and to decide concerning
them. The pope wrote at the fame time to the deo^
tor of Saxony, befeeching him not to prated a mam
who£e heretiGal and profane tenets wece fofhockiae t«
pioui ean ^ aad enjoiaed the proviacial ef the Au*

T t guftiniaaa

L U T C 330 1 L U T

^"*^* gnftinians to check by hie authority the rafhnefs of an other afyhim^ ami maft ftand ezpofed to

arrogant moults which brought difgrace upon their pumihnicnt the rag^e or bigotry of his eziemies coidd

ordtTy and gave offence and difhirbance to the whok inflifl ; and fo read^ wete hit adveriaries to condenu

church. bim> that he had been dechred a heretic at Rcnae

From* thefe letters, and the appointment of his open before the expiration of the 60 days allowed hira ia

enemy Prierias to be his judge, Luther eafily faw the citation for making his appearance. Notwki»-

what fentence he might exped; at Rome ; and there* ftanding all this, however, he difcovered no fyrRptcms

fore difcovered the utmoft fohcitud^ to have his caufe of timidity or remiflhefs ; but continued to vindkate

tried in Germany, and before a lefs fufpe£^ed tri- his own copdu^^ and opinions, and to invei^;h s^gaicft

bunaL He wrofe a fubmiffive letter to the pope, in thofe of his adverfaries* with more vehemence than

which he promifed an unrefetved obedience to his will, ever. Being convinced, therefore, that the pope wcnild

for as yet he entertained no doubt of the divine on- foon proceed to the moft violent meafurcs agnioft

ginal of the pope's authority ; and by the interceflion him, he appealed to a general oouncil, which hs

of the other profeflbrs, Cajetan the pope's legate in affirmed to be the reprefentatiwe of the Catholic ckarch,

Germany was appointed to hear and determine the and fuperior in power to the pope, who being a

caufe. Luther appeared before him without hefita- feUible man, might err» as St Peter, the moft.pcrteCk

tioii : but Cajetan thought it below his -dignity to of his predecefTors, had done,
difpute the point with a perfon fo much his inferior

in rank ; and therefore required him, by virtue of the
apoftolic powers with which he was clothed, to retrafk
the errors which he had uttered with regard, to indul-
gences and the nature of hitkf and to abftain for the
future from the publication of new and dangerous
opinions ; and at the laft forbad him to appear in his^
prefencc, unlefs he propofed to comply with what had
been required of him.

This haughty and violent manner of proceeding,
together with fome other circumftaiTces, gave Luther's
friends fuch ftrong reafons to fufpe^l that even the
imperial fafe-condud would not be able to protefi
him from the legate's power and refentment, that
they prevailed on him fecretly to withdraw, from
Augfburg, where he had attended the legate, and to
return to his own country. But before his departure,
according to a form of which there had been fomc
examples, he prepared a folenm appeal from the popci
ill-informed at that time concerning his cau£e, to the
pope, when he fhould receive more full intimation
with refped to it.— Cajetan, enra|red at Luther's
abrupt retreat, and at the publication of his appeal,
wrote to the eledkor of Saxony, complaining of both |
and requiring him, as he regaxded the peace of the
church, or the authority of its head, either to fend
that feditious monk a prifoner to Rome, or to banifh
him out of his territories. Frederic had hitherto, from
political motives, prot^ed Luther, as thinking he

I'he court of Rome were equally afiiduous in tha
mean time to cruih the author of theiis new do^rines
which gave them fo much uneaiinefs. A bull was
iiFued by the pope,^ of a date prior to Luther's ap-
peal, in which he magnified the virtues o£ indulgences,
and fubje^d to the heavicft ecdefiailical ccnfures aS
who prefumed to teach a contrary do&rine. Such a
clear deciiion of the fbvereign pontiff againil bin
might have been very fetal to Luther^s caufe, had not
the death of the emperor Maximilian, which faappeoed
on January 17. 15 19, contributed to give matters a
different turn. Both the principles and intetefi, of
Maximilian had prompted him to fupport the authori-
ty of the fee of Rome : but, in confequence of his
death, the vicariate of that part of Germany which a
governed by the Saxon laws devolved to the eledcc
of Saxony | and, under the flielter of his friendly ad*
miniftration, Luther himfelf enjoyed tranquillity, and
his opinions took fuch root in different places, that
they could never afterwards be eradicated. At the
fame time, as the ele^on of an emperor was a point
more interefting to the pope (Leo X.) than a theokp-
gical-controveily which he did not underftand, and of
which he could not forefee the confequences, he was
fo extremely folicitous not to irritate a prince of fuch
confiderable influence in the ele^ral college as Fic^
deric, that he difcovered a great unwillingncfs to pnv
nouncc the fentence of excommunication againfl Ln*
ther, which his adverfaries continually demanded with

might be of ufe in checking the enormous power of the moft clamorous importunity
the fee of Rome ; and thou^ all, Germany refounded From the reafon jiift now given, and Leo's nata»
with his feme, the ek^or had never, yet admitted xal averfion to fevere meafures, a fufpenJion of pro-
him into his prefence. But upon this^ demand made ceeding againft Luther took place for i^ mm' t ^f ^
fcy the caxdinal, it became neccffiuy to throw off though perpetndi ncgociations were carried on during
iomewhat of his former referve* He had been at ^lis interval m order to bring the matter^ to an ami-
ffreat expcnce and beftowed much attention 00 found- - - - -
lag a new univcHity, an obje& of confiderable impor-
tance to every German prince ; and forefeeing how
fatal a blow the removal of Liuther would be to its
reputation, he not only declined complying with either
of the popeVrequefts, but openly difcovered great con-
cern for Luther's fafety.

The fituation of our reformer, in the mean time,
became daily more and more alarming. He knew
▼ery well what were the motives whidi induced the
ele&or to afford him prote^ion, and that he could by
so means depend on a continuance of his friendfhip.
If be fliould be obliged to quit Saxony, he had bo

cable iffue. The manner in which thefe
du&ed having given our reformer many (^portunitiey
of obferving the corruption of the court of Rome, its
obftinacy in adhering to efiaUifhed errors* and its in-
difference about truth, however cleariy piopo£ed or
ftrongly proved, he began, in 1520, to utter Ibme
doubts with regard to the divine orignial of the papal
authority, which he publicly difputed with Eccina,
one of his moft learned and formidable antu^ooifts.
The difpute was indecifive, both parties '^^•'"'"Tg the
victory ; but it muff have been very mortifying to the
partixans of the Romifli church to hear fudi aa cScfr
tial point of their dodrioe puUicly attacked.

The

L XJ T r 33« 1 L U T

The Pap«l authonty t>euig ooce Tufpefted, Liither keittate one moment about yielding^ obeiimoe $ and
proceeded to pu(h on bit inqniries and attacJct from let out for Worms* attended by the KeraJd who had
one dodbrkie to another* tjU at hfl he began to fliake brought the emperor's letter and fafe-condn£L While
the firmed foundationa on whidi the wcahh and power on his joumeyi many of his friends* whom the fate of
•f the chufxii were eftabliflied. Leo then began to Hufs* under fimilar cixrumftaacet* and notwithftand-
-perceive that there were no -hopes of reclaiming fuch ing the fame fecurity of an imperial iafe*condn£k* fiB-
an incorrigible heretic ; nnd therefore prepared to de- ed with Iblicitude* advifed and intreated him not to
Rounce the fentence of excommunication againil him. ruih wantonly into the midft of dangy. But Luther^
The coOegre of cardinals was often affembled* in order fuperior to fuch terrors, filenced thenrwith this reply,
to prepare the fentence with due deliberation ; and the ** I am la\^ fully called (faid he) to appear in that
nbkil canonifts were confuked how it might be ex- city $ and thither will I go in the name of the Lord*
prefled with unexceptionable formality* At lail it was though as many devils as there are tiles on the houfea
ifTued on the 15th of June i^io. Forty-one propofi* were there combined againfi me/^
tions* extra^ed out of Luther's works* were theiein The reception which he met with at Worms* was
condemned as heretical* fcandalous* and ofFenfive to fuch as might have been reckoned a Ml reward of all
pious ears ; all perfons weve forbidden to read his wri- his labours* if vanity and the love of applaufe had been
^ingSf upon «painof excommunication { fuch as had any the principles by which he was influenced. Greater
of them in their -cuftody were commanded to commit crowds affembled to behold him than had appeared
them to the flames ;.h'e himielf* if he did not* within at the emperor's pubhc- entry ; his apartments were
60 days* publicly recant his errors* and bum his books* daily filled with pnnces and perfonages of the higheft
was pronounced an obftinate heretic* excommunicated* rank ; and he was treated with an homage more fin<»
and delivered to Satan for the defbii^kion of the flefh ; cere* as well as more flattering* than any which pre-
and all (ecular princes were required* under pain of eminence in birth or condition can command* At his
incurring the fame ccnfore* to feize hisperfon* that he appearance before the diet* he behaved with great de-
might be punifhed as his crimes dcferved* cency* and with equal firmnefs. He readily acknow-

Luther was not in the leaft difconcerted by this fen- ledged an excefs of acrinrany and v^emence in his
fence* which he had for fomc time expeded. He re- controverfial writings ; but refufed to rctra^ his opi«
newed his appeal to his general council ; declared the nions unlefs he were convinced of their falfehood* or
pope to be that antichrift* or man of fin* whofe ap- to confent to their being tried by any other rule than
pearance is foretold in the New Tefbunent ; declaim- the word of God. When neither threats nor intreaties
ed againfl his tyranny * with greater vehemence than could prevail on him to depart from this refolution*
ever ; and at laft* by way of retaliation* having afTem- fome of the ecclefiailica propofed to imitate the ex-
bled all the profeflbrs and ftudents in the univerfity ample of the council of Conilance* and* by punifhing
of Wittemberg* with great pomp* and in the pre- the author of this pefUlent herefy* who was now in
fence of a vail multitude of fpedtators* he caft the vo- their power* to dehver the church at once from fuch
lumes of the canon law* together with the bull pf ex- an eviL But the members of the diet refufing to ex-
communication, into the flames. The manner in which pofe the German integrity to frefh repitcNtch by a fe*
this adlion was juflified* gave flill more offence than cond violation of public faith* and Charles being no
the a6kion itfelf. Having collc6ied from the canon law lefs unwilling to bring a flain upon the beginning of
fome of the mofl extravagant propofitions with regard his adnuniflration by fuch an ignominious action* La*
to the plenitude and omnipotence of the pope's power* ther was permitted to depart in fafety. A few days
as well as the fubordination of all fecular jurifdidion af^er he left the city* a fevere edi6l was publifhed id
to his authority* he publifhed thefe with a commen- the emperor*s name* and by authority of the diet* de-
tary* pointing out the impiety of fuch tenets* and their priving him* as an obflinate and excommnicated cri-
evident tendency to fubvert all civil government. mina)* of all the privileges which he enjoyed as a fub-

^n the acccffion of Charles V. to the empire* Lu- je6fc of the empire* forbidding any prince to harbour

ther found himfelf in a very dangerous fituation. or proted 4iim* and requiring all to feize his perfon as

Charles* in order to fecure the pope's friendihip* had foon as the term fpecified in his protedion ihould be

determined to treat him with great feverity. His ea- expired*

jrcmefs to gain this point* rendered him not averfe to But this rigorous decree had no confiderable effed^ ;

gratify the papal legates in Germany* who infiiled* that* the execution of it being prevented partly by the mul-

without any delay or formal deliberation* the diet then tiplicity of occupations which the commotions in Spain*

fitting at Worms ought to condenm a man whom the together with the wars in Italy and the Low Coun-

pope had already excommunicated as an incorrigible tries* created to the emperor ; and partly by a pru-

beretic. Such an abrupt manner of procee4ing, how- dent precaution employed, by the eledkor of Saxony*

ever* being deemed unprecedented and unjuft by the Luther's faithftd patron. As Luther* on his return

members of th^ diet* they made a point of Luther's from Worms* was palling n(^ Alteuftrain in Thuriii-

appearing in perfon* and declaring whether he adhered gia* a number of horfemeu in maiks rufhed fuddenly

or not to thofe opinions which had diawn upon him out of a wood* where the elector had appointed them

the cenfures of the church* Not only the emperor* but to lie in wait for him* and* furrounding his company^

all the princes through whofe territories he had to carried him* after^ difmiffing all his attendants* to

pafs* granted him a me condudi ; and Charles wrote Wortburg* a flrong caflle not far diftant. There tbje

to him at the ^me time* requiring his immediate at- ele6ior ordered him to be fupplied with every tiling

tendance on the diet* and renewing his promifes of pro- neceffary or agreeable ; but the place of his retreat was

teiHott from any injury or violence. Luther did not carefully concealed* until the fury of tlie prefcnt ilorm

T t 2 againft

L U T

L IT r

^(Aik him bmn to tb«te» upon t chtnge in Aic po« ftriii the c mper or^t brother» a»to a vety trfcre d% li«i
litical fyftem of Europe. In this foUtudef where he to hinder the farther puhlication of it ; and foibadtQ *^
remained nine months, and which he frequently called the fubjefks of his imperial mauefty to hare any copia
liit Patmotf after tlie name of that ifland to which the of k, or of Luther's other books. Some other piiaoo

followed hia example ; and JLuther waa £> angry « it,
tkiat he wrote a treatifcy Of ihejecuiar fiovery in wludi
he accuies them of tyranny and impiety. The diet d
the empire was held at Nurenburg, at the end of die

i^ftle John was baoifhed, he exerted his ufual vigour
and induflry in defence of his dodrinct", or in confu-
tation of his adTer&ries, publifhing feveral treatifet,

i^ch revived the fpirit of his followers, aHonifhed to

a great degree JfSi difheartened at the fuddeo diiap- year;. to which Hadrian VL fent bis brief, dated No-

pearance of their leader.

I^uther, weary at length of his retirement, appeared
publicly again at Wittemberg, upon the 6th of March
1522. He appeared indeed without (he ele£tor's leave ;
but immediately wrote him a letter, to prevent his ta-
king it in. The edid of Charles V. as fcvere as it was,
had given llttk or no check to Luther's do6hinc : for
the emperor vras no fooner gone into Flanders, than
his cdi6k was negleded and defpifed, and the do^rine
feemed to fjfmead even fafter than before. Carolofla-

vember the 25th : for Leo X. died upon the 2d of De-
cember 152 1, and Hadrian had been ekiled pope sp-
on the 9th 0/ January following. In hia briel, among
other things, he obferves to the diet^ how he bad bard,
with grief, that Martin Luther, after the lentencc of
Leo X. which was ordered to be executed by the edid
of Worms, continued to teach the fame enois,aafi
daily to publifli hooka full of herefies : that it appesw
ed ftrange to him, that fo large and fo religious a &i«
tion could be feduced by a wretched apodate friar :

dius, in Luther's abfence, had pufhed things on fafter that nothing, however, could be more pernicious ta

than his leader ; and had attempted to abolifh the ufe
of mais, to remove images Out of the churches, to fet
adide auricular confeflion, invocation of faints, the al>-
ftaining from meats ; had allowed the monks to leave
their monaftcries, to negkA^their vows, and to marry ;
i (hort, had quite changed the do^bine and difcipline
of the church at Wittemberg : all which, though not
s^iaft Luther^s fentiments, was yet blamed by him,
as being ra(hty and unfeafonably done. Lutheran ifm
was fbll confined to Germany: it was not got to
France ; and Henry VIII. of England made the nnofl
rigorous a^ts to liinder . it from invading his realm.
Nay, he did fomething more : to (how his zeal for re-
ligion and the holy fee, and perhaps his iklU in theo-
logical learning, he wrote a treatik Of tie /even facra"
mentSf againft Luther's book Of ihe captivity t^ Babylon ;
which heprefented to Leo X. in Odober 1521. The
•pope received it very favourably; and was fo well
pleafed with the king of Eagknd, that Jie compliment-
ed him with the title of Dtjender of the faith. Luther,
Kowever, pMd iu> regard to his kingfhip % but anfwered
with great fliarpnefs, treating both his perfon and

performance i^ the moft contemptuous manner. Henry

- m.

Chriftendom : and that therefore be eaihoru tbea to
ufe their utmofL endeavours to xnake Luther* and vat
authors of thefe tumults, return to their duty ; .or, if
they refufe and continue obfiinate, to proceed agii&i
them according to the laws of the empire, nnd thie (c-
verity of the laft edi^.

The refolution of this diet was publiihed in tbe fora
of an edidl, upon the 6th of March 1523 ; but it hal
no effe6i in checking the Lutherans, who ftill weaton
in the fame triumphant manner. Thia year Ladter
wrote a great many pieces i among the refb, one upoa
th^ dignity and office of the fupreme magiftnte;
which Frederic ele^or of Saxony is laid to have bed
highly pleafed with. He fent, about the fame not^
a writing in the German language to the Wakkaks,
or Pickardsy in Bohemia and Moravia, who had ap*
plied to him ** about worfliipping the body of Cbi^
in the eucharift." He wrote alfo another hook, whidi
he dedicated to tbe fenate and peopk of Ftagae,
^ about the inilttution of mtniftm of tke chnrdL**
He drew up a form of faying mafs. He wrote a ptecei
entitled. An example of popifh doOrimg and dxiaat%\

which Dupins calts a fstire agaafi mms and thoft e^
complained oR.uther's rode ufage of him to the princes proftfs a mvnaftU life^ He wrote alfo i^(aasift the fovi
»f Saxony : and Fifhcr,^ bifbop of Rocheiler, replied of virginity, in his preface to hia coonncntarT oa

1^ his anfwtr, in behalf of Henry's treatxfe : but nei-
tlier the King's complaint, nor the bilhop's reply, was
attended with aoy vifible effeds.

Luther^ though he had put a flop to the violent
proceedings of Caroloftadius, now made open hox wiih
the pope and bifhops \ and, that he might make the
people defpife their authority as much as poffible^
he wrote one book againft the pope's buU, 'and
sMOther againft the order faliely called the order afbi"
Jkops. The fame year^ 1522, he wrote a letter, dated

1 Cor. viii. And his exhortations here were, it fraQs»
foUowed with effects : for foon after, nine nans, acoi;
whom waa Catharine de Bore, ek^ped from, the mift-
nery at Nimptfchen, and were brought, by the aSi-
aoce of Leonard Coppen, a burgeiis of Torgau^ to Wit*
temberg. Whatever offence this proceeding- might give
to tht rapifis, it was highly extdUcd by Luther; vio^
in a book written in the Gemnan langmge, compaifs
the deliverance of thefe nuns from tke flavery of a n»-
nafHc life, to that of the fouls which Jefua Chrift has

JuSy the 29tk, to the afTembly of the flatea of Bohemia i delivered by liis death» This year Luther had ooca-

m which he aiTured them that he was labouring to
eftabliih their do^rine in Germany, and exhprted them
aot to return to the communion of the church of Rome \
and he publifhed alfo, this year, a tcanffotion of tbe
>few Teftamcnt in the German tongue,, which was a£.
ttrwarda corrcded by himfelf and Melan^on. This
tnafiation having been printed feveral times, and be-
ill'; m every body \ hasidai Ferdinand acchdnke of Au-

iioa to canoniae two of his foUowetv, viho, as Mekboor
Adam relates, were burnt at Bruflels in the beginotiif
of July, and were the firft who fullered martyrdom for
his dodrine. He wrote aUb a confblatory cfk^ to
three nobk ladies at Mifnia, who were banifhed fnA
tiie duke of Saxony ^a court at Fribarg^ for reai^ag bis
books,
in the beginning ^ dM yew &5M% Cknest VfL

1 U T C 333 ] h V r

fent t legate into 0«rmaiiv to the diet, lAkk wa» ta £elf i and ewnB» that hiB marriage had made him fe
^ h€ held at Narenhuig Hadrian VI died ia Odoher defptcaUe, that he hoped his humiliation would vejoioe
1 5a3> and was fucceeded by Ckment upon the 19th of the angels, and vex the devils. Melandhon found him
>f ovember. A little before his death he canonized (b ai9i<^ed with what he had done, that he wrote iome
Senno> who was biihop of Meifien in the time of Gre- letters of confoktion to him. It was not fo much the
gory VII. and one of the moll zealous defenders of marriage^ as the circumftances of the time, and the pre*
the holy fee. Luther, imagining that this was done cipitation with which it was done, that occaikmed the

cenfures paifed upon Luther. He married all of a fud«»
den, and at a time when Germany was groaning under
the miferies of a war which was iaid at lestn to be
q«viag to Lutheranifm. Then, again, it was thought
an indecent thing in a man of 42 years of age, who
was then, as he pretended, reftoring the Gofp^l, and
reforming mankind, to inTolre himfelf in marriage with
a woman of 26, either through incontinence, or any
account whatever. But Li^her, as foon as he had re*
covered himfelf a little from this abafhment, aflumed
his former air of intrepidity, and boldly fupported what
he had done with reafons. ** 1 took a wife (fays he)»
in obedience to my father's commands; and haflened
the confummation, in order to prevent impedimentSt
and ftop the tongues of flanderera." It appears firon^
his own confeffion, that this -rcfbraier was very fond
of Mrs de Bore, and ufed to call her Ut Ctuharine^
which made profane people think and fay wicked
things of him: "And therefore (fays he) I mar*
ried of a fudden, not only that I might not be obliged
to hear the clamours which I knew would be raifed
againil me, but to ftop the mouths of thofe who re-
proached me with Catharine de Bore.'' Luther aUi»
gives us to underlland, that he did it partly as con*
curring with his grand fcheme oi oppofing the Catho*
lies.

Luther, not wit ^(landing, was not himfelf altogether
fatisfied with thefe reafons. He did not think the Itep
he had taken could be fufficiently jufttfied upon^ the
principles of hunian prudence f and therefore we find
him, in other places, endeavouring to account foar it
from a fiipernatural impulfe. But whether there wa«
any thing divine in it or not, Luther found himlelf
extremely happy in his new ftate, and efpecially after
hia wife had brought him a fon. " My rib Kate (fay0
he in the joy of his heart) deiires her compliments to
you, and tlianks you for tlie favour of your kind fet«
ter. She ia very well, through God's mercy. She i»
obedient and complying with me in aU things ; and more
agreeable, I thank G(^, than I could have expected ;.
fo that I would not change my poverty for the wealth
of CrcefuB." He was heard to fay ( Seckendorf teU»
us), that he would not exchange his wife for the king*
dom of France, nor for the riches of the Venetians ^
and that for three reafons : firft, Becaufo ihe had been
given him by God, at the time when he implored the
affiftance of the Holy Ghoft in finding a good wife ;.
fecondly^ Becaufe, though ike was not without fauhs,
yet ihe had fewer than other women ; and, thirdly,.
Becaufe ihe religioufly obferved the conjugal fidelity^
fhc owed him. There went at firft a report, that Ca-
tharine de Bore was brought to bed foon- after her
marriage with Luther ; but Erafmus, who had wrote
that news to his friends, acknowledged the falfity of it
a little after.

His marriage, however, did not retard his a^vit^f
and diligence in the work of reformation.' Hercvifei
the Augftmrg eonfcffiott of fiutlH and apology for the

Fro-

diredly to oppofe him, drew up a piece with this title,
.j^uttjl the New Idol and Old Devil fet up at Mejfin ;
in which he treats the memory of Gregory with great
freedom, and does not fpare etren Hadrian. Cle-
naent VII.'s legate reprefented to the diet of Nuren-
burff the neceflity of enforcing the execution of the
edict ofWorm^ which had been ftrangely negleflied
by the princes of the empire : but, notwithibnding
the legate's folicitations, which were very prefling, the
decrees of that diet were thought fo ineffectual, that
they were condemned at Rome, and reje^ed by the
emperor. It was in this year that the difpute between
Luther and Erafitnus, about free-will, began Eraintus
had been much courted by the Papifts to write againil
Luther ; but he was all along of opinion, that writing
would not be found an' effeSual way to end the ^iife-
rences and cftablifh the peace c^ the church. How-
ever, tired out at length with the importunities of the
pope and the Catholic princes, and deArous at the
fame time to dear himfelf from the fufpicion of favour-
11^ a caufe which he would not (eem to favour, he re-
tted to write againil Luther, thoagh, as he tells Me-
lan&hon, it was with fbme relu6lance, and chofe free-
will for the fubjeft.* His book was intitled, A D'tatri"
buf or Conference about Free-will ; and was written with
much moderation, and without perfonal refleftions.
He tells Luther in the preface, " That he ought not
t6 take his diflenting from him in opinion ill, becaufe
he had allowed him^lf the liberty of differing from the
judgment of popes, councils, univerfities, and do6lors
of the church." Luther was fome time before he an-
fnvered Erafmus^s book ; but at laft publi/hed a treatife
De Sem^a Arbkrw^ 01 Of ihe Servitude of Man's Will ;
and though Mekndlhoii Ittd promifed Erafmus, that
Luther fhould anfwer him with civility and modera-
tion, yet Luther had fo little regard to Meknflhon's
prbmife, that he never wrote any thing (harper. He
aocufed Erafmus of being carelefs about religion, and
Uttlc fohcitons what became of it, provided the world
continued in peaee \ and that his notions were rather
. philofophical ^an Chridian Erafmus immediately re-
plied to Luther, in a piece called Hyperafp'tftes ; in the
firft part of which he anfwers his arguments, and in
the fecond his perfonal refledtons.

in ®£lober 1524, Luther flung off the monallic ha-
hit ; which, though not pren\editated and defigned,
was yet a very proper preparative to a flep he took
the year after ; we mean, his marriage with Catharine
dc Bore. Catharine de Bore was a gentleman's daugh^
ter, who had been a aun, and was taken, a» we have
cbferved, out of the nunnery of Nimptfchen, in the
year 1523. Lnther had a defign, n^ Melchior Adam
rchtes, to marry her to Glad us; a minifter of Orta-
mnsden: but ihe did not like Gbcius; and fo Luther
. laarricd her himfelf upon the 13th of June 1525.
This condu«£l of hi» was blamed not only by the Ca-
tholics, but, as Melanahon fays, by thofe of his own
party, I& was even fiur fbae lime afiMmed of it him*

L U T

I 33^ ]

X U T

tbnchcr. Kroleftant8» when tlie Proteftant religion was firft eUa-
bliflied on a fiim bads. See PaoT£STANTs and Rs*

rOaMATION.

After diis, Luther had little elfe to do than to fit
down and contemplate the mighty work he had finifh*
ed : for that a fingle monk (hould be able to give the
church fo rude a ihock» that there noeded but fuch an-
other Entirely to overthrow it, may very well fecm a
mighty work. He did indeed little elfe ; for the re-
mainder of his life was fpent in exhorting princes,
ftatesy and univerfitjesy to confirm the reformation
which had been brought about through him; and pub-
lifhing from time to dme fuch writings as. might en-
courage, dire^ and aid, them in doing it. The em-
peror threatened temporal punifhment with armies, and
the pope eternal with bulk and anathemas; but Luther
cared for none of their threats. His &iend and co-
adjutor Melan6Uion was not fo indifferent ; for Me**
landhon had a great deal of foftnefs, moderation, and
diffidence- in his make, which made him very uneafy,
and even forrowfid, in Abe prefent diforders. Hence
we findonany of Luther's letters written on purpofe to
fiipport and comfort him under ,the£s fevenil diftnefles
tind anxieties.

In.ithe year 1533* Luther wrote a .confolatoiy
cpifUe to the citizens of Ofchatz^, who had fuffered
fome hardfhips for adhering to the Augfburg confef-
fion of faith; in which, among other things, he-ifays^
** The devil is the hoft, and the world is his inn ; fo
that wherever you come, you fhaH be fure to find this
ugly hod.'' He had alfo about this time a terrible
controverfy with Geoi^e duke of Saxony, who had
fuch an averfion to Luther's do^rine, that he obliged
his fubje6y to take an oath that they would never em-
brace it. However, So or 70 citieens of l^ipfic were
found to have deviated a little from the Catholic way
in fome point or otlier, and they were known previ-
•Qufly to have confulted Luther about it ; upon which
George complained to the ele6tor Jdbn, that Luther
had not only abufed his perfon, but alfo preached up
rebellion among his fubjedls. The eledtor ordered Lu-
ther to be acquainted with this ;. and to be told at the
iame time, that if he did not clear himfelfof the charge,
he could not poffibly efcape punifhment. But Luther
cafily refuted the accufation, by proving, that he had
been lo far from lUrring up his fubje£is againfl him,
on the fcore of religion, that, on th^ contrary, he had
-exhorted them rather to undergo the greateii hard-
fhips, and even fu£Pcr themfelves to be banifhed.

In the year i.S34» the Bible tranflated by him into
<rerman was firft printed, as the old privilege, dated
at Bibliopolts, under the elector's hand, (hows ; and
it was publifhed the year after. He alfo published

▼elytiotwithftandin^ all that his friends could fry or do
to prevent htm : his refolution, however, was attend*
ed with a good effed^ for the. aigkt after his dcpazture
he began to be better. As he was carried along* he
made his will/ in which he bequeathed his deteftatioa
of Popery to hiB friends and brethren ; agreeablj to
what he often ufed to fay : Prfiu eram mms^ nmryiM
era mors tua^ pi^a; that is, *' I was the plague of
Popery in my life, and fliall continue to be fo in my
death."

This year the Pope and the court of Rome, findiag
it impoflible to deal with the PratefbnU by forccy be-
ffan to have recourfe to ftratagem. They affed^ed there-
fore to think, that though Luther had indeed carried
things on. with a high hand and to a violent extra&ey
yet what he had pleaded in defence of thefe mcafnies
was not entirely without foundation. Th^ talked
with a fceming (how of moderation ; and riuM I XL
who fucoeeded Clement VII. propofed a reformation
firft, among themfelves, aad even went fo far as to £x
a place for a council to meet at for that purpofe. But
Luther treated this farce as it deferved to be treated ;
unmaiked and dete^led it immediately ; and, to ridi-
cule it the more firongly, caufed a pidure to be
drawn, in which was reprefented the pope feated on
high uj>on a throne,, fome cardinals about him vrith
foxes tails on, and feeming to evacuate upwards and
downwards ^r/i/m dcorfum rtfwrgare^ as Mclchior Adam
expreflfes it). This was fixed over-againfl the tkk-
page, to let the readers fee at once the fcope and dc-
%n of the book ; which was, to expofe that cunning
and artiiice witli which thofe fubtle poh'ticians a&d-
ed to cleanfe and purify theipfelves from their errors
and fuperilitions. Luther publifbed about the fame
time A Confutation of the pretended Grant of Con-
flantine to Sylvefter Bifhop of Rome ; and alfo ibme
letters of John Hufs, written from his prifon at Coo-
ftaoce to the Bohemians.

In this manner was Luther employed till his death,
which happened in the year 1546. That year, accom-
panied by Melan^on, he paid a vifit to his own coun*
try, which he had not fcen for many years, and re-
turned again in fafety. But foon after he was called
thither again by the earls of Mansfeldt, to compofe
fome differences which had arifen about their bounda-
ries. Luther had not been ufed to fuch matters; but
becaufe he was bom at IHeben, a town in the territory
of Mansfeldt, he was wilh'ng to do his country what
fervice he could, even in this way. Preaching his laft
fermon therefore at Wittemberg, upon the 17th of
January, he fet off on the 23d; and at Hall in Saxony
lodged with Juftus Jonas, with whom he flaid three
days, becaufe the waters were out. Upon the 28th,

this -year a book again d maflfes and the confecration of he pa fled over the river with his three fons and

prieiW, in which he relates a conference he had with
^the devil upon thofe points ; for it is remarkable in
Luther's whole hiitory, that he never had any conilidU
«f any kind within, but the devil was always his anta-
goniil. In February 1537, ^^ affembly was held at
Smalkald about matters ofreligiim, to which Luther
and Melan^thon were called. At this meeting Lu-
ther was r<;Ized with fo grievous an illnefs, that there
were no hopes of his recovery. He wasaffli6ked with
the flone, and had a iloppage of urine for 1 1 days. In
this terrible condition he would needs undertake to tra-

Dr Jonas ; and being in fome danger, he faid to the
Dodtbr, " Do not you think it would rejoice Ac
devil exceedingly, if I and yoy, aiid my three foas,
(hould be drowned ?" When he entered the tcrritoriea
of the earls of Mansfeldt, he was received by loo
horfetnen or more, and coadudled in a very honour-
able manner ; but was at the fame time fo very ill,
that it was feared he would die. He faid, that thefe
fits of ficknefs often came upon him when he had any
giieat buiinefs to undertake : of tliis, however, he did
not recovers but died upon the i8th of February, io

the

L U T [

ither, the 63 d jesofoS his age. .A little before he espiredy
heran- he admonifhed thofc that were about him to pray to
^'**' God for the ppopsgation of the Gofpel ; " becaufe
(faid ke) the council of Trent, which had fat once or
twice, afid the pope, would derife ftiange things againfl
it." Soon after, his body was put into a leaden cof-
fin, and carried with funeral pomp to the church at
Ifleben, ii^en Dr Jonas preached a fermon upon the
occalione The earls of Mansfeldt deflred that his
body (hould be interred in their territories ; but the
^e^or of Saxony infifted upon his being brought hack
to Wittemberg ; which was accordingly done : and
there he was buried with the greateft pomp that
perhaps ever happened to any private man. Princes*
carls* nobles, and ftudents without number, attended
the proceifion ; and Melan^Uion made his funeral ora-
tion.

A thoufand lies were invented by the Papifts about
I^uther's death. Some faid that he died fuddenly ;
others, that he killed himfelf ; others* that the devil
ftrangled him ; others, that his corpfe ftuok fo abo*
ininably, that they were forced to leave it in the way,
as it was carried to be interred. Nay, lies were in-
vented about his death, even while he was yet alive*
Luther, however, to give the moft effe^ual refutation

335 ] X U T

in relation to Juftification ; he alfo fet afide the Apoca- l*ttther«i
]yp£e : both which are now received as canonical in the r iL: J
Lutheran church.

Luther reduced the number of facraments to twd*
w%. baptifm, and the eucharilt : but he believed the
impanadon* or confubftantiation, that is, that tho
matter of the bread and wine remain with the body
and bk>od of Chrift ; and it is in this article that the
main difference between the Lutheran, and Engliih
churches conMs.

Luther, maintained the mafs to be no facrifice ; -ex-
ploded the adoration' of the hoft, auricular confeflion^.
meritorious works, indulgences, purgatory, the worw
ihip of images, ftc which had been introduced in the*
corrupt times of the RomiHi church. He alfo oppcK
tpd the dodkrine of free-will,, maintained predeiUna-
tion, and afTerted our juftification to be folely by tho
imputation of the merits and fatisfa^kion of Chrift*.
He alfo oppofed. the failings in the Romifh churchy,
monaftical vows, the celibate of the clergy. Sec.

LUTHERANS, the Chriftians who follow the opi-
nions of Martin Luther* one of the principal reformers
of the church in the i6th century. See Luther.

The Lutherans* of all Proteftants, are thofe wh»
dificr kail from the RomiAi churclM a& they affirm^

of this account of his death, put forth an advertife- that the body and blood of Chrift are materially pre*

with the Pa- fent in the faerament of the Lord's fupper, though ia

ment of his being alive ; and,- to be even
pills for the malice they had ihewn in this lie* vnrote
a book at the fame time to prove* that *^ the papacy
wa» founded by the deviL"

Luther's works were colic Aed after his death, and
printed at Wittemberg in 7 vols folio. Catharine d<
Bore furvived her huiband a few years ; and continued
the iiril year jof her widowhood at Wittemberg, though

an incompreheniible manner ;, and likewife repre£enfe
fome seligious rites and inilitutions*. as the ufe o^
images in churches, the diilingiiiihing veftments of the
clergy, the private confeifion of iins, the ufe of wafers
in the-adminiilration of the Lord's fupper* the form oF*
exorcifm.in the celebration of baptifm*,and other ct*
remonies of the hkc nature*, as tolerable* v and fome of

Luther had advifed her to ieek another place of refi- them as ufefuL The Lutherans. maintain*,. with regard

dence. She went from thence in the year i (^47* when to the divine decrees* that they re£jpe& the falvatioft.

the town was furrendered to the emperor Cluirles V. or mifery of men* iu. confequence of a previous knoi;^

Before her departure, (he had received a preknt of f o ledge of their fentiments and charadkers* and not at

crowns from Chriilian II L king of Denmark ; and free and unconditional, and as founded on the mere

the eledor of Saxony* and the counts of Mansfeldt^ will of God.- Towards the clofc of the tail century^,

gave her good tokens of their liberality. With thefe the Lutherans began to entertain a greater liberalitjT

additions* to what Luther had left her, ihe had where- of fentiment than they had before adopted ; though-

withal to maintain hevfelf and her family handibmely. in many places they perfevered longer in fevere and-

She returned to Wittemberg* when the town was re-
ilored to the ele^ov ; where (he lived in a very devout
and pious manner* till the plague obliged her to leave
it again in the year i^s^* ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ had at
Wittemberg ; and retired to Tomu*. with a refolu-
tion to end her life there. An ualortUBate nufchaooc
befd her in her journey thiUitr* which proved &tal to

defpotic principles than other Proteilant churches.
Their public teachers now etijo|r an unbounded Hberty -
of dilTenting from, the deciiions of thofe fymbols oy
creeds which vrere once deemed almoil infidliUe rules*
of faith andpnidlice* and of declaring their diifent in
the manner tk«y judge the moil expedient. Mofheim
attribute* thia change in their fentiments to the maxim-

her. The hortes growing unruly* and attempting to which they genen^ adopted*, that Chriiliaoii were ac<*

run away* ihe leaped out of the vehicle ihe was convey- oouatablcTto God alone for their rdigioug opinions;

ed in ; and, by leaping, got a fall* of which fhe Sid mad that bo inlivUmdcould be jiiflfy pmiiihed by the

about a quarter of a year after*, at Torgau* upoo the nu^iftralt for his cnroMout opinions* . while he con<*

20th of December 1552* She was buried there in ths ducted himfelf like a^ virtuous and dxdient fubjcift*.

great church* where her tomb andepiuph are iUU t» and maide no flttem|it8 to difturb the. peace and order

be feen; and the univeriity of Wittemberg* which wat of civil fiDcietfC

then at Torgau becaufe the plague raged at Wittem« LUTHERN^ m aichiteaiire* a kindcof . windows

berg* made m puhfic prognunmaconcemiag the fiueral oarer the ooraice* in the roof of. ir. building^; ilanding

pomp*. . perpendkuhu'ly over the naked of a.wafl^ and ferving

LUTHER ANISM, the feniimentB of Martin Im* to illuminate the upper ftoqp».
titer with re^rard to reUgion.. See Luther. Luthems are of various forms $ as iquare*

Lutheranifm has undci^gone fome alterations iince cufaur* round* called MPs ejesy jita ardki^ dec

the time of its founder.— Luther rejeded the epiiHe of
St Jamesi as inconfifteat with thcdo&nacaf St F^ui^

LUTRA, in zoology. See Musts la.
I^UTTI (fienediltoj* an . anincnt painter* bom ate

Elo*-

LUX

tfVtiwi Florence in i566« He wa« the dlfctpte of Antonio
II . Dominico Gabiani, and his merit wu judged equal to

Lmnif j»n ». ^1^^^ of hi8 mailer: he painted few befide eafel pieces |
and his works were much valued and fought for in
Engkndy France» and Germany. The emperor knight*
cd nim ; and the ele^r of Mentz, together with his
patent of knighthood, fent him a cro^ fet with dia-'
monds. Lutti was never fatisfied in finifhing his pic-
tures $ yet though he often retouched them» they nc*
ver appeared laboured. He died in 1724.
' LUTZENy a town of Upper Saxony in Germany;
£imous for a battle fought here in 16339 when Gu&H'-
^rus Adolphus king of Sweden was killed. It is fi*
tuated on the river Elfter, in E.Long. la. 57. N.
Lat^ 51.

C 33« 3

LUX

20.

riant flowierSf are the flower<«^ and pctaliv ^vfakh
LinnsBus confiden as the tegumenta or coTCva of the
flower ; the parts that are diininiihedy or eatirdy ex*
eluded* are the ftamina or dxives, which the fame aa*
thor denominates the male organs of generation*

Luxuriance in flowers is capable of the three follow*
ing varieties.

1. A flower is faid to be multiplied (^/fW mmk^
eaiujjf when the increafe of the petals is not foch as
to exclude all the ftamina : in this fenfe, flowers are
peoperly faid to be double, triple, or quadniple» aooont
ing to the number of multiplications of the pctai&

2. A flower is faid to be full, (Jlos fLmu)^ whea«
by the multiplication of the petals, all the ftamina are
excluded. Such are moil of the double fiowcn thai

LUXATION, is when any bone is moved out of engage the attention of florifts.

its place or articulation, fo as to impede or deiiroy its
proper ofBce or motion. See Surge a y.

LUXEMBURG, a city of the Auftrian Nether-
lands, and capital of a duchy of the fame name. It
is feated partly on a hill, and partly on a plain ; but
Is very ftrong both by art and Jiature* It is but in«
differently built, though there are fome good ftone
houfes in it. There is nothing very remarkable among
the ftru^ures but the Jefuita church; which is a hand*
fome edifice, after the modern tafte. ,. It was taken by

3. A flower is faid to be prolific (fiot prv^ar)^
which produces flowers, and fometimeslcavea, from its
centre.

For a particular defcription of each of thefe kinds
of luxuriance in flowers, fee the articles Mvltifiacm
Tus Floiy Plmnus Flotf and Pb.olipem, Flotm

Many natural orders of plants do not in any ciicmn-
(lances produce luxuriant flowers. Of this kind are
the mafqued-flowers of Tournefort, excepting caheV
(hout j the rough4eaved, umbelliferous, fbuny pjantsi

JLouis XIV. in 1684; who fo augmented the fortiflca- and fuch as flower at the joints, of &ay: fome umbel*

tioiis, that it is now one of the flrongeft towns in £u- liferous flowers, however, are proHjic.
rope. It was ceded to Spain by the treaty of Ryf- The pea-bloom, or butterfly-fhaped flowerst aferara-

wick; but the French took it again in 1701, and ly rendered double ; fome inflances, however, oflnxD>

gave it up to the houfe of Aufbria by the treaty of riance, are obferved in a fpecies of ladiea-finger, con>>

Utrecht. It is 25 miles fouth-weft of Treves, and 100 niUa, and broom.

weft of Mentz. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. 49. 52.

Luxemburg (the duchy of^, is one of the 17 pro*
vinces of the Netherlands. It is bounded on the eaft
by the archbiflioprick of Treves ; on the fouth, by
Lorrain ; on the weft, partly by Champagne, and
partly by the biflioprick of Liege, which likewife, with
part of Limburg, bound it on the north. It lies in
the foi*eft of Ardcnne, which is one of the moft famous
in Europe. In fome places it is covered with moun*
tains and woods, and in general it is fertile in corn
and wine ; and here are' a great number of iron-mines.
The principal rivers are, the Mofelle, the Sour, the
Ourte, and the Semoy. It belongs partly to the houfe
of Aaftria, and partly to the French ; and Thionville
is the capital of the French part.

Luxemburg (Francois Henry de Montmorenci),
duke of, and marfhal of France, a renowned general in
the fervice of Louis XIV. was bom in 1628. He
was with the prince of Conde at the battle of Rocroy,
in 1645 ; and in 1668 dillinguiflied himfelf at the con«
queft of Franche Compte. In T672, he commanded
in chief the French army in HoQaad ; when he de-
feated the enemy near Woerden and Bodegrave, and
was univerfally admired for the fine retreat he made
in 1673. ^^ became marfhal of France in 1675 |
gained the battle of Flerus in 1-690, that of Steenkirk '
in 1692, and that of Nerwind in 1693. He died at
Verfafllcs in 1 695.

LUXURIANS FLOS, << a luxuriant or double
flower ;'' a flower, fome of who(e parts are increafed
in number, to the diminution kx entire exclusion of
others.

The partff that are augnftcnted or imikipUed in luxu-
• N^ 189. 6

All luxuriant flowen are vegetable monftera. Sock
as are perfedly full, by which we mean the greateft
degree of luxuriance^ cannot be propagated by feeds;
becaufe thefe, for want of impregnation, can never fi-
pen. Full flowers therefore are very properly deno-
minated by Linnzus eunuchs. This higheft degree of
luxuriance is very common in carnation, lychnis, ase>
mone, ftock, Indian crefs, rofe, marfli marigrald, x»
nunculus, violet, poeony, and narciffus.

Flowers which do not exclude all the ftamina, pcr-
kB. their feeds. Of this kind are poppy, fennel-flower,
campanula, and fome others.

Some flowers, as thofe of the water-lily, fig-man^
gold,; and ca£kus, have numy rows or feries.of petals,
without the number of ilamina being in the leail dini-
niihcd. Such flowers are by no means to be reckoa-
ed luxuriant, in the flighteil degree.

Luxuriance in flowers is generally owing- to ezccfi
of nourishment.

LUXURY ; voluptuoufneis, or an extravagvnt i»-
dnlgence in dtet^ dzeia, and equipage.

Luxury, among the Romans, prevailed to fndi a
degree, that fevcral laws were made to fopprefst or
at leaft limit ,it. The extravagance of the table b»-
gan about the tiaie of the b;fttle of A^um^ and coa-
tinued in great excefs till the reign of Galba. Pe^
cocks^ cranes of Malta, nightingales^ ^emloii^ viU
and tame fowl, were confldered as delicacies. A ^n^
iuGon of proviflons vras the reigning tafte. Whole
wild boars were* often ferved up, and fomctimea thef
were fiUed with various fnudl animals, and birds of
different kinds: this difti they called the Trains Aotrfi^

WalluiLoB tft 1^ voodea httie fiUcd sakli ikiUiefB.

Fowia

L ty X

C 337 1

Z XS X

FtmfU and game «f dl Ciits were ferveA «p in whole
pyramid pOed up in diflwt at broad as aiodcrate
taldet.' l!iacallus kad a paiticidar name for each
apattment; and ia whate^^cr r omn he ordered bit fer*
vajvtt to prepare the entettaifunenti they knew by the
dmdtott ^e expence to which they were to ffo.
When he fapped in die Apollo, the expence was fix*
ed at 50>ooo dnni^Hutf chat is L. 1x50. M. Antony
tnroTtded eight boars for it gnefts, ViteQittt had a
urge fftrer phrtitery faid to have coft a million ^if^Ur*
eetf caDed Mtmrva^t hmckitr. In this he hkoded to«
gether the liters of gik-heads, the brains of phea&nts
tthd peacocks, the Mignes of phenicoptersy and the
nults of iaaipreysk Caligula forved up to his guefts
pearls of great value difelved in vinegar ; the fame
was done aUb by Clodius the fen of .^op the trage«
dian. Apicius laid slide 90,000,000 cXfefiercct^ befides
li mighty revenue, for no other purpofe but to be fa*
crificed to luxury : finding himfelf involved in debt,
he looked over his accounts, and though he had the
Cum of 10,000,000 ot Jt/lerces ftiU left, he poifoned
himfelf for fear of being ilarved to death.

The Roman laws to reftrain luxury were Lett Orckiaf
Fanma^ Du&th Lieima^ ComelUif and many others:
But all thefe were too little; for i9 riches increafed
•mohgfl them, fo did fenfuality.

What were the ideas of luxury entertained in Eng*
land about two centuries affo, may be gathercd fiom
the fbSowing pafTage of Hcuinihed; who, in a difcourfe

fe conmMi w4« ill fotta of tieene ve&b ii d0 ttiM^ Umi^v

that a man fliould hardly find fi»ur piecea pewter (d

which one was peradvcatiine a fait) ia a jgomt fiirnMi^A

hoofe. Again, in times paft, men wert contented t#

dweD inhottlestnuldedpf iSUIow, wOiow, ftc.lb thai tkt

nfe of oak was in a manner dedicated whoilf iuit#

churches* religious houfes, prinoea palaces, iiavjgatio%

ftc. But now willow, &c. are rejected, and nothing

but oadL any where regarded ; and yet fee the duaget

for when our bodes were builded of wiliow> then had

we oaken men ; but now that our houfes are come to

he made of oak, our men are not only beconse wiflow^

but a peat many ahogether of fbaw, which is a fore

akeration. In thefe, the courage of the owner was

a fufficient defence to keep the houfe ia fafety 1 but

now the affurance of the timber muft defend the men

from robbing. Now have we many chimneys, and

yet our tenderlins complain of rheums, catarrhs, and

pofes ; then had we none but reredofes, and our heads

did never ach. For as the fmoke in Uiofe days were

fmppofed to be a fufScient hardening for the timber

of the houfe ; fo it was reputed a far better medicine

to keep the goodman and his family from the quacks

or pofe ; wherewith, as then, very few were acquaint*

ed. Again, our pewterers in time pafb employed the

ufe of pewter only upon diihes and pots, and a few

other trifles for fervice ; whereas now they are growa

into {iich exquifite ounnii^, that they can in a man*

ner imitate by infafion any form or fafiiioa, of cup»

prefixed to his Hiflory, fpcaking of the inc|«aie of difli, fait, bowl, or goblet, whidi is made by the

luxury, fays, <* Neither do I fpeak ihis in reproach
ef any man, God is my judge ; but to fiiow, that I
do rejoice rather ta fee how God has blefled us with
his good g^s, and to behold how that ia a time
wherein afi things are grown to the moft exceffive
prices, we yet do find means to c>btain and atchieve
fuch fiimtture as heretofore was impoffiUe. Thene
are old men yet dwelling iiAke village where I remain)
which have noted three things to be marveloufly al-
tered in England widiin their found remembrance. One
Ss the multitude of chimneys lately ereded ; whereas
in their young days there were not above two or thKC,
if fo many, in moft ixpUndilh towns of the realm (the
feligious houfes, and mafKMr places of their lords, al-
ways excited, and peradventure fonie great perfo-
fiages), but each rnade his fire againft a reredofs
rHcreen] in the hall where he drefled his meat and
oined.-— The fecond is the great amendment of lodg-
ing ; for, kid they, our ^Esthers and we ourfelves have
fain full oft upon 'Araw pafiets covered only with a
iheet, under coverlits made of a dogfwaine or hoihar-
fiats (to ufe their own temM^, and a good log under
.their head inftead of a bolfter. — If it were fo that
the father or good man of the houfe had a mattrals,
t>r flock bed and flieets, « fack of chaff to reft his
head upon, he thought himlelf to be as well lodged
at the lord of the town« &o wdl virere they con-
tented, that pillows (ikid they) were thought meet

goldfmiths craft, though they be ever fo curious and
very artificially forged. I|i feme places bey<md the
fea, a gamifli of good flat Englifli pewter ( I iky
flat, becaufe diflies and pbtters in my time began to
be made deep^ and like bafons, and are indeed more
convenient both for fiiuce and keeping the meat wmn)
is efteemed fo preciotts as the like number of veflela
that are made of fine filver.*'

Particular inflsaocs of luxury in eati^f howeaet^
might be adduced fixMn an earher period, furpafliog
even the extravagance of the Ronuins. Thns, in the
xoth year of the leign of Edward IV. 1470, George
Nevill, brother to the earl of Warwick, at his inftal*>
ment into the archiepifcopal fee of York, entertained
moft of the nobility and principal clergy, when hit
bifl of fiu*e was 300 quarters of wheatf 350 tuns of
ale, 104 tuns of wine, a pipe of fpiced wine, 80 fitt
oxen, fix vrild bulk, IC04 wethers, 300 hogs, 300
calves, 300d gceky 3000 capons, 300 pigs, 100 pea»
coc^s, aoo cranes, 200 kids, 2000 cfaidceas, 400^
pigeons, 4000 rabbits, 204 bitterns, 4000 ducks, 20«
pheafanta, 500 pairtridges, 2000 woodcocks, 4^00 plop'
vers, 100 curlews, 100 quails, looO'C'grets, 200 seei^
400 bucks, does,and roebodu, 1 506 hot veoifon paftics,
4000 cold ditto, 1 000 dHhes of jelly parted, 4000 diflies
of jelly plain, 4060 cold cuftards, 2000 hot cuftard^
500 pikes, 300 breams, eight feals, four porpufiea^
400 tarts. At this feaft the earl of Warwick waa

'Only for womea tn childbed; as for fervants, if fteward, the eari of Be^rd treafurer, and lordHaftings

they had any flieet above them, it vras well ; foi^ feU
dom had they any under their bodies to keep them
iirom pricking ftrawa, that ran oft through tiie can*
vas and their hVmiened hides. — The third thing they
tcH of, is the exchange of treene [wooden] i^ttera
into pewter, and woodeo fpoons 4Bto .filver or^a | for
• VouX. Parti,

comptroller, with many noore noble officers ; looo fer*
liters, €2 cocoes, 515 menial apparitors in the kitchen^
-—But fuch was the fortune of the man» that after
histcxtreme prodigality he died in the moft abjeftbut
Unpitied poverty, 9m8us Jacmi m fw mm a mtfia.
And«ato^^0/$ti^vry-iatfaat artick-feemato^mvt

U tt attained

1 u at

f 3.38 1

L T C

Jt,Diuyf. attained a great hciritt long before HoKiiflic^s time :
For in the reign of Edward III. we find no fewer
than feven fumptuarj laws paflcd in one feflion of par-
liament to reftrain it. It was eoafked* tbat men fer«
▼ants of lords, as alfo of tcadefmen and artifans, (hall
be content with one meal of fi(h or flefh every day ;
and the other qieals, daily, (hall be of milky cheefcy
butter, and the like. Neither (hall they ufe any or-

it may be ttedeflary that fuch as go beyond proper ly..
bounds in eatingy drinking^ and wearing what by ao I
means is fuitabie to their (tation, fhoiild be taxed ac- ^'*'
cordingly, could it be done*without incloding thoCb
who have a better title to fuch indulgence. This i*
certainly, however, a point which fhould be matnrdy
weighed before executed ; and, in mercantile countries
at leaft). foch reftraint? may be found prejudicial, mc^

naments of gold, filk, or embroidery ; nor their wives likely impra^licable, efpecially where true liberty ii

and daughters any veQs above the price of twelvepence. eftabli(hed. Sir William Temple obferves, fpeakin^

Artifans and yeomen (hall not wear cloth above 40s. of the trade and riches, and at the fame time of the

|he whole piece (the fineft then being about L. 6 per frugality of the Hollanders, ^^ That fonae of our max-

piece), nor the ornaments before named. Nor the ims are not fo certain as current in politics : as that ea*

women any veils of (ilk, but only tlvofe of thread couragement of ezcefs and luxury, if employed in the

made in England. Gentlemen uader the degree of confumption of native commodities, is of advantage

knights, not having L.ioo yearly inland, (hall not to trade. It may be fo to that which impovcriihcs.

wear any. cloth above 44- marks the whole piece. Nei-
ther (hall they or their fsmales ufe cloth of gold, (ilvcr,
or embroidery, &c. But efquires having L. 200 per
annum or upwards of rent, may wear dfoths of five

but not to that which enriches a country. It is indeed
lefs prejudicial, if it lies in native than in/bretga warr' ;
but the humour of luxury and expence cannot Hop a:
certain bounds ; what begins in native will proccssd is

marks the whole piece or cloth ; and they and their foreign commodities ; and though the example ink

females may al£3 wear fluff of iilky (liver, ribbons,

girdles, or furs. Merchants, citizens, burghers, and

artificers of tradefmen, as. well of Loiidun as elfe-

where, who have goods and chattels of the clear value

of L.500, and their females, may wear as is allowed

to gentlemen and efquires of L. 100 per annum* And

merchants, citizens, and burgefles, worth above L. 1000

in goods and chattels, may (and their females) wear

the fame as gentlemen of Lf« 200 per annum. Knights

•f 200 marks yearly may wear cloth of {jol marks the

cloth, but no higher ; but no cloth of gold, rior furred

with ermine ;. but all knights and ladies having above

400 marks yearly, up to la.iooo per annum^ may wear

as they pleafe, ermine excepted ; and they may wear

ornaments of pearl and precious ftonea for their heads

only* Clerks having degrees in cathedrals, colleges)

&c. may wear as kmghts and efquires of the (atnc in- _ _ ,

come. Plowmen^ carters^ (hepherds, and fuch likcf philqfitphy of the Lyumm is ufed to fignify the phikia-

among idle perfons, yet the imitation will run into ail
degrees, even of thofe men by whofe induflry the ra-
tion fnblHla. And befides, the more of our cwn ivt
fpend, the lefs we (hall have to fend abroad ; and iib
it will come to pafs, that while we drive a vaR trader
yet, by buying much more than vezf^f we (haH come
to be poor at laft."

LYBIA» or LiBYA» a name anciently giTen to dD
that part of Africa lying between the border cf £-
gypt and the river Triton-; and coospreheoding Cyrt^
naicaf Marmarica^ and the Regio Syrtica* See theft
articles.

LYCEUM, Avxfioir, in antiquity, the name of a
celebrated fchool or academy at Athens^ where Aii-
ftotk explained his philofophy. The place was oom-
pofed of porticoes, and trees planted in the quincunx
form, where the philofophers difputed

Bot having 40s. value in goods or chattels^ (hall wear
BO fort of cloth but blanket and ru(ret lawn of i ad.
and (hall wear gipdles and belts ; and they (haU x)nly
eat and drink (uitable to their (lations. And whofo-
ever ufes other apparel than is pcefcribed by the above
kws fkaSl forfeit the (aote.

Concermng the general utOity of luxury to a (late*
there is much controverfy among the political writers.
Baron Montefquieu lays it down, that luxury is ne-
ceflauy in monarchies* as in France ; bat ruinous to
democracies, as in Holland. With regard therefore

to Britain, whofe government is compounded of both percalia (Virgil)..

phy of Ariftotki or the Peripatetic philofophy. Suidtf
obferves, that the Lycsum took its name from its ha*
viiig been originally a temple of Apollo X.ycanu $ oc
rather a portico or gallery built by Lycseua fon of
Apollo : but othara mention it to luive been buih by
PififtratUs or Pericles.

LYC^US (anc. geog.), a moimtain of Arcadia,
(acred to Jupiter; whence Jupiter Lycaut (Pliny)»
Sacred aUb to Pan (Virgil) : and hence Lyc^a, the
rites peifonned to Pan on thia mountain ; which £-
vander earrying with him to Latium^ were called Z»

i^pecies, it is held to be a dubious que(^ion, how fiur
private luxury ia a public evil; aad» as fuch, cog-
niiable by pubHc laws. Aad indeed our I^iilators
'fcave leveral times changed their fentiments aa to this
point ; for fbrmeriy there were a number of penal kVs
exifiing to re(farain exee(s in apparel, chiefty made in
the reigns of Edwavd III. IV. and Henry Vill. a
Ipecimen of which we have inferted above. But A
of them it af^peai ed expedient to repeal at an after
period. In fa6k» although luxury wifl of neccffity iiL.
creafe according to the influx of wealth> it may not
be for tbe general benefit of commerce to impoie, as
in die above cited laws, an abiUute prohibition of
every degtee of it ; yct» Car the good of the puhlici

LYCAON (fab. hift.)t the firft king of Arcadia,
fon of Pelafgus and Meh'boeab He buih a town called
Lycofitra,, on the t(^ of mount Lycxus, in honour of
Jupiter. He had many wives, by whom he Jiad a
daughter called Callifto, and 50 jfons. He was fucceed-
ed on the throne by Ny^kimus, the ddeft of his fans.
He lived about 1820 years before the ChrifUan seTa««»
Another king of Arcadia celebrated for his cruelties
He was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, becanfe he
offered human vi^m& 00 the altar of the god Pan.
Some attribute thia mctamorphofis to another canie.
The fins of mankind, as theyrdkte, were become fo enoc*
nous, that Jupiter vifited the earth to pum'(h wicked-
nefs and impiety. He came to Arcadiat where he

L Y C

i 339 3

L y D

koi^Vt WBsmnnoimced m t god* and the people begin to pay
hnis. pi^pci. adoration to his divinity, LycaoQy however^
Drho ufcd to facrifice all flrangers to his wanton cruel*
ty, laughed at the pious prayeVs of his fubjedis ; and
to try the divinity of the god| he ferred up human
flefh on his table. This impiety fo irritated Jupiter^
that he imnocdiately deilroyed the houfe of Lycaon,
and changed him into a wolf.

upper part a vtfcoustjr clammy matter i gamxAed with I'jcit ^
long narrow leaves, by pairs oppoiite ; and terminated H
by many reddiih purple flowers, in clufters one aboYe ^y^*^ '"^^
another, forming a fort of long loofe fpike ; all the
flowers with entire petals; flowering in May* Of
this alfo there are varieties with Angle red flowers,
with double red flowers, and with white flowers. The
double variety is coniiderably.the moft eligible for

LYCAONIA, (anc. geog.), a fmall country of general culture, and is propagated in plenty by part-

Htained between Pamphylia to the mg the roots. AU the varieues o!F .this fpedes

t^e Hither Afia, contained

fouth, Cappadocia to the north, Pifidia and Phrygia
to the weft, and Armenia Minor to the eaft. JLy»
caoneSf the people. This country, though fituated
very near mount Taurus, and part of it on it, yet the
Ronuuis reckoned it into Aiia intra Taurum. jlrca*
iSa^ anciently called Lycaoma^ ( Stephanus. )-*«rAlfo a>i
iHand in the Tiber, joined to Rome by a bridge, and
to the land by another, namely, the Ceftius and Fa«
brieius.

LYCHNIS, CAMPION, in botany, including alfo
tiie BaMor't-itttonf Ca/eH^jf &c: A genus of the
pentagynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 2 2d order, Caryopbylh. The calyx is monophyl-
Jous, oblong, and fmooth ; there are Ave unguiculated
petals ; with the fegments of the hmb almoft bifid ;
the capfule quinquelocular.

SfecieSf dec. i. The Chakedonica, or Chalcedonian
icarlet lychnis, hath a fibrated perennial root ; up-
right, flraight, hairy, annual ftalks, rifing three or
foui: feet high ; gamifhed with long, fpear-pointed,
dofe-fitting kaviss, by pairs oppofite ; and the ftalk
crowned by a large, compact, flat bunch of beautiful

emitting a glutinous liquid matter from their flalks,
flies happening to light thereon fometimes ftick
and entangle themfdves, whence the plant obbuns'
the name Catch-fly. 4. The floe-cuctdi, cuckoo-
flower lychnis, coounonly caUed ragged'^rMn^ hath
fibry perennial roots ; upright, brancfalefs, channelled -
ftalks, riiing near two feet high ; gamiflied with long, '
narrow, fpear-fliaped leaves, in pairs oj^ofite ; and
terminated by branchy foot-ftalks, . fuftaining nuiny
piirple, deeply quadrifid flowers ; appearing in May.
The flowers having each petal deeply quadrifid in a
torn 9T ragged-like manner, the pbnt obtained the'
cant name of Ragged-robin. There are varieties with
fingle flowers and double flowers. The double fort is .
a large, very multiple, fair flower : it is an improved
variety of the fingle, which grows wild in mod of our
moift meadows, and is rarely cultivated ; . but the '
double, being very ornamental, merits culture in every
garden. AU the four (jpecies and refpe^ve varieties
are very hardy ; all fibrous-rooted, the roots peren-
niajL) but are annual in ftalks, which rife in fpring,
flower in fummer, fucceeded in the fingles by plenty
of feed in autumn, by which all the fingle varieties

icarlet or flame-coloured flowers, appearing in June - may be raifed in abundance, but the doubles only by
and July. Of this there are varieties, with fingle dividing the roots, and fome by cuttings of the flower-
fcarlet flowers, with large double fcarlet flowers of ftalks.

exceeding beauty and elegance, with pale-red flowers,
and with white flowers. Of thefe varieties, the dou-
ble fcarlet lychnis is fuperior to all for fise and ele-
gance : the flowers being large, very double, and col-
lected into a vtry large biuich, exhibit a charm-
ing appearance 1 the fingle fcarlet kind it alfo very
pretty \ and the others effect an agreeable variety with
the fcarlet kinds. 2. The dioecia, or discious lychnis,
commonly called bachekrs'butiony hath fibrated per-
ennial roots; upright ftalks, branching very diffufe
and irregular, two or three feet high ; having^ oval,
acute-pointed, rough leaves, by pairs oppofite; and
all the branches terminated by dufters oi dioecious
flowers of diflierent colours -and prepeities in the va-
rieties ; flowering in April and May* The varieties,
are the common fingle red-flowered bachelors button,,
double red, double white, and fingk white*flowered.
The double i»arieties are exceedingly omamentd in
tkeir bloom ; the flowers large, very douUe, and
continue long in blow ; the fingk red fort groivs
wild by ditch fides and. other inoift places in many
parts of England ; fi-om which the doubles were ac-
cidentally obtained by culture in gardens. The flowers
are often dioecious, u ^ male ^and female on diftin^

LYCIA, a country of Afia Minor, bounded by
the Mediterranean on the fouth, Caria on the weft,
Pamphylia on the eaft, and Phrygia on the north, it
was anciently called MiiyaSf and Tremle^ from the Mi-
lyse, or Solymi, a people of Crete, who came to fettle
there. The country received the name of Lyaa from
Lycus the fon of-Pandion, vrho eftabliflied himidf
there. The inhabitants have been greatly commend-
ed by all the ancients for their ibbricty and juftke.
They were conquered by Cnzfus king of Lydiai and
afterwards by Cyrus. Though they were fubjed to
the power of f erfia, yet they were governed by their
own kings, and only paid a. yearly tribute to the Per-
fian monarch. ' They became part of the Macedonian
empire when Alexander came into the eaft, and after-
wards were ceded to the houfe of the Sdeucide. The
country was reduced into a Roman province by the
emperor Claudius.

LYCIUM, in botany : A genus of. the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria dafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 28th order,
Lurldtm The corofla is tubular, hai'ing its throat
dofed up with the beard of the filaments ; the berry
is bilocidar* There are e^ht fpecies, natives of various

plimta. 3»TheyifcaHa,orvifcou8 German lychnis, conx* countries,
monly called ^aichfiy^ hath fibry po-ennial roots ; LYCODONTES, in natural hiftory, the petrified
crowned by a tuft of lonj^ grafly leaves dole to the teeth of the lupus-pifds, or wolf-fifh, frequently .
ffround \ many ered, flraight, fingk ftalks, rifing a fiound foflik. They are of different fliapes ; but the
H)ot and a half, or two feet high> exfudin^ from thdr moft common kind rile into a femtoii)icu]ar form^ and •

Una ara

L y c

t 54« 1

L Y C

Ifcom*- ^h6lkmmAiBfiomt$Au^ kiady of m neadjr ^btricat fbrm^ yckcwi or

JLf Co! «r- ^ l^<^v ^ fevnd fdmediiiei ciiipty» and fometimet traded at the loat. Thia Cpaeti m ca gni wa to a . '■j

^' ' filled with the ftiatum ini^ich it it txnmerfed. Maiif enomioiM ficc* It haa bcu fbmid sa Eagfand aa big ^^

of them have an outer«circle, of a different colour as a man's head ) aad at Canariaf aear Padoa in Itadft ^^ii*

fimm the reft.

LYCOMEDES, (fab. hiil.), a king of Scyros an
ifland in the JEmmh fca. He was fon of Apollo and
Pafthcnope. He was fecretlj entrufted with the
care of young Achilles, whom nis mother Tethift had

fpecimens have been gathered, weighing 25
and meafuring two ^^uds in ctrcumferenoe :
more ordinary fixe is that of a walnut or aa appk.

The varieties of this iiwciea have no liaastsy bci^
fireqaently found to run into one another ; the icalff
^ in woEiaA's eloaths» to remove him from the warty, and edunated coats tumiag baooth aa the
IVSojaa war, where fhe knew he nuift unavaidahly pe* plants grow old» and the neck of the fugua harisf
rilh* Lycomcdes has rendexed him&lf famous for hia no determinate length. The natural cok>ar af the
traachery to Thdeus, who had implored his protec* puff-ball is either white, grey, or afh-oolonxed : bat
tioii.wfatn drives from his throne ii Athens by the is fomctixncs found yellowiih^ tawny, and bm w uiiL
ufosper Mneftheus. Lyeomedes, aa it is reported. The internal fpongy part of it, bound on to woank^
cither eaviowe of the fame of his illuflnous euefts, or is efteenaed good to ftop bleedings. Preffisd aad dried
bribed by the cmiffariea of Mneftheus, led Thefeus to in an oven, the puff-ball becomes a kind «f tiader,
aa elevated places on pretence to fhow him the extent the (knokc of which is Cud to intoaicatc bees. See
of his dominions^ aad perfidioufly threw him down a Gent^ Mag. July 1 766. The Italians fry the graft
precipice, vrhere he was killed* variety, and indeed any of the others when young,

LYCOFERDON, in botany : A eenus of the nu and eat them vrith lalt and Qil» accocdiag to the
toral Older of foagi, belonging to the cryptcmmia relation of Marfigli.
dais of plants. T^e fimgus is roundifli, and lull of LYGOPERSICON. See Solanum.
fiurinaceoos lecdi. There are 10 fpedes, of which the LYCOPODIUM, or club-moss ; a genas of the
following are the moft remarkable. natural order of mufci, bdoaging to the cryptogaaiia

I. The tnber,truffle8, or fubterraneous puff-balls^ is a dais of plants. The antherae are bivalvcd and feffiies
afitive of woods both ia Scodand and Enghmd* It is a there are no calyptra. There are 24 fpecies ; of which
fabteiraneousfungustgrowing generally in dufters three the foQowiog are the moft remarkable,
•rfonr inchesunder grround,ariuo«t any vifible root. The i • The clavaium^ or common ckib-raofs, is commea ia
figure of it is nearly (pherical, the fize that of a pota- dry and mountainous places, and in fir fbsefb. The talk
to } the exterior coat at firft white, aftervrards black, is profbrate, branched, and creeping, from a foot to tno
and ftudded with pyramidical or)polyhedrou8 tuberdes ; or three yards long ; the radides woody. The leaves ise

the internal fubftance folid and callous, of a dirty-
white or pale-brown colour, grain'd like a nutmeg with
ferpeatine h'nes } in which, according to MicheU, are
imbedded minute oval capfules, containing each from
two to four round vrarted feeds. The truffles of Great
Britain (ddom exceed three or four ounces in weight ;
but ia Italy, and feme other parts of the continent,
they are fiud to have been found of the enormous fize
of eight and even 14 pounds. . They are received at
oar tables, either frdh and roafted like potatoes, or
dried and iliced into ragouts* Tliey have a volatile
and fbmevvhat urinous fmcD, aad are reputed to be
aplurodifiaad. Dogs are vrith much pains taught to
Imnt for them b^ the (cent, and to fcratch up the
ground under which they lie.

a. The bovifta, or common puff-ball, js frequent in
meadowa and paftures in the autumn. It varies ex-
ceedingly in fize, figure, fiiperfides, and colour.
In general, it coafifts of a fack or bag, having a root
at Its bafe, and the bag compofed of three mem-
branes, an q)idennis, a tough white ikin, and an
interior coat which adheres dbfely to the central pith.
The pith ia the young ^ants is of a yellawiih coioar,
at firft firm, and iolid» but fbon changes into a cellular

fpooffy fubftance, fritt of- a dark dulhgreea powdery Hig|dand mountains ofSoothupd, andJa the Hebrides.
vdiic^ difchaigel itfeV throu^ an i^>erture at the- The ftalk at the bafe is fing|e and ttdiniiig $ bat »
top of the fuagus^ which aperture ia fonaed of Uk Httle hif^ier. ia^ dtvidad' iato upright dJchotamauj
aerated. &gmcnis, in fome varieties vefieaad^ The branches, from two to fix iaclKS high, forrouaded
powder is believed to be the ficeds^ which through, ak with eight, loogitudiaal oUi<pie fericaof kMcaolaie^
midrofcope appear efa fpherioaiform, and to^ be an* imooA, rigid^ imbricated kovcs. Nearthafwanuta
Avxedtoelaftie hairs. Set ffsilerU Nj/i» liehtt^.n. ttfji.. of the branchesf in tfaa^o/a of the leaves^ are plaoed»

AmoB^ the numerous varieties of this fiiagus, the fing^e kidaeyv^aped eaplUee^ eonftftingof two v aini»
l^ahrum is au^ft rrm a rka bteu k ia a imoodL &fiUe wUcb apea.horizoataU)[ like Ae flidb- tf aa-oyinv

a ' aadi

numerous, narrow, laaceolated, acute, often incurred at
the extremity, temunated vrith a longadiite hair, aid
every where furround the ftalk. The pedundca are
eredi, firm, and naked (except being thinly £et vriih
lanceolate fcales), and arife from the ends of the
branches. They are generally two or three inches
long, and terminated with two cylindrical yeOoaiih
fpikes, imbricated vrith oval-acute (bales, findy bee-
rated on the edges, and ending with a hair. In tbe
ah or bofom of the ficak is a kidney-flia^)ed capfde,
which burfts vrith elafticity when ripe, and throws
out a Ught. yellow povsdcr, vriiich, blovra into the
flame of a candk, flafiiea with a finall explofion. 1^
Swedes make mats of this mofs to ub theiv ihoet
upon. In Ruflia, and (bme other coamiea, the pow-
der of the capfules is ufed ia medicine to heal gdk ia
children, chc^s in the fidn, and other fores. It is dlla
ufed to powder over offidnal piU^ and to make mtii*
eial K^tning at theatresir The IVdea make a deco^
tion of the plant, and, dipping.a linen ckckinto kf,
apply it to the heads of porums afflifked vrith the di£>
cafe caMed ^fScaJf^iomcwt, which ia (aid to be enrol
by this kind of fomentatioaK

a. The Jelt^^t or fir dub-moA^ is c uaia a uo m the

L T C r 341 1 h T tF

caft out a fine jfSkm powdar. Tliefi; capfakt LYCURGUS^ tlie ccfabraftid kf^tor af Ike L yrtim ai

Unaietit fiippolet to be muber^^ or male ports of Spartanf, wat the ion of EfbioeMa wnff of Spatta*. 1^ .

finadifcatioiu In the afr alio of laanj of the kavea^ , He traTeOed to Greece^ t# the iSe of Crtte» ^T^*^,

oenr the tops of the hranckea^ are o^tea feiuid what to Egypt^ and erea to the Indies^ to eoftverfe with:

tbc fiune mat author calls femcit ^Mutrs^ but sduch the fingea and learned aien of thoie couatcies» and to

tlie iacenious Haller efteetns to be only gems or bnda learn their manners^ their cuftoins» aad their laws.

of a mure pbint. They confift, firil^ of £Mtr ftiff^. After the death of his brother Polyde^es, who waa

laBceohte^ incurted» minute leaves, one of the outer* king of Sparta^ his widow offered the crown to Ly*

nsoft longer and larger than the reft. Thefe are fup- curgus, promifine that ihe would luJce herfelf mif«

pofied to correfpond to the ro/fx in regular flowers, carry of the child of which fhe was pfegnanti pnrrided

A^in, at the bottom c^ this ejiyx are five fmall pd^ he would marry her v but Lycurgus nobly refnfed

Ineid fubflances rcfembling leaves, viiible only by a thefe advantageous oiFers,. and afterw^s contented

microfeoj^y which are fiippofed analogoos to piftik. him£df with being tutor to his nephew Charillus, and

Thefe, in time, grow up into thrre large broad leaves^ reftored to him the government when he came of age;r

two of the five united together like the hoof of an ox; but notwithftaading this regular and generous coo-

with a third narrower one annexed at the bafe, and dtt6^, he was accufed of a ddign to ufurp the crown.

two other minute ones o{4)ofite to the other three. This calumny obliged him to retire to the iiland of

Thefe five leaves are joined at the bafe ; and in autumn^ Crete, where he applied himfelf to^ the ftudy of the

falling from the ca/fx, vegetate, and produce a new laws and euftoms of nations. At his return to Lace*

planti See a differtattoo Defemmibnt mafionmif jhumii. demon, he reformed the government : and, to prevent;

Atmdtwu II. p.- 261. In. the ifland g« Raafay, near -the diforders occafioned by luxury and the love of

Sky, in Rofslhire, and feme ether places, the inhabit riches, he prohibited the uleof gold andfilver ; ]^aced:

tants make ufe of this plant in&ead of alum, to fix allthecitixensin a ftate of equality; and introduced the

the colours in dyeing. The Highlanders alfe feme* ftri&eH temperance, the moil ex»6t difcipline, and

times take an infufion of it as an emetic and cathartic: thofe admirahle laws which (a few excepted) have

but it c^>erates violently ; and, unlefs taken in a feaall been celebrated by all hiftorians* It is feid, that, to»

dofe, brings on giddinefe and convuHions» Linnaius engage the Lacedemonians to- obfervc them tnviol»-

iifonnt us, that the Swedes ufe a deco^ion of it to bly, he made them promife wkh.an oath not to change

deftroy lice on fwine and other animals.- any part of them till his return ; and that he after*

LYCOPOLIS, or lycon, (anc. geog.) focaBed vmrds went to the ifland of Crete, where he kflled

from the worihip of wolves. Lycof^itm^ the people ; htkafelf, after having odrdered that his antes' ftouUbd

LyeofoBtes^ the diftn6k« There were tvro towas-of thia thrown into the fea, for fear left if his body flwuld bn

name, one in the Delta, or Lower Egypt, near the carried to Sparta the Laeedemonians vrould- think

Mediterranean ; the other in the Thebais, or Higher themfelves abfolvcd firom* their oath. He A>uriibed

Egypt, in the northern part, to the vmft of the Nile about 870 B. C.

LYCOPHRON, a funous Greek poet and gramw LYDD^ a- town, of Kent in England, two mika

marian, bom at Colchis in £ubcea, flourifiied about aad a half foath-weft of Romaey, of which town and

304 B» C. and, accoiding to Ovid, vras killed by an. port it is a member^ and 71 miles frcxn London. It

arrow. He wrote 20 tragedies % but all his works arc is a populous town^ with a maeket on Thurfday,. and-

lo((, except a poem intitled Cajandr^ which contains fiur on July 34tlu It is incorporated by the name of

a long train of predictions, which he fuppofes to- a bailiff,, efefted. July 22d^ jurats,, and commonalty,

have been made by Caflandra, Priam's daughter. In the beach near Stone-end, is a heap of ftones, fan-

This poem is extremely obfcure. The beft edition cied to be the tomb of Crifytn and Crifpiaaus. And

of it ie^that of Dr Potter, printed at Oxfoid in 1^7, near the fea is- a place called Hatmfione^. confiftiog of

folio. beach and pehble-ftoaes, which aboanda nevcrtheliefa

LYCOPSIS, in botany v A genus of tiie monogy* with hohn trees. Here is a diarity- fehooL

nia order, belonging to the pcntandria clafe of plants ;. LYDGATE (John)^ called the MmJt of Bmy f^

and in the natural method ranking under the 41 fi or* not, as Cibber conjectures, becaufe he was a native of

der, AJ^tr^ii&s^ The coroQa has an incurvated that jdace,- for he ¥»ras bom about the year r38o,. in.

tnbe. the village of Lydgate ; but becaufe he was a monk

LYCOPUS,. in* botany : A genus of the monogy* of the Bencdidine eonvent at St Edmund's-Bury.

Bta order^ belonging to the diandria dafs of plants \ After fludying fome time in our Englifh univerfities,

and in the natural method, ranking under the 42d or* he travelled to France and Italy; and,, having acquired

der, Vertkillat£^ The corolla is' quadrifid, wilii one a competent knowledge of- the languages of thofe

if the fcgments enuu^inated; the fiamioaftaadiog a* countries, he returned to London,, where he opened a

fender,. with four retufe feeds. fehool, in which. he inflroded the fons^f the nobility

LYCURGIA, a feftival obforved by the Spartans, in polite literature. At what time he retired to the

in meroery of their lawgiver Lycur|^s,.whoiit- they convent of St EdmuadVBnry, does not appeas;

honoured with* a temple sLnd amuverfary fecrifiee.-. hot he was certainly there in 14.15. He was -living

LYMPHiBA, wese artificial ca^a or grottos a» in. 1446^ aged about 66 rbut in- what yiear he died-

aiengfi; the Romaas> furniihed' with, a great maof ia not known.. Lydgate, according to JPits, was aa

fttbes,. canals, and vanbus hyi^kaxfic: apparatus^ thn>' ekgant poet, a peefeafive riictoncian, an ejq>«vt m».

which the water guflied out t^on the ijpc£bitosa ira* thnsatician,. an acute philofepfaer, aad a tolerable ^

IKpe6kedly whiJft they were admini^ the beautiful vine. He was a voiuminoiis writer f and, confidtring

pfrangeautat of -the. fbdkwockia.the ^otto.- the a^ i» whidk bclived, aa eapcclleat^ poet. His

language

LTD C 34a ] LTD

^yd'** language is lefs bbfoletey and iiis verfificatton much who were a I^ydian colonji conclude thcnit vtithoitf

more harmonious, than the language and vcriification' any £uther evidence, to be originally Egyptiaoa. AH

of Chaucer, who wrote about half a century before we know for certain is, that the Lydians were a ircry

him. He wrote* i. Hiftory of the Theban war,' ancient nation, as is manifeft from tlieir very ^ks;

printed at the end of Chaucer's works, 1561, 1602,* for Atys, Tantalus, Pelops^ Niobe, and Arachne, are

1687. 2. Poemation of good counfel ; at the end of all &id to have been the cliildren of Lydus. And Zad-

Chaucer*s works. 5. llie life of Hettor; London thus in his /.jr^r^i, quoted by Stephanus, informs lo,

1594, fol. printed by Grofs dedicated to Henry V. that the ancient city of Afcalon» one of the €ve (a-

3. Life of the Blefied Virgin ; printed by Caxton. • trapies of the Philiiliues, laentioned iu the books of

4. The proveibs of Lydgate upon tlie fall of princes ; • Jofliua and- the Judges, was built by one Alcaics a
printed by WiiJc. Word. Lond. • • . • 4to. 5. Dif-' Lydian, whom Achiamus king of Lydia hadappoiot*
pute of the horfe, the iheep, and the goofe ; printed cd to command a body of troops which he fcnt, we

" know not on what occafion^ into Syria. The Ht-

radidae, or kincrs of Lydia, defcended from Hcrcuics,
began to reign before the Trojan war ; and bad boeu
preceded by a long feries of fovereigns fprung froa
Atys, and hence jdyled jiiyad^ : a flrong proof of the
antiquity of tliat kingdom.

The Lydians began very early to be ruled by kin^
whofe government Teems to have been truly dcipotic
and the crown hereditary. We read of three difiisd
races of kings reigning over Lydiai via. the Atyadzi
the Heradida;, and the Mermnadas.

The AiyatU were fo called from Atys the fon of
Cotys and grandfon of Manes the firft Lydian kin^.
But the hiltory of this family is obfcore and fabulouit

The Atyade were fucceeded by the HeracBd*^ of
the defcendanta of Hercules. For Hercnks being,
by the direction of the oraclt, fold as a flavc to Om«
phale a queen of Lydia to x:xpiate the naurder of
Iphitus» had, during his captivity, by one of her
(laves, a Ton named CleoLut^ whofe grandfon Argon
was the firft of the Heradidse that afcended the throec
of Lydia. This ^ace is fald to have reigned J05
years, the father fucceeding the fon for 22 genera-
tions. ' They began to reign about the time of the
Trojan war. The laihof the family was the unhappy
Caudauks, who loft both his life and kingdom by his
imprudence. An event of which we have the following
account J>y Herodotus. Candaules had a wife whom
he paffionately loved, and believed the mod bcnutiful
of her fe&. He extolled her charms to Gyges his £&-
voutite, whom he ufed to entruft with his molt import*
ant aflfairs y and the more to convince him of her beaii^
ty, refolved to.fhow her to him quite naked: he accord-
ingly placed him in the porch of her chamber where
the queen ufed to undrefs when flie went to bed» or-
dering him to retire after he ihould have fccn her,
and take all poflible ca^ not to be jobfervcd. But
notwithftanding all the caution he could ufe» (he plain-
ly difcovered him going out ; and though fhe did not
dpubt but it was ner nufband's contrivance, yet fbe
paiFed that night in a feeming tranquillity, fuppref-
fing her refentment till next morning, while (he fent
for Gyges, and refolutely told him that he muft either
by his death atone for the criminal aAion he had been
guilty of, or put to death Candaules the contriver of
it, and receive both her and the kingdom of Lydia
for his reward. Gyges at iiift eameftly begged of
her that (he would not drive him to the ncceflity of
fuch a choice. But finding that he could not prevail
with her, and that he muft either kill his mailer or
die himfelf, he chofe the fanner part of the altema-
tive. Bein? led by the queen to the £une place where
her hufband had po&ed liim the night before^ he iUh-

bed

Caxton's CoUe£l. 4to. 6. The temple of brafa 1
among the works of Chaucer. 7. London lickpenny ;
vule St-owe's hiftory, &c. &c. Befides an incredible
number of other poems and tranflations preferved in
various libraries, and of which the reader will find a
catalogrue in biihop Tanner.

- LYDIA (anc. geog.), a celebrated kingdom of
Ada Minor.— All the ancient writers tell us^ that
Lydia was firft called Maonia or Mtoniaf from Meon
king of Phrygia and Lydia ; and that it was known
under no other denomination till the reign of Atys,
when it began to be called Lfdia from his fon Lydus.
Bochart finding in his learned colle£tion of Phoenician
words tlie verb /nz, fignifying ** to wind," and ob«
ferving that the country we are fpeaking of is watered
by the Mxander fo famous for ift windings, concludes
that it was thence named Lydia^ or LuSa. As to the
ancient name of Maeonia, he takes it to be a Greek
tranflation of the Phoenician woid W; wherein he
agrees in fome meafure with Stephanus, who derives
the name of Maeonia from Maeon the ancient name
of the Mseander. Some take the word nutonia to be
a tranflation of a Hebrew word fignifying *' metal,"
becanfe that country, fay they, was in former times
enriched above any other with mines. Tiiough Lydia
and Maeonia are by moft authors indifFereotly ufed £;>r
one and the fame country, yet they are fometimes
diftinguifhed 4 that part where mount T^olus floods
watered by the Padolus, bcin^ prdperly called M£0'
tiia ; and the ather, lying on the coaft, LytBa* This
diftindion is ufied by Homer, Callimachust Dionyfius,
and other- ancient writers. In after ages, when the
loniant, who had planted a colony on the coaft of the
Egean Sea, began to make fome figure, that part was
caued Ifmiaf and the name of Lydta given to the an-
cient Maeoniaw— -Lydia, according to rliny, Ptolemy,
and other ancient geographers, was bounded by the
Myfia Major on the north, by* Caria on the fouth,
by Phrygia Major on the eaft, and Ionia on the weft,
lying between die 37th and 39 degrees of north lati-
tude. What the ancients ftyle the kingdom of Lydia
was not confined within thefe narrow boundaries, but
extended from Halys to the Egean fea. Pliny's de*
fcription includes iEolia, lying between the Hermus
and the Caicus.

As to the origin of the Lyi^ns, Jofephus, and
after him aU the ecdefiaftic writers, derive them
from Lud Shem's fourth fon; bnt this opinion has
no other foundation than the finulitude of names.
Some of the ancients will have the Lydians to be a
mixed colony of Phrygians, Myfians, and Carians.
Others finding fome conformity in religion and rdi-
gious ceremonies between the Egyptians and Tufcans

L Y »

r 343 ]

t Y D

bed the king while he was afleep^ mamed iHe giteen,
and took pofTefflon of the kingdom^ in which ne was
confirmed by the anfwer of the Delphic otacle. The
Lydians having taken up arma to revenge the death
of their prince, an Agreement was made between
them and the foflowers of Gyges, that if the oracle
fhould declare him to be lawful king of JLydia he
fhould be permitted to reign ; if not, he fhould refign
the crown to the Heraclidse* The anfwer of the oracle
proving favourable to Gyges, he was univerfolly ae*
knowledged for lawful king of Lydia. Candaules
18 faid to have purchafed a piAure painted by Bular-
chasy reprefenting a battle of the Magnetes, for its
^weight in gold ; a circumfhince which fhows how early
the art of painting began to be in requeft, for Can-
daules waa cotemporary with Romulus.

Gyges having thus pofTeiTed himfelf of the kingdom
of Lydia, fent many rich and valuable prefents to
the oi^cle of Delphos, among others, fix' cups of
•gold weighing 30 talents, and greatly efteemed for
the workmanfhip. He made war on Miletus and
Smyrna, took the city of Colophon, and fubdued the
whole country of Troas. In his reign, and by his
-permiflion, the city of Abydus was built by the Mi-
le fianiu Plutarch and other writers relate his accef-
fion to the crown of Lydia in a quite different man-
ner, and tell us, without making any mention of the
• queen, that Gyges rebelled againfl Candaules and flew
him in an engagement. In Gyges began the third
race called Mermnad^; who were alfo, pt^perly fpeak-
ing, HeraclidflB, being defcended iirom a fon of Her-
cules by Omphale. Gyges reigned 38 years, and was
fucceeded by his fon Ardyes.

This prince carried on the war againft the Mile-
fians which his father had begun, and poiTefied him-
felf of Priene, in thoie days a ftroog city. In his
reign the Cimerians inmded and over-run all Afia Mi-
nor ; but what battles were fought between the Ly-
dians and thefe invaders, and vmh what fiKcefs, we
find no where mentioned. Herodotus only informs
us, that in the time of Ardyes they poflefled them-
felves ol Sardisy the metropolis of jLydid) but could
never reduce the cafUe. x Ardyes reigned 49 years, and
was fucceeded by his fon Sadyattesywho Beigaedi 2 yeairsy
and waired moft part of his reign with the Mikfians«^
After hinv came his fon Alyattes, who for the fpace
•f five years continued the war which his father had
begun againft the Iffilefiansy savaging their country,
and about barveft time carrying away all their corn
yearly, in order to oblige them, for want of prbvi-
fions, to furrender t^eir city, which he knew he could
not reduce any dther way, the Mikiians being at that
time matters of the fea. In the f 2 th year of this war
the Lydians having fet &e to the com ur the fields,
the fiaxhes were carried "by a sioient wind, which hap-
pened to blow at that time, to the temple of Mioerva
at AiTefus, ind burnt it down to the ground. Not
long after, Alyattes falling fick, fent tib eonfuk the
aracle at Delphos ; which refufcd te< return aay an-
fwer till fueh time as the king fhould rebuOd the temple
of Minerva at AfTefus. Alyattes, thus-warnedy dif-
patched ambafladors to Miletus, cnjoinii^g them to
conclude a truce with the Milcfians till the temple
fhould be rebuilt. On the amval of the ambafladors,
Thiafjbttlus, then king of llil^uiy commanded all

the corn that was at that time in the city to be
brought into the market-place, ordering the citizens
to banquet in public, and revel as if the city were
plentifully Aored with all manner of proviiionti. This
flratagcm Thrafybulus praiSlifed, to the end that the
ambaSadors feeing fuch quantities of corn, and the
people every where diverting themfelves, might ac^
quamt their mailer with their affluence, and divert
him from purfuing the war. As Thrafybulus had de-
figned, £j it happened ; for Alyattes, who believed
the Milefkms greatly diflreffed for provifions, receiving
a different account from his ambailadora, changed the
truce into a kfting peace, and ever afterwards lived
in amity and friendfhip with Thrafybulus and the Mi-
lcfians. He vras fucceeded, after a reign of 57 years*
by bit fon Crxfus, whofe uninterrupted profpenty,
in the firil years of his reign, far eclipfed the glory
of all his predecefTors. He was the firfl that made
war on the Ephefians, whofe city he befteged and took
notvnthflanding their confecrating it to Diana, and
iaflening the walk by a rope to her temple, which
was feven iladia diflant from the city. After the rew
duftion of Ephefus, he attacked, under various pre^
tences, the lonians and iEolians, obliging them, aikd
all the other Greek flates of Afia, to pay him a year-
ly tribute. Having met with fuch extraordinary fucr
cefs by land, the Lydian prince determined to render
his power equally confpicuous by fea. For this pur-
pofe he thought ferioujQy of equipping a fleet $ with
which he purpofed to invade and conquer the Grecian
ifiands dire^y fronting his dominions. But this de-
fign, which, confidering the flow progrefs in miuritime
power among the Tiations mofl diligent to attain it,
would probably have failed of fuccefs, was prevented
by the advice of a philofiophical traveller conveyed in
fuch a lively turn oif wit, as eafily changed the refo*
Itttion of the kinp* Bias of Frien6 in Ionia, fome
fay Pittacus of Mitykne in the iflc of Lefhos, while
he travelled ^er the Grecian cuflom,. from curiofity
and a love of knowledge, was pisqfented to Croefus at
the Lydian court ^ and being afked by that prince
what news from Greece ;; he anfwered with a republi-^
can fttedom, that the iflandets had ooUe^led powerful
fquadrons of cavalry with an* intention of invading
Lydia« ^ May the gods grant ^faid Cnsfua), that
the Greeks, vidio are unacquainted with horfemanfhip^
ihoidd attack the difcipliaed valour of the Lydian
cavtdry ; there would foon be an end to the conteil.'''
*^ In the fame manner (replied Bias), as if the Ly^
dSans, virha are totally unexperienced in naval affairs^
fhould invade the Gredans by fea^'^ Struck by the
acntenefs of this unexpeded obfevration, Croefus de-
fifted from his intended expeditioa againft the iflands^
and inftead of empfeying new means for extending
his conquefls, determined peaceably to enjoy the lau«
rels which he had won, and to difplay the grandeur
which he had attained. But his happincfs was foon
after allayed by the death of his favourite fon Atys,.
who was unfortunately killed at the chace of a wild
boaieu For this lofs he continued difconfolate for two
-yearfr and in a flate of inaiftion-,. till the conquefls of
Cyrus, and growing power of the Perfians, roufied up
his martial fpirit, and diverted his mind to other
thoughts. He apprehended that the fuccefs which
attended Cyrus in ^ his undertakings, might at hik

prove

LydU.

Aan republic appeased to be pointed out by the orade fifta of imtiire or edflcatioD. ** You are preponof ,

as 4he community whofe alhance they were enjomed O king, to mardi againft a people who icad a Uo-

-to folicit. Having repaired accordingly to Sparta, riout and a mi&rabk lific)- whofe daily fubfiflcnceif

they were introduced not only to the kings and fe- often denied them, and is always icasty and precariooH

«ate, but, as the importance of the ncgodattion re- -who driok only wacer» and who are dodied with the

«qmred, to the general affembly of the Laoedemoni8iks» flans df wiid beafts. What can the Lydiana gain by

to if^om they, in few words, declared the objed of the coaqneft of Petiia ; they who cnj^ ^ the ai-

tbeir commifiion : ** We are fent, O Liscedemonians ! vantages of udiioh the Perfians are dediuite ? For aay

by CnsfuR, kii^ of the Lydians and of many other na^ part» 1 deem it a hlefiing of the gods, that they haft

tions, who being commanded by the ocade of Apollo not excited the warlike poverty of thdc miferafale bw-

to feek the firicndihip of the moft powerful people of <faanans to invade and plunder the lumnoua wcakh sf

^reece^ now fummons you, who jdlly merit that cpi- Lydia.'' The moderation of this advice was rgcdal

tbet, to become his iaithfid allie% in obedience to the by the AtalprrCnmptinfc of Cwtfaa^ wii9 coafaiadiBg

W1S9 the

L Y » T 344 1 L Y »

''ffat a ftop, if polible^ to his psogncA. In taking The LAcedanamans» pleaied wi^ the aBiaaoe of a

thim refoluition, which might probad»ly be attended warlike kiag» and ftXiaore vrith the fineof chew va-

widi the moft iaiportast oonfoqvences, he was defirooi lour* readfly accept the propoU. To the Irifi

:to leara the wfll of heaven cooeeming dv lihe of the connoftion of an ofTenfive and dcfeofive kagac, they

-war. The principal orades whieh he ooafulted were joined the more reipeded ties of &cnd hofyitality.

*Choie of Branchis in Ionia, of Hammon in Libya, A few years before this trattfaftion, they had leat to

and of Delphi in Greece. Among thefe rtipc&ed purchafe gold at Smrik for makiag a ftaoie of Apdb.

ihrines, the orade of Ddphi maintained its afcendant* Cixsfos had on that occafion gratuitoufly fupplied thdr

«s the moft faithful interpreter of fate. Croefus was want. &ememberiag this generofity, they gave t&r

/uHy perfuaded of its veracity; and defirous generouily Lydiaa amha&dors at tfaor departuxc, as a pic£at

ito compenfate for the troiiMe whidi he had already for their raaAcr, a vcffid of bra& coatuuig 300 ssk-

civen, and ftill meant to give, the piiefia of Apo^, phoras (above 12 hogiheads)* and beautifiifiy caned

he fiicrifieed 3000 oxen to the god, and adorned his oa the outfide with various fonns of animals,
ihrine with dedications equally vafaiabk for the work- Croefus, kaviag thus happily aocompliihed dbe de-

ananihip and for the materials ; precious veflcls of fign recdmmended by the orack, was eager to iet os

iihrer, ewers of iron beautifully ialaid and enamdkd ; npon his intended expedition. He had formexly ea-

iparioiM ornaments of pure gold, paiticnlarly a golden tered into affiance with Amafis ki^g of Egypt, sot?

lion weighing ten talents, and a fenade figure three Labrneins king of Babylon. He had now obtaiBc^

jcbbits or near five feet high. In return for thefemag* the tabendHiip of die moft vrariike nation of Euix^x*

aiificent prefents, the orade, in amhtguous language. The newly-raiied jpower of Cyrus and the Perfiav

Ottered Crsefus with obtaining an eafy vldory over feemed SAcapohle of refitting fuch a formidable con£t-

-his enemies, and with enjoying a long life and a pro- deracy.

iperous reign. The god at the fane time ett|Qined Elevated with thefe flattering ideas of his owd ia-

-him to ooatnfi an alliance widi the moft powerfnl of vincible gveatncfr, Croefus waited not to attack die

the Grecian ftates. Perfian dominions until he had oolleAed the ftreqgtk

Elevated vrith thefe fiivoarabk pitdidions «f ApQUo, of his allies. The fanguine impetuofity of his temper,

Croefus prepared to yield a ready ohodienoe to thie ois- wnex|>erienced in advei&y, unfortunately prec^tatcd

ly condition required on his part for the accoaspliA*- him into meafiires no leb ruinous than daring. At-

inentof his afpiring purpofe. Not deenang him- tended only by the arms of iLydia, and a nnmeraai

-felf fuffideatly acqaainted vridi the afiairs of &eoce» hand of mercenaries, vi^om faisimmenie vpcakh cnaUsd

to know whitft pardoular repghiic was meant by the hisn at aay dmc to call into his fervice, he nmrcbed

'Arade, he made particolar inquiry of thofe heft in- towards die river Halys ; and having croffod wida

formed concerning the ftate of £Qaope;and^difcoverod, mudi diflBodty that deep aad broad Irean, entered

that among all the members of the Gredaa coafede- the pnoviaoe oif Cappadocia* which fonnedthe vreftoa

«acy, the Athenians and Lacedemoaiaas were juftiy froader of the Median dominions. That ttitfortnnale

antitied to the prs-eminenee. In order to learn which -counta^ fooa eapecienoodall the cafauntttes of xnvafios.

«>fthefiecommuBitiea deferred the epithet of aiQf^/afptfr- The Pterian plain* the sofxft beautiful and the ims

Juif it was neceiTary to icnd ambaSidors into Oseece. fertile diftrift of Cappadoda^ was 'laid wafle i tk

The Lydians difpatched with this important oommi^ ports of the £uxine, as well as feveral inland cities

fion, foon difi^overed that the Atheniansy after having were plundered ; and the inofienfive iahabitanis weK

l>een kmg haraflcd by intenal diflenfions, were a£hudly either put to the fword or dragged into captivity,

governed by die tyrant Pififtratos. The Spartans, on Encotui^ed by the unrefifting foltnefs of the nauwi

the other hand, Uiough 'anciently the worft regnhtcd of thofe parts, Croefus was eager to puih forwards;

of all the Grecian comnmntties, had enjoyed domeftic and if Cyrus did not previoidly meet him in the ficU,

{>eace and fovdgn profperity ever finoe they had »- he had detenmaed to proceed m triumj^ to the moos,

dopted the wife mftictttions oif Lycwgus. Aiter diat tarns of Pcifia. Againft tiits dai^;crous refiDhitios

memorable period, they had repeatedty conquered the he was in vain exhorted by a Lycfian named Saadanis;

•warlike Argives, triumphed over the hsndy Arcadians; who, when a(ked his opinion of the war, declared k

and notwithftaading the heroic eafdoita of Ariftomcnes, with that fneodom which the pikices of the Eaft hawe

iubdoed and enAaved dicir upfertunate -rivals of Mef- in every age permitted, asdidft all the pride and cs-

fene. To the Lydian ambafladors, therefore, the Spar- pcices of ddjpotic power* to men diftingui&ed by the

1 T 1> [545.1 LTD

'y4hi, ^ ^ dtdatet of experienced wifiiom #itb t%e mean fug* beiof^ commuhidieited to Cyrus, was immediately adojft- ^T^

' geftioQS of pufiUamnuty, difinifled the counfeUor with ed with approbation by that prince. Harpagusi ha- '

contempt* ving obferved that horfes had a ftrong averiion to the

Meanwhile) ihe iqpproaeh of Cyrus, who wat not of fliape and fmell of camek, advifed the Perfian army to
m temper to permit hit dominiont to be ravaged with be drawn up in the following order i All the camela
tmpunityt attorded the Lydian kinfi^ an opportunity of which had been employed to carry baggage and pro*>
bringing the war to a more fpecdy iffue than by his in* vifions were coUe^ied into one body, arranged in a long
tended expedition into Perfia. The army of Cyrua line fronting the Lydian cavah7. The foot foldiers of
graduaBy augmented on his 'march t th« tributarr the Perfians were pofled immediately behind the line^
princes dicerfuUy contributing with their unitedftrengtb and placed at a due diilance. The Median horfe (fo)^
towards the afliftance of a matter whofe valcnir and ge* a few fquadrons of tfiefe followed the ftandard of Cy^
neroiity they admired* and who now took arms to rus) formed the rear of the army* As the troops on
prote£k the diety of his fubjedts, as well as to fupport both fides approached .to join battle, the Lydian caval*
the grandeur of his throne. Such was the rapidity ry, terrified at the unufual- appearance of the camels^
of his movement) efpecially after being informed of mounted with men in arms, were thrown into difor*
the deftrudlive ravages of the enemy in Cappadocia, der, and turning their heads, endeavoured to efcape
that he arrived from the ihorrs o£ the Cafpian to thofe from the field. Croefus, who perceived the confufioni
of tlie Euxine Sea before the' army of Croefus had was ready to defpair of his fortune; but the Lydians^
provided the neceffaries for their journey. That prince, abandoning their horfes, prepared with uncommon bra*
when appriCed of the neighbourhood of the Perfians, very to attack the enemy on foot. Their courage de-
encamped on the Pterian |^in | Cyrus likewife en* ferved a better fate i but unaccudomed as they were
camped at no great diftaace t frequent flcirmiihes hap» to this mode of fighting, they were received and repel*
pened between the light troops i and at length a ge* led by the experienced valour of the Perfian infantry^
ncral enga g ement was fought with equal fury and per* and obliged to take refuge within the fortified flrength
feverance, and only terminated by the darkneis of of Sardis, where they imagined themfelves fecvre. The
flight. The lofs on both fides hindered a renewal of walb of that city hid defiance to the rude art of at*
the battle. The numbers, as well as the courage of tack, at then prafitifed by the moft warlike -nations*
the Perfians, much exceeded the expe&ation of Crot* If the Perfian army (hould inveft it, the Lydianswere
fus*. As they difcovered not any intention to harafs provided with provifions for feveral years ; and there
his retreat, he determined to move back towards Sar- was reafon to tKpc€tf that in a fow months, and eves
dis, to fpend the winter in the amufements of his pa* weeks, they would receive fuch affiftance from Egyptf
lace ; and after fummoning his numerous allies to his Babylonia, and Greece (to which countries they ksd
ilandard, to take the ueU early in the fpring with fuch already fent ambalTadors), as would oblige the teif*
lAcreafe of force as feemcd fufficient to overpower the fians to- raife the fiege*
Perfians. The Lydian jnim'fters difpatched int^ Greece ca^

But this defign was defeated by the careful vigilance with great fympathy from the Spartans* That peopk

of Cyrus. That experienced leader allowed the ene- were particulaxly obfervant of the fiith of treaties ;

my to retire without mdeftation ; carefully informing and while they punifiied their enemies with unexam*

himfelf of every ftep which they took, and of every pled feverityt they behaved- with generous compsdEoa

meafure which they feemed determined to purfue* towaida thofe whom they had once accepted for Idliet*

Patiently watching the opportunity of a juft revenge. They immediately reCoWed therefore to fend him a

he waited untfl Croefus had re-entered his capital, and fpeedy and cfle&ual relief; and for this purpofe af*

bad di(banded the foreign mercenaries* who compofed fembled their troops, made ready their vefleb, and

the moft numerous divifion of his army* It then feem- prepared every thine neceffary for the expedition,
ed the proper time for Cyrus to put his Perfians in The valour of tne Spartans m^ht perhaps have

motion ; and fuch was his celerity, that he brought upheld the finking empire ot Lydia i but before thei^

the firft news of his own arrival in the plain of Sardis* armament could fet fail, Croefus was no longer a fove*

Croefus, whofe firmnefs might well have been (haken reign* Notwithftanding the ftrength of Sardis, that

by the imminence of this unforefeen danger, was not city had been taken by ftorm on the aoth day of the

wanting on the prefent occafion to the duties which he fiege; the walls having been fcaled in a quarter whicht

owed to his fiune and the luiire of the Lydian throne, appearing altogether inacceffible, viras too carelefsly

Thoi^h his mercenaries were difbanded, his own fub- guardedt This vras effe^ed by the enterprife of Hy*

jeds, who ferved hiin from attachment, who had been rcades a Mode, who accidentally obferved a centinel

long accuftomed to vifkory, and who were animated defcead part of the rock in order to recover his hel*

with a high fenfe of national honour,, burned with a met. Hyreadet was a native of the mountainous pro-

defire of enjoying an opportunity to check the daring vince of Mardia, and being accuflomed to clarnber

infolence oi the invaders* Croefus indulged and en- over the dangerous precipices of his native countxy^

couraged this generous ardour* The Lydians in that reijolved to try his a^vity in pafling 4he rock upon

age fought on norfeback« armed with long fpoars; the which he had difcovered tlie Lydian. The dcfign wat

ilrength of the Perfians confifted in ittfantqr* They more eaiiiy accpmplifhed than he had reafon to ett*

were fo little accuftomcd to the ufe of horfes, that >ca« ped-: emulatibn -ftAd (uceirfs encouraged the braveft of

«nels were almoft the only animals which ihey 'employ* the Perfians to follow his example i thcfe were flip*

ed as beafts of burden. . This circumftance fuggcfted ported by gveater numbers of their cbuatrymen {' th#

to a Mede, by name Haipagust a ftrats^em» which garrifon of Sardis was furprifed} the citadel ftormedt

Vol, X. Part L . X x the

Ijt-.-j

L Y G r 34<5 1 L Y N

the rich capital of Lower Afia fubje&ed xothc vcnge* burgxus to tiie treft.* Now tk -whole of tint c^onmry Lfe^-

£u\ ra^acitv of an indignant vidor« Thus ended the lies in Polandt oa thii iide the Vt&xihu *^*^

ancient kingdom of Lydia, vrhich continued fubjed to LYING-in-Women. See Midwifekt.
the Perfians till they alfo were conquered by the Ma- Ltimg^To, or Lylng^By^ the fittadoa of a Ihip,

cedonlans.-— F6r the fate of the Lydian monaich, fee when fhe is retarded in her courfe* by arranging the

the article Croesus. fails in fuch a manner as to covntcrad each otioer with

L YD I AT , ( Thomas )y a learned Englifh divine^ nearly an equal eiFort> and reader the ihip ^moft ict-

bom in 1572, and educated at OxfonL About the moveable^ with refpefl to her progrcffive xnotio&y or

year 1609, he became acquainted with Dr James head-way. A ihip isnifually brought-toby the maia

Ufher, afterwards archbilhop of Armagh, who carried and fore-top fails, one of which \m laid aback, whil^

him to Ireland. He was at Dublin college for about the other ii> full ; fo that the latter pafhey die flup

two year», after which he returned to England ; and forward, whilfl the former refifts this impolle hy

the redory of A^krington becoming vacant, he was forcing her aftern. This is particidarly pradiled ia

prefented to it : but at length, being eiigaged for the a general engagement, when the hoftile fleets arc drawn

debts of a near relation, which for the pre^nt he was up in two lines ^f battle oppofite each other. It is

unable to pay, having before fpent his patrimony in alfo ufed to wait for fome other ihip, either ^proacb-

printing feveral books, he was fent te prifon ; and was ing or expe£ied ; or to avoid purfuing a dangeroos

coniin^ at Oxford, in the King's-bench, and elfe- courie, efpeciaUy in dark or foggy areatbcr, &c.
where, till Sir William Bofwell, a generous patron of LYM£-aE-Gis a fea«port town of Dorfetfliire ia

learned men, Dr Robert Pink, warden of New-college, England, 148 miles from London. It lies near

bifhop Ufher, and Dr Laud, difcharged the debt. In the fea, on the very borders of Devoafliire, io a

the civil wars, he fnffered much in his re^ry of Alk« cavity between two rocky hills, which makes it dif*

rington from the parliament-party; was four times ficolt of accefs. It is about five fuiiongs long* and

pillaged to die value of at leaft 70!. ; and was forced contains about 200 houfes. As it lies on the decK-

for a quarter of a year together to borrow a fhirt to vity of a hill, the houfes nuke a good ihow; one

ihift himfelf. He died in 1646. He wrote (bane above another; and fome of them are hvStt of frce^

pieces in Englift, and many works in Latin, or chro« ftone, and covered with blue date. The corp49ratioa

nology and natural hiilory. conilfts of a mayor (who is* juftice of peace daring his

LYDIUS LAPIS, in the natural hiilory of the an* mayoralty and -the year after, and in the third year both

cients ; the name of the (lone u£ed by way of touch- jaltice and coroner), a recorder, 15 capital burgcfics,

ilone for the trial of gold and (ilver, and called by and a town-clerk. This place had formerly a *verf

fome HeracKus laptt ; both of which names were alfo flourifliing trade to France, Spain, the Straits, New-

applied by the ancients to the load-ftone ; and hence foundland, 4ind the Weft Indies ; during wbich, the

has arifcn no fmall mifunderftanding of their works* caftoms amounted fome years to i5,oooL Butit'ftands

Pliay has observed, that both the load^one and on fuch a high fteep rock, that the merchants are ob-

touch-ftone wei'e at timeb called /^^tr/and Hemdku Jafii* ^R^d to load and unload their goods at a plaoe a quarter

The true laph LytSusy or the tpuchftone, was an« ef a mile off, called the Cobb^ originally buHt in tiie

ciently found only in the river Tmolos ; but was after- reign of Edward ill., which coib a great foih to

wards found in many other places, and is now very maintain, buft forms fuch a harbour as perhaps is not

common in many of the German rivers. The ancients to be equalled in the world, the fhxps being (hekered

give us very remarkable and circumftantial accounts of by a high thick ftone wall, laifed in the main iica

the ufes they made of it ; and it is plain they vecre able a good way from the (hore, broad enou^i for car«

to difi:em the alloys of gold by means of it with very nages and warefaoofes, and the cuftom4K>ufe officers

great exa£lnefs. We at present ufe feveral different have one upon -it. The cellars of tbe low part of the

ftones under this name, anid for the fame purpoie. In town, near the fea, are however often overflowed fay

Italy, a green marble called verdelloy is moft frequently the fpring-tides 10 or is feet. There are guns planted

ufed ; and with us, very frequently fmall pieces of for defence both of the Cc^b and the town, the Ihore

tiie hafaltesf the fame with that vaft piece of black here being very proper for batteries. The cuftom-houie

marble caffed the Glands Caufeway in Ireland. iSee B A- ftands on pillars^ with the corn-market under it. There

SALTfis; G/ifivr'$ Caujtioay; Icbland, nojj Staffa; isan alms-houfe in church-ftrcet, alfo Pre(byterian and

and Volcano. Anabaptift meeting-houfes. The towa-haH\ is near

LYCEUM, in botany ! a genus; of ^ monogy Broad-ftreet. The church ftands at the eaft eod of

aia order, belongiag to the triandria clafs of plants ; the town on a riling ground. The mai^et here is

and in the natural method ranking under the fourth Friday, and there are two lairs in the year. We read,

order, Gramma^ The fpatha or (heath is monophyl- that, in 774, the Saxon King Kinwulf gave land here-

loiB ; tfkere aoe a pair of .coroUac upon the fame gut' abouts to the church of Sheil^m, for the boiling of fak

men ; the nut is bilocular. there to fupply ks neeeflities. At this phce the duke

IfYGII, L1GI1, Lugiif or Logionei (anc. geog.), a of Monmouth landed in 1685. ^ few years ago above

people ofGesmany, to the weft of the Viftula, where 2000L worth of gold and H)^ coin of Char. I* andIL

k forms a bend like a crefcent ; L^ii, (D^) $ Lugsi^ were difcovered by fome labourers.
^Stjrabo) ;: Loglfmetf, (Zoiimua). Tlieir name Lugii ^ LYMINGTON, a borough-^rown of I&aiipfliire ui

IS eonjedured to be derived from their mutually dofe England, 97 miles fouti^»weft of London. It fiandli

fpofederacy or league. The Viftula was then: bono* about a mile from the channel, miming betwecn^the

diary %m the north, ea&i and fouth^, with mouat A^i* naio land and the ifle of Wight ; and has a Inrbour

iff

I. T H r 347 1 I T N

tar veflcls of eonliderable bvrdes* The title flows near and wben thefefpots are recent^ and ftiH in lulllloaa^ Lync Bffati

m mile aboye the town. It has a market pa ^atur* thejr prodace a voy agreeable efFc^ to the firht. But ^y**'*'?*^

dayty and two fairs in.the year ; and fends two mem*: what appears admirable is^ that the part of the ftalk

bectf to parliament* which remains adhering to the ilone> when the nlufh*

JLYMPHt a fine colouileft fhnd, feptrated in the room has been feparatcd from ity grows gi^doally hard,

body from the mafs of blood, and contained inrpeci^ and petrifies in time, ibthat it feems that this fungites

liar veilels called lymphatics. See An atomt. reft ores to the ikone the nutritive juice it received fnms

LYMPHATI, was a name given by the Romans it, and that it thits contributes to its increafe.'' JohiS
to filch as were feized with madnefs. It is fuppofed Baptifl Porta |>retcnd8» that this ftone is found in fe«
to be ufed for Nymphati^ becaufe the ancients imagined vera! parts of Italy ; and that it is not only to be met
that every pcrfon who had the misfortune to lae a with at Naples, taken out of mount Vefuvios, bat al«
nymph wa^ inflantly ftnxck with phrenay. I^ymfhaii fi> on mount Paotherico, in th^ princip^ty of Ard*
tnay indeed fignify ^* madmen,** as derived from lymm Hnd$ on mount- Garganus, 19 Apulia; and on the
phft^ ^' water/' over which eleaoent the nymphs were fummit of fbme other very ingh mountains* He adds*
thought to prefide : But it appears moft likely, that that the mufhrooms whieh grow on thofe Ibrts of fbooes^
diftraded people were called fymfihati^ from the dr* and are ufually called fungi lyncurit^ have the property
cnmilance of madmen's being affeded with the hydros of diflblving and breaking the flone of the kidneys and
phobia or dread of water after the bite of a nad dog % bladchr ;* and that, for^ this purpofe," Dothiag more ia
for this peculiarity, to cafes of canine madoefs, was required than to dry them in the ihade, and being re-
Hot unknown to the Romans. duced to powder, to make die patient, falfting, taka

LYNCEUS, in fiibulous hiftory, one of the 50 font a fufficicnt quantity of this powder in aglafs of whke^

•f £geus, married Hypermneibra,oiie of the 50 daugh* wine, which will io cleanfe the ^xcVctory duds of the

ters of Daoaus. S^e Hypbrmnistra. urine, that no flonea will ever 'after be cottadled id

Ltncbvs, in febulous hiftory, one of the Argo-< tiiem. As to the form of thofe nuifkrooms,. their root

«aut9> who went with Jafon in the expedition to ob« is flony,- uneven, divided according to its loogrttudiual

tain the golden fleece? He was of great ufe to the dire6Uoa>' aad compofed of fibres aa fine as hairs, in-

Argonauts, by enabh'ng them to avoid the fand*baaka terwoven one with another. Their form;,on firft flioot^

androcks they found in their way. The poets £iy, that iog out, refembles a finaH bladder, fcarce thed larger

L»ynceuft had fo 'piercing a fight, that it cotiM not oalv than the bud of a vine ;. and if in this ftate they are

penetrate to the bottom of the fea, but even to hett. fqueezcd between the fingers, an aqueous fiibacid li*

Some mythologif^s fuppofe, thai? this fable i» taken quor iffues out. When they are at their full grrowth«

from Lynceus's (kill in obferving the ilars, and difco* their pedicle is: of a finger's length, larger at top than

veringthe mines of gold and (ilvcr concealed iathe earth, at bottom, aAd becomes infenfibly ilenderer in propor*

LyNCURIUM, a ftone thought to be the feme tton as it is nearer the earth. Thefe mufhrooas arrf

with the tourmalin. The name is derived from ^^yl* alfo formed in an umbella, aad vamgated with an in*

** lynx," and ^'»*^ ** urine.'' ' finity of little fpecks fituated very near one another*;

LYNCURIUS LA^is, a ftone capable of produ- They are fekooth and even on the upper part, but us^

cing muflirooms. • ^ demeath leafy like the Common mufhrooms. Theiv

In the Ephemeridea of the Curi<9us we find men* tai!e is likewifie very agreeable, and the fkk are not

tion made of a flone, fo caOed by Dr John George debarred eating of them when they have been drefled ia

Wokkamerus, who faw one in Italy, which never a proper manner. Curiofity having prompted foackO

ceafcs to produce in a few days mufhroams of an aaturalifts and phyficians to fubmit thefe ftones to a

excellent : flavour by the mof% ftmple aad eafy pro- chemical analyiis, m order to be more competent judges

cefs imaginable. ** It is (fays he) of the bignefs o# of the ufes they might be put to in medicin«^ there

an ox's head, rough and uneven on its furface, and firfl came forth, by diflillation, an infipid water, anA

on which alio are perceived fome clefts and crevices, afterwards a fptrituous liquor. The retort havii^ been

It is black in fome parts, and in others of a lighter heated to a certain point, there arofe an oil, which had

and greyifh colour. Internally it is porous, and near- ' nearly the fraell and tafle of that of gtiaiacum. ; and a

ly of the nature of dkc pumice4lone, but much hea- very acrid fait was extraded from the aihes.

vier ; and it contains a fmall piece of flint, which is LYNN-aiGis, a town of Norfolk, im England^:

fo incorporated with it aa to- appear to have been form- diftaat 9^ miles from London. It is a handfom^

ed at the fame time the ftone itfelf ' received its form, ^ge, well-built j^ace, and fends two members to par**

This gives room to judge, that thofe flones have been kament. It was a borough by prcfcription in i a^Sfi

produced by a* to and vifcid juice, which has the pro-*' King Jolm, on account of its adherence to him againll

perty of indurating whatever matter it fikrates into, the bsurons, made it a fi*ee borough, with large pr£«

The (tone here fpoken of* when it has- been lightly vileges. He appointed it a provoft, and gave it a

'covered with' earth, and fpriakled vrith warm water^ hirge filver cup of 73 ounces doubly giOt and enamd«<

produces mufhrooms of an exquisite flavour, which are led, and a large filver fword that is carried before the

ufually round, lometimea oval, and nvhofe borders, by mayor ; though this lafl^ according to fome, is Hen«

their inflexions and different curvities, reprefent in Come ry VIII.'s fword, which he gave to the town when at

meafure human ears. Th^ principal colour of thde came into his hands by exchange with the biihop of

muflircioms is fbmetimes yettowifh, aad fometimes of a Norwich ; after which it . was called King's Lyndy

hright purple ; ^but they are always difTeminated with whereas before it was Bifhop'sLynn. Henry III. made

diftereni fp9ts» of a dei^ orange eokNur, er red brawa { Ha naayor-towoy for its Csrviag him* agaiaft the barons^

.• . ' X X 2 It

I: Y fl I 348 J L Y o

Limo-retlt. It has had 15 royal charters; tnd is governed by a perpendicular. In the great oiaxlcet-placc a ftstoeLcB^

mayor,, high-ilewardt undtr-fteward, recorder, 11 alder** was creded in 1686 to the honour of king James II.

men, and 1 8 common-council men. It has two churches, There is another fpacious market-place, adumcd with

beiicles St Nicholas, a chapel of eafe to St Margaret's, a flatue of king William III. and a fine crols with a

a prefbyterian and a quakers meeting-houfe, with a dome and gallery round it fupported by 16 pSkn.

bridewell or workhoufe, and feveral alms-houfes, and The market-houfe is of firec-ftonc, fupported by 10

a firee-fchooL In September 1 741 the fpirea of its columns ; and is 70 feet high, erefked on four ftcps, neit-

two chmxhes were both blown down by a ftorm of ly adorned with ftatues, 8cc* Every firft Monday in the

wind ; and that of St Margaret's, which was 193 feet month, the mayor, aldermen, preachers, &c. meet to

hi height, having beat in the body of the church, it hear and determine all controvedies amicably, ibr pit«

has been (ince rebuilt, towards which king George II. venting law-fuits. This was firft ef^blifiied in 1588, aid

pve L. 1000, and the late earl of Orford, then Sir is called TU Feqfi, of Reconeiftatiotu. The markets are

Robert Walpole, L. 500. This church was formerly on Tuefday s and Saturdays \ and it Iiaa two lain :

,aa abbey, and afterwards one of the largeft parifh- one of which, beginning Feb. 14. lafts foi*^ fortnight,

churches in England. The town-houfe, called Tri- and is called Lynn-mart ; the other is a cheefe^fidr oa

sity-hall, is a noble old fabric ; and fo is the Exchange, 0&. 6. Th^ adherence of this town to king Jobs

vhich is of finee-fton^, with two orders of columns, and to Henry VIII. as above mentioned, are not th«

St Nichohs's chapel is very ancient, and reckoned only inftances of its loyalty to its fovereigns ; for, ia

one of the faireft and largeil of the kind in England, the late civil wars, it held out for king Cfaarlea L and

It has a bell-tower of firee-ftone, and an eight-fquare fuftained a formal fiege of above 18,000 men of tlis

^ire over it, both which tbgrether are 170 feet from, parliament-army, for above three weeks ; hot, for

the ground* There is a. library in k that was ere^ed want of relief, was obliged to furrender, and falxiLi

by fubicriptlon ; and there is another at St Marga- to the terms of pay ing - 1 os» a-head for. every inhabi«

Kt's. Here have been formerly feveral monafteriei 1 tant, and a month's pay to the foldicrs, to iavc the

hoX the only fabric remaining that belongs to any re- town from plunder. There are more gentry, and coc*

ligioui order is the Grey-fnars fteeple, a noted fea- feque'ntly more gaiety, in this town than in Yacmootit

fluffk. The fituation of this town, near the fall of or even Norwich ; there being- fuch^plentj of eatabki

the OuTe into the fea, after having received feveral and drinkables, that Spelmaa fays Cerea. and- Bacchia

other rivers^ of which fome are navigable, gives it an feem to have eftablifhed their magastnca at this place;

opportunity of extending its trade mto eight different the eaft fide abounding wkh com, Aeep, rabbitiii hares,

counties! by which qiany confiderable cities and &c. the weft fide with chede, butter, black*cattk,

towns, viz. Peterborough, Ely, Stamford, Bedford, fwans, and the wild-fowl oommon to marffaes, befidet

8t Ives, Huntingdon, St Neot's, Northampton, Cam- the abundance of fea and river fiOi'$ fo that he thiaki

bridge, StEdmundfbury, and the north part of Bucks, there is no place in Great Britain, if in Europe, bs

aa wdl as the inland parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, are fuch a variety in fo .finall a compafs of gjpronzid. Ai

fiipplied with heavy goods, not only from our own a fmall difiance from the town ftands a ntoiiat caiki

produce, as coala axid fait from NewcafUc, butalfo of the Lady's or Red Mount, where vaas once a cbapd

merchandise imported from abroad, efpecially wine ; dedicated to the Vifgin Mary, which was a refting-

of which two articles, viz. coals and wine, this is the placs for pilgruns on; their way towards her oonvcst

greateft port for importation of any place on all the at WaUingham.. The king's fUith-ysrd, or quav,

saftern coaft of England ; and thofe wherein the Lynn where the greateft part of tho imported wines is laod^

merchants deal more laigely than any town in England, ed and put into hrge vaults, is a^handfbmc fquarr,

except London,. Briftol, and NewcafUe. In return with brick buildings, jn the oehtre whereof isia ftate&

ibr this, Lyna receives back all the com which the of king James L People pafs hence into the feih

oounties juft mentioned produce, forexportation ;. and country,. and over the famous wafhes intOkLiocolnfluxt

dierefore. fends more of it abroad than any port except in boats, which are often loft, by venturing out at aa

HuU*. The foreign trade of the mmhants here &b improper feafon and without guides*,
wry confiderable, efpecially to Holland, Norway, and LYNX, in zoology. See Fslis*.
tiie Bakic, and alfo to Spain and Portugal ^ and for- LYON KiitQ of AiJiu.. See Kimg ; aad Lav,

merly they drove a good trade to France, till it was n"^ dviii. 16*

tnnicd 0% by treaties on one hand, and by prohibk- This office is of great aatufuifcyand refped in Sotf*
tions, higb duties, 5cc. on the other, to Spain and land; and although the precffe time of its inftitotiosi
f ortugaL The harbour is fafe when (hips are in it, is unknown, yet. it muft have beeivas«arly.as the ia*
but dimcult to enter by r«afbn of the many flats and trodu^ion of armorial figjares as Jierediury marks cf
jhoals in. the paffagc ; which, however, are well buoyed, ffentility and diftin^tion into tbis^ country, which vpa»
and good pilots-are always ready. The Sown conMs of m the i^th century*. His regalia are, skciowa of gold,
about 2400 houfcs ; and appears to have been very with a crimfon velvct-cap, a gold taflel»aiid'an ennioc
Ihrong, by the. ruins of the works demolilhed in the lining ; a.vclvet-robe reaching to his fieet, witk^bc arms
civil wars. St Ann's platform at the north end mounts of the kingdom f embroidered thereoo before aad be-
]p2, great guns, aadcommands all the ihips pafliog near hind in the proper.tin£bires ; a triple row of gold diai»
the harbour ;. and towards the land,' beiides the wall, roimd his neck,, with aa,ovalgold*nicdal/peadent there-
there is a ditch. Four rivulets^run through the town ; to, on one fide of which is the royal- bsasing, aad 00
aad the tide of the Oufe, which, is about as broad the other St Andrew vrith his crofs enamelled in prcK
here as the Thamca at Loodoa-biidgei lifes 20 feet per colour^ aoda baton of goMenamflkdytcn, .pow«

ft ioA

1. Y O

dered with the badges of the i:iagdonu The Lord
Ztjonh rajik is fuperior to that of any other king of
anna, as he holds his office immediately from the fove-
rdgn hy commiffion under the great ital ; whereas the
kings of arms in EngUmd are deputies to the Earl
Maribal, and z6t imder his authority. Formerly Scot-
land was divided into two provinces, the one on the
north and the other on- the fouth iide of Forth ; and
thefe provinces were under the management of two de-
puties appointed by the Lord Lvon to fupenntend the
execution of all thebufinefs of nis office. Before the
vevdutioo> the Lord Lyon, at ^isadmiffioniato office,
was moft folemnly crowned by the fovdreign or his
commiffioner, in prefence of the nobOity,^ the officers
of flate, and other great men, after a fuitable fermon

r 349 ]

L y o

he enriched this work with a great number of plates, Lyonet.
univerfally admired by all the connoiflem^ who had
feen them. In the year 1 742 wIeis- printed at the
Hague a French tranflation of a German work, the
• Theology of Infeas,' by Mr Leifer. Love of truth-
engaged Mf Lyonet to defer the publication of his a-
bove-mentioned defcription, and to make fome obfer-
vations on that work, to which he ha^ added two mofl'
beautiful plates, engraved from his defiens. This per-
formance caufed his merit to hm univerlaHy known and^
admired. The celebrated M» da Reaumur had the
above tranflation reprinted 'at Paris, not' fo much on-
account of the work itfelf as of Mr Lyonet's obfer-
vations ; and beilowed on it, as did a]&> many other
authors, the higheft encominms. He afterwards exe-

preached in the royal chapel ; and his crown was of cuted drawings of the freih-water polypus for Mr

the fame, form with the imperial crown of the king*
dom. On folemn occaiions he wears the regalia above
defcribed ; at all other times, he wears* the oval gold
medal or badge on his breaft, fufpended by a broad
green ribbon. He has the abfolute difpofal of aU the
offices in his own court, and of the heralds and pur*
Aihrants places. The mefFcngers at arms throughout
Scotland are alfo created-by him, and are amenable to
his jurifdidiion. And the powers vefted in him by
his commiffion are the fame with thofe of the fovereign
in all matters, relative to the marks of gentility.
. LYONET (Peter), an ingenious naturalift, and
member of feveral learned focieties, was bom at Masf-
tricht, and was defcended from a very ancient, and re-
fpe^ble family of Lorrain. He had fcarcely attain-
ed his feventh year before he difplayed an uncommon
ftrengtli and agility in all bodily exercifes ; but he was
not lefa diligeot in the improvement of his mind. Se-
jng placed at .ihe Latin fchool, he kamed chronology,

Trembley*8 beautiful work, 1744. The ingenious
Wandelaar had engraved the firft /ive plates ;- when Mr
LyoQct, who had never witneffed this operation, con-
cerned at the difficulties he experienced -in getting the
remaining eight finiihed ia the fuperior .ilyle he requi-
red, refolved to perform the tafic himfeff. He ac-
cordingly took a lefibn of one hour of Mr Wandelaar,
engraved three or four imall plates^ and immediately
began upon the work itfelf, which he performed in
fuch a manner as drew on him the higheft degree of
praife, both from Mr Trembley and from many
other artifts, particularly the celebrated Van Gool;
who declared that the performance* aftoniAied not
only the amateurs, but alfo the moft experienced
arttfts» In 1748 he waschofen member of -die Royal-
Society of London. In 1749 ^^ began. (by mere
chance) his amazing coIle6Uon of homa and ffiells, .
which, according to the univerfal teilimoBy ' of all tra«
tellers and amateurs who haveviiited it,«is at prefent»

and exercifed himfelf in Latio^, Greek, and French the moft beautiful, and certainly- one of the moft vahia-.

poetry, as alio in Hebrew, logic> and the Cartefuin Phy-
fics. He was particularly fond of the ftudy of hm-
guagea, whereof he underftood no lefs than nine, li-
ving and dead. Having entered the univerfity of Ley-
den, he ftudied the Newtonian philofophy, geometry,
algebra, &c.;. but his father (who was a clergyman),
defiring he ihould attach himfelf to divinity, he reluc-
tantly abandoned the former ftudies, as his paffion for
them was not eaiily to be overcome. He at the fame
time applied himfelf to anatomy, and alfo to mufic
and drawing. He began afterwards to pra6lire fculp-
ture : and performed feveral pieces in wood, fome of
isrhich are prcferved, and have been greatly admired

b!e, in Europe. In 1753 he became member, of the*
newly-eftabliihed Dutch Society^ of> Sciences* at Haer-^
lent; and in 1757, after: the' celebrated^ Ml le Cat^:.,
profeflbr in anatomy, and fui^ery|,:andi member of al-»
moft all the principal focieties in* Europe, .hjid.feea:
Mr Lyonet'sincomparaUe Traite jfnatomiqye d$ la Cbe*
nille ^i range le Bote de Savle^ with thie drawings be«
longing to it (which ^worii was afterwards published), .
he wa8*cle6^ed member of the Royal- Acadtay. of Sci-
ences of Rome, > whereof M. le Cat was perpetual fe-
cretary. After the. publication of this treatife, he be<
came^ in 1766, member' of the Royal Academy of*
Sciences of Beriin>; in 1761-, of the Imperial Acade-*

by the. artifts. After this, he betook himfelf ta my of Naturalifts ; and,' in. 1762, of the Imperial Aca

drawing portraits of his friends from life; wherein^, demy of- Sciences at St Peteriburg.- In^ order to en-c

after three or four months pra^ice, he became a great' able fuch- as m^ght be deluous: of following him in his.

proficient. Haring attained the degree of candidate intricate<:and^moftaftonifhingdifboveriesTefpe€ltng.the-

in divinity, he rcfoTvedto ftudy law, to which he ap- ibudure of this* animal,.- Mr Xyonet published, in the

plied himfelf with fo nuich zeal, that he was promo^ ^TranfaftionaoftheDutchSocietTofiScienoesatHaer-r
ted at the end of the firft year. Arrived at the Hague, hci . lem,' a defcription and a plate (as he alfo afterwards did.'

imdertook^the ftudy of dccyphering ; and became fccre- in French at the beginning of his Traiiejituuomiqw) of

tary of the cyphers, tranflatorof the Latin and French*
languages,, andi patent-mafler, •, tOr their High Mighti-
ness. Meanwhile, having taken aftrong liking to
the ftudy of iafc£ts, he undertook, an hiftorical de-
fcription of fuch asi are found aboufr the Hague, and'
to that end coUe£ked material» for feveral volumes ; and
liavia^ iuTCiited a. imcthod of drawing adapted thmtoy

the inftrumentand tools he had- invented for.tlie pur*
pofe of diffc^ott, and. Ukewife of the» method he «uf«(lk
to afcertain the degree lof flrength. of "his magnifying,
glaftes. Nbtwithfbtndihg. ali^ this labour,, which jmiai^
confiderably increafed by the extenfive correfpondcncei-
which he for many years carried on with feveral learn-
ed and lefpe^Ubk pjeHbaagci^ htjftill&uftd. means too

Set:

L y R

^•nois fet^apart a large profKMtioa of his time (a$he himfelf
V meiUioiM it in his preface) for the immediate fervice
^^' of his CfXuntry ; «but was not fortunate enough (as ap-
pears by his writings) to get any other recompeafe
for his exertions than forrow and di£ippointment.— -
During the laft iifteeen or twenty years of his life, Mr
Lyonet added to the valuable treafure he had already
colledied of natural euriofitiesy a mod fuperb cabinet
of pamting{^ coniifting of more than 560 performances ;

C 3^« 1

L Y R

Concerning the iiin&ber of ftringa wiik wtSdi tkk La •
uftrument waa Tumiftied, there ia grett contn>ver f y.
Some aflert it to be only three ; and that the fonsdi
of the two remote were acute» and thai of the imer-
fnediate one a mean between thofe two extremei'^
that Mercury, the iaventor* refembkd tbofc three
chords to as many £eafons of the year, which were afi
that the Greeks reckoned, namely» Sununer» Winterp
and ^Spring : ailigning the acute to the firft^ the grave

among which are many of the mod eminent works of to the fecond, and the mean to the third.

the firft Dutch mafters. He did this with a view to
procure himfelf fome amufement during the latter part
of his life* when old age and infimuties muJl weaken
tus powers, and fet bounds to his adivity. He had
always indeed accaftomed himfelf to employment, in-
ibmuch that he has written fome pieces of Dutch po-
etry ^ and this difpofition remained with him till with-
in a fortnight of his death, when he was attacked with
an infianmwtton in his breafl, which, though apparent-
ly cured, was,, in the end, the caufe of his diffolution.
He died at the Hague in January 1789, aged 83
years, leaving behind him a moft eftimable character.

LYONOIS, a large province of France ; bound-
ed on the north by Burgundy ; on the eaft, by Dau-
phiny,.Brcffe, and the principality of Dombs; on
the fouth, by Vivareis and Velay ; and on the weft, by
Auvergne and a fmall part of Bouibonnois. It com-
preheada Lower Lyonnoil, Beaujolois, and Forez ;
and it produces com, wine, fruits-, and more efpeci**
ally excdknt chefnuta. The- principal rivers are the
^oane, the Rhone, and the Loire. Lyons is the ca-
pital town.

LYONS, a large, rich, handfome, ancient, and
famous town of France, being the moft confiderable in
the kingdom, next to Paris, with an archbifhop^s (ee,
an academy of fciences and belles Icttres, and an aca-
demy of arts and fciences fettled here in 1736. It is

Others aflert that the Ivre had four ftringt ; that the
interval between the firn and the fourth was an oc-
tave i that the fecond was a fourth from the firft. vd
the fourth the fame diftance from the third, and that
from the fecond to the third waa a tone.

Another clafs of writers contend that the lyre of
Mercury had feven ftrings. Nicomachua, a fbU^wer of
Pythagoras, and the chief of them, gives the follow-
ing account of the matter : <* The lyre made of the
(hell was invented by Mercury ; and the knowledge of
it, as it was conftruded by him of feven'ftrings, was
tranfmitted to Orpheus : Orpheus taught the ufe of it
to Thamyris and Linus ; the latter of whom taught it
to Hercules, who conununicated it to Ampdiion the
Theban, who built the feven gates of Thebca to the
feven firings of the lyre.*' The &me author proceeds
to relate, ^^ That Orpheus was aftcrwaxds kiBed fay
the Thracian women ; and that they are reported to
have caft his lyre into the fea, which waa afterwards
thrown up at Antifia, a city of Lefbos : that certain
fifiiers finding it, they brought it to Terpander, wha
carried it to Egypt, exquifitely improved, and, ihow-
ing it to the Egyptian priefta, aifumed to himtfdf the
honour of its invention."

This diiferencc among authors feems'to havearifea
from their confounding together the Egyptian and the
Grecian Mercuriea.-^The invention of the primitive

ieatcd in the centre of. EOrope, on the confluence of lyre with three firings was due to the firft Egyptian

tlie rivers Rhone and Soan : on the fide of it are two
high moantains; and the mountain of St Sebadian
ferves a^ a bulwark againft the north winds^ which of-
ten blow here with great vic^ence. It contains about
1 50,000 inhabitants ; and the houfes, in general, are
high and well built. It has fix gates, and as many
fuburbs. The town-houfe, the arfenal, the amphi*.
theatre built by the ancient Romans, the hofpital,
and the numerous palaces, are worthy of a traveller's
attention. The cathedral is a fuperb ftruAure, and

H£RMEs, as mentioned under that article.— »The lyre
attributed to the Grecian Mercury is de^bed by al-
moH all the poets to be an inflrument of feven ftringsf. ^ 5^
Vincenzio Galilei has coileded the various opinions aStnj*
the feveral Greek writers who have mentioned the in«
vention of the chelys or teftudo ; and tbe late Mr
Spence has done the fame in a very circumflantial but
ludicrous manner. " Horace talks of Mercury a&.a
wonderful mufician, and reprefents him with a lyre.
There is a ridiculous old legend relating to thia invea-

the canons that compofe the chapter arc all perfons of tion, which informs us, that Mercury, after ftcaling
difliniflion. It is a place of very great trade, which fome bulls from Apollo, retired to a fecret grotto.

is extended not only through France, but to Italy,
Swiiferland, and Spain ; and there are four celebrated
fairs every year, which are frequented by great num-
bers of people. It derives vail advantages from the ri-
vers it ilands upon ; and is fUuated in £« Long. 4. 55.
N. Lat. 4^. 46.

LYRA, in ichthyology. See CAtLVONiMUS.
. LvRA, in aibonomy, a conflellation in the nor-
thern hemifphere. The number of its flars, in Pto-
lemy's catalogue, is ten ; in Tycho's eleven ; in Heve-
litts's feventeen ; and in the Britannic catalogue twen-
ty-one.

LYRE, a mufical inftriiment of the ftringed kind,
'nwch ofedJi^ the anoicnii#^

which he ufed to frequent, at the foot of a mountain
in Arcadia. Jud as he was going in, he found a tor-
toife feeding at the entrance of his cave ; lie killed the
poor creature, and, periiaps, eatthe flefh of it. As he
was diverting himfelf with the fhell, he was mightily
pleafed with the aoife it gave from ita concave figure.
He had pofiibly been cunning enough to find out, that
a thon^ puUed (Irait and faftened at each end, irhea
flruck by the finger, made a fort of mufical found.
However that was, he went inunediately to work, and
cut f&veral thoags out of the hides he had ktdy
flolen, and failened them as tight as he could to the
fhell of this tortoife ; and, in pbying with them, made
a new kiqd of mufic with tluNH to divert himfelf in his
3 . " retreat.*'

L Y R

[ ai« ]

L r K

retrtart.'* Thts, «ott(ideredbnl^ at sm account of the
firft ittvcntioQ of the lyre, is oot alt<^ether fo unoa*
tural.

The fBoft ancient refArefentations of this inftrument
agree ^ery well with the account of itt invention : the
lyfe^ in particular on the old cekilial giobes, was re-
prefented ai made of one entire (hell of a tortoifc ; and
' that Amphion in the celebrated group of the Dirce
or Toco, in the Faniefe palact at Rome, which is of
Greek fculpturc, and very high antiquity, is figured
in the fame nnanner.

There have, However, been many other claimants to
the fcven-ftriPged lyre. For though Mercury invent-
ed this infiarument in the manner ahneady related, it it
faid he afterwards gave it to Apollo, who was the firft
that played upon it with method, and made it the con-
ftant compannm of poetry. According to Homer's
account ot this tranfadion, tn his hymn to Mercury,
k watglVen by that god to Apollo, as a peace-ofifering
and indemnificatioa for the- oxea which he had ftoleu
iirom him s

To PhoBbtti MaiaS fon preTenes the lyre,
A \iiit iiuer^ded to apoenfe his ire.
The god leceivtt it (;kdly, and efiays
The novel ioftrumcnc a thoufand w») s ;
With dextVoua flcill the pIcArum wirld«; and lings,
With voice eccorrtant to the trembling ftring?, ,
Stich ftraiiis as godt and men approv*ct, frcmi whence
The fwcct alliance S^ung of found and (euie;

Boethius gives a different hiftory of the fcale, and

tells U8y that the fyilem did not long remain in fuch

narrow limits as a tetrachurd. Chorsehusy the fon of

Athisy or Atys, king of Lydia, added a fifth firing;

Hyagnis, a fixth; Terpandcr,a feveuth ; and; at length,

Lychaon of Samos^ an eightli. But all thefe accounts

are irrcconcileable with Homcr^s hymn to Mcrcui7,

where the chelys, or tclludo, the invention of which

be afcribea to that gody is iaid to have had fcven firings.

There are numy claimants among the muticians of Ini*

cient Greece to the firings that were after%vard8 added

to thefC) by which the fcale, in the time of Ariftoxenus,

wa^ extended to two odlaves. Athenaeus, more than

once, fpeaks of the nine4iringed inftrument ; and Ion

of Chios, a tragic and lyric pact and philofopher, who

firfl recited his pieces in the 82d olympiad, 452 B.C.

mentions, in fbme verfes quoted by Eudid, the ten-

^ringed lyre ; a proof . that the third conjoint tetra-

chord was added to the fcale in his time, which was

about 50 years after Pythagoras is fuppofod to have

conftrui^ed the o&choid.

- The different claimants among the Gteekl to the
fame Ynufical^icoverjeSyOnly prove, that muiic was eul^
tivated indifferent countries ; and that the inhabitants
of each country invented' and improved tHicIr own in-
firumenta, fome of which happening to refemble thofe
of other parts of Greece, rendered it difficult for hi*
ilorians to avoid attributing the fame invention todifi'

I-yre.

Diodorus informs lis, that ApoUo foon repentiog of ferent perfooa. Thus the fmgle ilutc was givid^ to Mi*

the cruelty with which he had treated Marfyas in
confequence of their muiical contefi, broke the firings
of the lyre, and by that means put a ftop for a time
to any further progrefs in the pradiice of that new in*
ftrument* '* The raufea (adds he) afterwards added
to this infirument the ftring called mefi ; Xanus, that
•f b'cbanoi ; and Orpheus and 1 hamyras, thoie ftrihgs
which are Ti2anit6.hypate BXidparhypaSe (a).

Again, many ancient and refpedable authors tell
us, that, before the time of Terpander, the Grecian
lyre had bnly four finags ; and, \i we may believe
Suidas, it remained in this flate 856 years, from the
time of Amphion, till Terpander added to it three new
firings, which extended the mufical fcale to a hepta*
chord, or fcventh, and fupplied the player with two
conjoint tetrachords. It was about 150 years after
tliis period, that Pythagoras is (aid to have added an
eighth firing to the lyre,, in order to complete the oc-
tave, which, confified of two disjoint tetrachords.

nerva and to Marfyas ; the fyrinx or fliiula, to Pan.
and to Cybele | and the \jrt or chithara, to Merctlry,
Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. Inde^, the
mere addition of a firing or two to an inflrament with*
out a neck, was fo obvious aad eafy, that it isfcarce
poifible not to conceive many people to have done it
at the fame time.

Witk refped to the form of the anoieat lyre, as
little agreement is to be found among authors-as about,
the number of firings. The befl evidences <:onc^ming
it are the reprefentations of that inftrument in the hands
of ancient Aatuss, bas-reliefs, &c. See PlateCCLXXV.
where,

Fig. u is a reprefentatton of tlie tefiudo, or lyte of
Amphioir, iniront, as It appears on the bafe of the ce-
lebrated Toro Farnefe at Rome. This admirable wo|k,
confifiing of four figures h\ggtT than the life, befides
the toro, or bull, was found in Caracalla*8 baths, where
the Farnefe Hetcules was likewife difcovered' : and, ex-
cepts.

(a) It has been already related, that the lyro invented by the Egyptian Mercmy had but three firings ;
and by putting thefe two circumfiances together, Dr Bumey obfcrves, we may perhaps acquire fome know**
ledge of the progrds of mufic, or, at leafi, of the extenfion of its fcale, in tho higheft antiquity.

Mefcy in the Greek mufic, is the fourth found of the fecond tetrachord of the great fyfiem, and firfi te*
liachord invented by the ancients, anfwcring to our A, on the fifth line in the bafe. If thiV found then- wai<
added to the former three, it proves two important points? firfi, that the moft> ancient tetrachord was that
from £ in the bafe to A ; and that the three original firings in the Mercurian and ApoUonian lyre were tuned
£, F, G, which the Greeks called Hypate Mefoiu Parhypate Meforit Mefon Diatonos. The addition therefore
%f Mffe to thefe, completed the firfi and mofi ancient tetrachord, £, F,.G, A.

The ftring IkbantM^ then, being added to tkcfe^ and anfwering to our D oil tHe-thffd line in the bafe, ex-
tended the compafs downwaids, and gave the ancient lyre a regular feries ox five founds in the D6rian mode,
the moft ancient of all the Greek modes ; smd the two {irings csMtA Hypaie and Parhypate^ correfponding
with otir B aud C in the l>afe, completed the heptachord, or feven founds, B, C, D, £, F, G} A,, a com-
pafs that received po addttioo till after thi time of Piadar^. who calls the iaf^puneBt thco in ufe tke Jkven^
kniued lyre.

L Y R C a^a 1 ^ Y It

Lve. cept the Lao^oon, is the only piece of Greek fculpture the fouadiBg boutL It it cxceedtn^f fight, tnd o^ ^?

mentioned by Fliuy tliat is now remaining. The two of omriagey as an inlbiiment flionld aaturally be ia &

projc^lions near the bottom fcem to have been faften* rugged and mountainous a country,

ings for the firings, and to have anfwcred the purpofe ** When we confider the parts which compok tins

of tail-pieces in modem inftruments. lyre, we cannot deny it the caiiteft antiquity, Man ia

2. The lyre held by Terptichore, in the pi&ure of his firft ftate was a hunter and a fi(her» and the oldeft

that mofe dug out of Herculancum. infbiiment was Uuit which partakes mo^ of thaa ftate.

3* The Abyfilnian tciludo, or lyre in ufc at prefent The lyre, compofed of two principal pieces, owes the

in the proTincc of Tigre, from a drawing of Mr Bruce, one to the horns of an animal, the ether to the IheB of

communicated to Dr Bumey. <* This intlrument( (ays a fi(h.

he) has fometimes^vcifometimesfix^but moil frequent- ** It is |)robable, that the lyre contiQued srith the
ly (even (Iringsi made of the thongs of raw (heep or goal Ethiopians in this nide ftate as long as tfaey oonfinei
Ikins,' cut extremely fine, and twifted ; they rot foon, themfelves to their rainy, fteep, and rugged mouiatains :
are very fubje^ to break in dry weather, and have and afterwards, when many of them dcficended aloog
fcarce any found in wet. From the idea, however, of the Nile in Egypt, its portability would recoauiiead a
this inftrumcnt being to accompany and fuAatn a voices in the extreme heats and wearinefs of dieir way. Up-
one would think that it was better'mounted formerly, on their arrival in EgyjK, they took up their liahita«
** The Abyifinians have a tradition, that the fiflrum, tion in caves, in the fides of xliountains, which aie io-
lyre, and tambourine, were brought from Erypt into habited to this day. Even in thefc circnmfiiSiccs, aa
EthiopiSf by Thot, in the very images of the world* inftrument. larger than the lyre nnft have been in-
The flute, kettle-drum, and trumpet, they fay, were convenient and hable to accidents in thofecsvcms; but
•brought from Pafeftine, with Menelek, the fon of their when thefe people increafed in nun^iets mud courage,
x^ueen of Saba by Solomon, who was their firil Jewi(h they ventured down into (he plaxB, ami buik Tlxbc^
Jung. Being now at their eafe, and in. a fine dinaate, aO na-
*^ The lyre in Amharic is called tegf * the Iheop / ture (miling around tliem, muiic aud'other ai*s were
>in.Ethiopic, it is called mejmko ; the verb^nio fign&es cultivated and refined, and the imperfcd lyre was ex-
Jto ftrike (Irings with the fingers : no ple6lrum is ever tended into an inftrument of doii)k its compsis aad
4i£ed in Abymnia ; fo that mefinko, being litenMy in* volume. The fise of the harp could be now no loag-
terprcted, will fignify Ike * ftsinged inftnioieat |^fed er aa obje^oa} the Nik cairied the inhafattaata every
supon with the fi^gsis.' suheie caiily, and without effort ; and we may naturafly
** The fides which conftitute the frane of die lyre fuppofe ia the fine evenings of that country, that the
<wereancientlycompofedofthi horns ofan animal of the . Nik vn|s the ^vourite fcene upon which ibh ialbn:*
.goat. kind called a^atumf about the fize of a fmall cow, ment was pra£lifed; at leaft the fphinx and lotus npoa
^nd common in the province of Tigre. I have feen feve- Its head, lecm to hint that it was fomevray anmedci
ral of thefe inftniaMntsvery elegantly made of fuchhorns, vrith the overflowings of that river.'' See Haar.
which natuicfeems to have (haped on purpofe. Some 4. An Etrufcan lyre, vrith feven firings, in the col-
4pf the horns of an African fpectes of this aninud may le£lion of Etnifcan, Greek, and Roman antiqnkR%
be ken in M. Buffon'a hiftory of the king^ef Fmnce's publifhed from the cabinet of the Hon. Sir Wilbasa
cabineii They are bent, and kfs regidar than the Hamilton, VcL L Naples 1766. PL ciz. With re*'
Abyffinian;} tbut-afrerfire-aiins became common in the fycA to this inftrument, it is worthy of obfervatioa,
province of Tigic, and the woods wcrexut down, this that though the vafe upon which it is repi«fGitedis(^
animal being more fcarce, the lyre has been made of a fuch indifputable and remote antiquity, the tail-piece,
light red wood'.; howrever, fitkalways cut into a fpiral bridge, belly, and found^holes, have a very modern^
twifted form, in imitation of the ancient materials of pearance, and manifeft a knowledge in the conftnidiBa
;wbich the lyre v^as compokd. The dsawing 1 knd of mufical inftruments among the Etrulcana ktperiorto

you was one of thefe inftruments inade of wood. that of the Greeks and Romans in much later tiBK&

**The.kii|gdom of Tigre, which iitthe largeft andmoft The lower.part of the inftrument has much the ^^pca^

populous pvovinceof Abyflinia, and was during many ance of an old bais-viol, and it is not difficult to dii^

^gcs the feat of the court, was the firft which received cover in it more than the embryo of the \%hole vioJ.i

letters and civil and religious government ; it extend- family. The firings lie round, as if intended to be

cd once *to the Red Sea-^ various reafona and revolu- played on with a bow ; and even the crofs lines on the

^ions have obliged the inhabrtants tq refign their ka* tail-piece are fuch as we finequently fee on the ia3-

i:oaft to different barbarous nations. Pagan and Maho^ pieces of old viols.

mctan : whik they were in pplkffion of it, they fay 5. The Tripodian .lyre of Pythagoras the Zacja^

ihat the Red Sea fumiftied them with tortoife-fiiells, thian, from a bas-relief in the Mafiei pakce at Rome

of which :they made the bellies of their lyres, as ^e . repreknting the whole choir of the mufes. Ath'cnzns

Egyptians .did formcfi-ly^ according to ApoUodorus gives the following account of this eatraordinary i»

and Lucian.; but having now bft that refource, they ftrument, iH. xiv. iafi, 15. p, 637. *^ Maay ancient

have adopted, in its place, a particular fpecies of gourd, inftruments are recorded (fays Artemon), of vMA

or pumpkin, veiy hard and thin in the bark> ftill imx- we have fo littk knowledge, thac we can kai^dly be

tating with -the knife the fquares, compartments, and certain of their eatftence 1 fuch as the tripod of Fy-

figure of the fticll of thf tortoik. thagoras the Zacyathian, which, on account of its

«The lyre is generally from three feet to three difficulty, continued in uk but a (hort time. It

feet ,fijt inches high; that is, from a line drawn thro* refembkd in form the Delphic tripod, wheoce it

fhe poiAt of the homs^ to the lower part of the bafeof bad its name. The Icigs weie equidiftaat, aad fiaed

C'.^/amsj/br/nJ/^4M^SL--^^U/if/'^tftt^rr/i-r«t^m' Plate CCLUV.

5i. /. CN^: ^ '-,::iij,. f. '^^.<:

'-~:x

^^.

^./.

t^a/.S.

^T'

^^^./ii/\

^-^^^-4-

^<ii^A-^,^„.//a/itc«^/:ar-.

*••

L y S [ 353 1 L Y T

upon a woTciHc bafc tbn wm tiimcd by the foot himfclf, but he fup]^Iicd others with fpeechct. «< ruftLyC"»ch«a

of the player ; the firings were placed between the Lyfias in caiifis forenfibus non verfatus" (fays Cicero)^ B

legs of the ftool; the vafe at the top ferved for the fedegregicfubtaisfcriptoratqueelegans/'&c, Quinti- ^ J^ ^

purpofe of a .found-board, and the ilrings of the three lian calls him» '' fubtilis atque elegans, et quo mRil, ii

iides of the inftrumeflt were ttmfed .to three different Ortitorio fctij* fit docere, quacras perfedlius. Nihil

modes, the Doric, Lydian, and Phrygian, The per^ enim eft inane, nihil arceffitiun ; puro tamen fonti,

former (at on a diair made on purpofe ; ftrikvag the quam mag^no flumini, proprior." Plutarch and Pho-

ftrings with the fingers of the left hand, and ufing ^he tius relate, that 425 orations were formerly exhibited

plefb-um with the right, at the fame time turning the under the name of Lyfias ; of which 34 only are oow

mftrument with his foot to whichever of the three cxUnt. The beft edition of them is by Dr John

modes he pleafcd: fb that by great pradice he was Taylor at London* I739> 4to; Cambridge, 1740,

^enabled to change the modes with fuch velocity, that Svo.

4hofe who did not :fee him wo^d -imagine they heard LYSIMACHIA, loosestrife, in botany : A gt-

three different .performers playing in three different nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentan-^

modes. After the death of this admirable mofician, dfia clafs of plants ; and in the natursd method rank'

no other iiiftrument of the ikme kind was ever con* ing under the aoth order, Rotaces, The corolla is.

ftnided.'' rotaceous; the capfule globular, beaked, and ten-

6. A lyre in the famous ancient pidm-e dug out valved. There are ten fpecies, but only four are

of Hercuianeum, upon which Chiron is teaching the commonly cultivated in gardens. Thefe are hardy^

young Achilles to phiy. See Chiron. herbaceous perennials and biennials, rifing with eredb

LYRIC-POETRY, was fuch as the ancients fung to ftalks from 18 inches to two or three feet high ;

the lyre or harp«— It was originally employed in ce- garnifhed with narrow entire leaves ; and terminated

lebratine the praifes of gods and 4ieroes, and its cha- by fpikcs and cluilers of roonopetalous, rotated, fivc»

rafierifiic was fweetnefs. Who was the author of it parted fpreading flowers of white and yellow colours. —

is not known. It was much cultivated by the Greeks; They are eafily propagated by feeds, and will thrive

and Horace was the firft who attempted it in the La- in any foil or fituation.

tin language. Anacreon, Alcaeus, Steficborus, Sappho, LYSIPPUS, a celebrated Greek ftatuary, wa»

and Horace, were the moft .celebrated lyric poets of bom at Sicyone, and at firft followed the bufinefs of

antiquity. a lockfmith, which he quitted in order to praftil'e

LYROl>Iramong the ancients* a kind of muficians painting : But he afterwards applied himfelf entirely

•<who played on the lyre and fung at the fame time, to fculpture ; in which he acquired an immortal rc-

7^hi6 appellation was alfo given to fuch as made it putation, and made a great number of ftatues that

their employment to fing lyric poems compofed by were the admiration of the people of Athens and Rome.

others. His grand ftatue of the fun reprefcnted in a car drawn

LYS, or Lis. See Lis. by four horfes, vvas worfhipped at Rhodes ; he made

Lys, the name qf a meafure ufed by the Chinefe feyeral ibtues of Alexander and his favourites, which

ineftimating diftances. Two hundred lys make 60 were brought to Rome by Metellus after he had

geographical milea, which are equal to one degree. reduced the Macedonian empire ; and the ftatue of a

LYSANDERr a famous Spartan general See man wiping and anointing himfelf after bathing, be*

Sparta^ xng particularly ei^cellent, was placed by Agrippa

LYSANDRIA, a Samian feftival, celebrated with before his baths in that city. He lived in the time

games and facrifices in honour of the Lacedemonian of Alexander the Great, about 334 B. C. ; and left

general Lyfander. It was anciently called Iferea i three fons, who were all i^ous ftatuaries.

but this name the Samians abolifhed by a public de- LYTHRUM, purple loosestrife, in botany,

cree. * A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the

LYSIARCH, an ancient magiftrate, who fuperin* decandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method,

tended the facred games, and prefided in matters of ranking under the 1 7th order, Calyeanthem^* The

religion in the province of Lycia. He was created calyx is cleft in 1 2 parts ; and there arc fix petals in«.

in a council confifting of deputies from all the pro- feried into it i the capfuje is bilocular and polyfper-

vincial cities, in number 23. The lyfiarchs were mous. There are 10 fpecies, of which the moft re-

both heads of the council and pontiffs of the pro- markable are, i. The falicaria, or common purple

vince. loofeftrife, with oblong leaves, is a native of Bri-

LYS IAS, an ancient Grecian orator, was bom at tain, and grows naturally by the fides of ditches and

Syracufe in the 80th olympiad. At 15, he went rivers* It hath a perennial root, from which come

to Thurion, a colony of the Athenians ; and when forth fcveral upright angular ftalks, rifing from three

grown up, aflifted in the adminiftration of the go- to four feet high, garnifhed with oblong leaves placed-

vernment there many years. When about 47 years fometimes by pairs ; but fometimes tliere are three

of age, he returned to Athens ; whence, .being after- leaves at each joint ftanding round the ftalk. The

wards baniihed by the 30 tyrants, he went to Mega- flowers are purple, and produced in a long fpike at

ra. Upon his return, Thrafybulus would have had the top of the ftalk ; fo make a fine appearance. 2*

him employed again in ftate matters \ but this not ta- The Kyfpanum, or Spanifii loofcitrife, with an hyffop

king place, he fpent the remarnder oi his life as a pri- leaf, grows naturally in Spain and PortugaL It

vate man. He was very familiar with Socrates, and hath a perennial root. The ftalks are fiender, not

other illuftrious philofophers. He profefTed to teach more than nine ori ten inches long, fpreading out on

t^ie art of fpeaking ; not that he pleaded at the bar every fide. The lower part of the ftalks is garni^ied

Vol. X. Part L Yy with

L Y T ' r 354 ] . L T T

JLyttcfcoT^ iffhh, oblong onl leaTos placed ojypoiite. The flowett metrqKittiy allowed a perfeft ju^
^' ' come out fiagly from the fide of the ftalks at each
joint ; they are larger than thofe of the common ibrCy
make

IcdpLji

and nuike a fine appearance in the month of July
when they ave in hcauty. The firft kind ia propa*
gated by parting the roots in autumn, but requires a
moift Ibil ;•— the fecond ig propagated by feeds brought
from thofe comitries where it is native.

L YTTELTON ( Edward), lord Lyttekon, keeper
of the great fea! in the reign of Charles I. was emi-
nent for his probity and his moderation at the com*
mencement of that monavch's difputes with lus fubje^.
Without forfeiting hit fidelity to the king, he pre*
.&rved the efleem of the pariiament till 1644, ^cn
be was made colond of a nrgiment in the king's army
at York. He died in 1645* Bifides licveral of kis principal fearetanr to hts royal higbncfs, and coitnnxi

tune, and architedure.

Doriag his contmaance abroad, be conftatitly cor*
refponded with Sir TluMnas, his £atber. Sctenlof
his letters are yrt remainmg, and place hit iitalaf.
fedion in a very diftingaidied light. He fooQ a^
returned to bis native country* smd vras clc6EdT^
peefentaitive for the borough of Okebanpton in Ds
Toafhire } and behaved fo much to the £itii&&jt
of his conftttnenta, that they fevcral times Ee-ekod
him for the iame place wttboat putting ha to tk
leaft eiq>ence.

About this period, he received grett mazk« of (nead-
ibip from Frederic prince of Wa&s, &tber of htjjir-
fent mafcfty ; and was, in the y«ar 17379 «

fpeeches which have been printed, he wrote reports
jo the common pleas and exchequer printed at Lon-
don in 1683, in folio ; Several asguments and dif-
courfes, &c.

Lytteltow (GeorgeloTd)eldeftfon of Sir Thomas
Lyttelton, bart. defce»ded from the great judge Lyt-
telton, was bom in 1700, at feven months ; and the
midwife fuppofing him to be dead, threw him cardefdy
into the cradle ; where, had not fome iigns of li^
been taken notice of by one of the attendantSj^ he
might never have recovered* He received fht efements
of his education at Eaton-fdiool, where he fhowed an
early inclination to poetry* His paftorak' and fome
other light pieces were originally written in> that fcmi-
sary of leamtng; from whence he >vas removed to tlie
nnivcrfity of Oxford, where he purfued his. claffical
fiudies with uncommon avidity, and (kctched the plan
of his Perfian Letters, a work which afterwards pnv
cured him great reputation, not only from the ele-
gance of the language is which they vrere compofed,
but from the excellent obfervations they contained oa
the mannera of mankind.

In the year 1 7 28, he fet out on the tour of Europe ;
and, on his arrival at P^ris, accidentally became ac-
quainted with the honourable Mr Poyntz,. then oiu^
minifter at the court of Verfailles ; who was fo ftruck
with the extraordinary capacity of our young traveller^
that he invited him to his houfe, and employed him in
many political negociations, which he executed with
great jixigment and fidelity.

Mr Lytteltoa's condu6t« while on his travels, was
a leflbn of inibru£lion to the reft of his countrymen.
Inftead of lounging away his houcs at the cofiee-houf^
frequented by the Eng^iAi,, and adopting the fafhton*
able foUves and vices of France and Italy, his time was. condu^, and ufiiform pradHce of religion ami virtw.

m the llri^left intimacy with him till the tiiK of hit
death. His attention to public buimefs did not, W-
ever, prevent him from exercifing his poetical it\e%
A moft amiable young hK^y, Mif& FortefciK> (n^ijnd
him with a paffion^ which prodnoed a number of Irtdr
pieces, remarkable for their tendeniefk and degaoce;
and he had' a happy facility of ftriktng out »s a*
tempore compliment, which obtained him no ioil
ftiare of reputation. One evening being in compuy
with k>rd Cobham and feveral of the nobility at
i^owc, hi» lordfhip mentioned his defign of pnttfn;
up a buft of lady Suffolk in his beautiful gardens \ anii
turning to Mt Lyttelton, faid, ** George, jou oib^
fumifii me with a motto fbr it.'* •* I wifl. my lord,"
anfwered Mr Lyttdton ; and dirc6dy produced the
following couplet t

Her wit and beauty for a court were made,
But truth and goodnefs fit her for a (hade

When Mr Pitt, the hte earl of Chatham, Mlk
commtflBon ia the guards j in confeqaence of bisfptTtcd
behaviour in parliament, Mr Lyttelton was in wakiuj
at Leicefter-houfe, and, on hearing the ciitromlbDCt,
imme^tely wrote- thefe lines :

Long had thy virtue mark'd thee out for feme,
Far, hr fuperior to a comet V name f .
This generous Walpole firw, and griev*d to iiod
So mean a. poft difgrace that noble mind ;
. The fervile fkaadard from, thy free-bom hand
He took» and bade thee lead the patriot-band.

In the year 1 742^, he married Lucy, the diugkff
of Hugh Fortefcue, Efq; of Filleigh in the county
of Devcm^the lady abovcmcntioned, whofc excmpW

paifed ahemately in his library and in the fociety of
men of rank and- literature. In this early part of his
life, he wrote a poetical epiftk to Dr Ayfcougb> and
another uy Mr PopCa which (how fihgular t&e and-
corre^nefs.

After continuing a. coofiderable time at Paris with-
Mr Poyntz» who, to vie hiis own words, behaved like
a.fecond father to hiin, he proceeded to Lyons and
Geneva-), and from thence to Turin, where he was.
honoored with ff real marks of friendfhip by his Sardi-
nian majefty. He then vifited Mikn, Venice, Genoa)^.
and^ Rome, where he applied himfelf clofely to the
ftndy of the fine arts ; and was, even in thatcelebrated
4

eftahlifhed his conjugal happindfs upon the moH fotid
bafis.

In 1744, he vras appointed one of Ae lords coo-
mtffibners of the treafury ; and, during hit continuiurt
in that ftation, conftantly exerted his influence in it-
warding merit and ability. He. was the friend m
patron of the late Henry Fielding, Jtmes Tbomtoii
author of t»c Steafons, Mr MaDct, Dr Young, Wr
Hammond, Mr Weft, Mr Pope, and Voltafrt. ^
Ae deatli of Tbomfon," who kft his afiaiw in a ^
embarrafled condition, Mr Lyttelton took tba* P?fJ
fitter under his proteaion. He rcvifed the wgedT^
Coriolanusi, which that writer had nol p^^ ^^*^

L Y T

C 555 1

L Y t

1im4 to t and Wougbt it out.tk the t&eatre-rv^
Covent-^puxko, with « prologue of hit own writing^»
in which he fo" afficAiiigly laoieotcd the lob of that
ddightfu) bard^ that not only Mr Qutn» vdbo fpoke
the lines, but aUnoft the whole audience, fpontaneoufly
burft into tean«

In the beginning of the year 1746, his felicity was
interrupted by the lob of his wife» who died in the
sgth year of her age ; leaving him one fon^ Thonuoy
the late lord Lyttekon ; and a daughter* Lucy» who
ibme time fince married lord viTcount Valentia. The
remains of his amiable lady were depoiked at Over«
Arley in Worcefterihire ; and an elegant monnment
WAS ere^ed to her memory in the church of Hagley*
«diich contains the following infcription written by
her hufband i

Made to engage all hearts, and charm all eyes :
Tho* meek, magnanimous ; tho* witty, wife |
Polite, as all her life in courts had been ;
Yet good, as (he the world had never iieen :
The noble fire of an exalted mind,
With gentleft female tendemefs combined.
Her fpeech was the melodious voice of love,
Her fong the warbb'ng of the vernal OTOve ;
^ Her eloquence was fweeter than her long,
Soft as her heart, and as her reafon flrong.
Her form each beauty of her mind exprels'd.
Her mind was virtue by the graces drefs'd«

Befides thefe beautiful lines, Mr Lyttelton wrote a

monody on the death of his lady, which will be re* rality of Cambray and the fpiritof Fontenellcarehap«

niembered while conjugal affection and a tafte for pily united,
poetry exifE in this country. He was fuddenly feized with an inflammation of

His maflerly obfervations en the converfion and the bowels, in the middle of July 1773, sit his feat at

apoiUeihip of St Paul, were written at tlie defire of Hagley ; which terminated in his death, on the 2 2d of

Gilbert Weft, £fq; in confequence of Mr Lyttelton 's that month. His lail moments were attended with

aflerting, that, beiide aU the proofs of the Chriftian unimpaired iindedUnding, unaffedled greatnefs of

religion, which might be drawn from the prophecies mind, calm refignation, and humble but confident

of the Old Teilament, from the neceiTary connec- hop^ in £he mercy of God. As he had lived

tion it has with the whole fyilem of the Jewifh unrverfally efteemed, he died lamented by all parties*

religion, from the miracles of Chrift, and from the A complete colle^ion of his works has been pub<*

evidence given of his refurred^ion by all the other lifhed fince his deceafe, by his nephew Gcorgt ASf*

apofUes, he thought the converfion of St F&ul ^one» cough, £fq.

duly eon(idet«d, was of itfelf a demonftration Sufficient Lyttdooii*
to prove ChrifUanity to be a divine revelation. Mr
Weft waa ftruck. with the thought | and aifiired his
friend, that fo compendious a proof would be of great
life to convince thofe unbelievers that will not attend
to a longer feries of arguments; and time has (nowH
he was not out in his conje^ure, as the tra6l is efleemed
(me of the heA defences of ChrifUanity which has hi-
therto been publifiied.

In 1754, he refigned his office of lord of the trea«
fury, and was made cofferer to his ma^efly's houfe-
hold, and fwom of the privy-douncil : previous to
which, he married, a fecond time^ Elitabeth, daughter
of field-marfhal Sir Robert Rich, whofe indiS:reet
conduct gave him great uneafineis, and from whom
he was feparated by mutual tonfent, a few years after
his marriage. ,

After being appointed chancellor and under-trea-'
furer of the court of exchequer, he was, by letters-
patent dated the 19th of November 1757, $1 Geo. II.
created a peer of Great Britain, by the ftyle and title
of Lord Lyttelton^ baron of FrankUy^ in the county of
WorcefUr* His fpeeches on the Scotch and mutiny
bills in the year 1747^ on the Jew bill in 1753, ^^^
on the privilege of parliament in 1763, fhowed found,
judgment, powerful eloquence, and inflexible inte<»
ffrity. During the hSc ten years he lived chiefly
VI retirement, in the continual exercife of all the
virtues which can ennoble private life. His laft
work was Dialogues of the Dead, in which the mo«

;r m

Ma liquid confonant, and the twelfth lettei
^ the alphabet.
It has one unvaried found, and is pronounced by
ftriking the upper lip againfl the lower ; in which the
pronunciation of this letter agrees with that of b ; the
only difference between the two confifling in a little
inotion made in the nofe in pronouncing m, and not
in h : whence it happens that thofe who have taken
cold, for M ordinarily pronounce h ; the nofe in that
tafe being difabled from making the neceffary motion.
, All confonants are formed with tlie aid of vowels \

in em the vowel precedes, in he it follows ; and m is
never mute.

Quintilian obferves, that the m fbmetimea ends Latin
words, but never Greek ones \ the Greeks always
changiit{g^ it in that cafe into n% for the fake of the bet-
ter found.

M is alio a numeral letter, and among the ancients
i»ras ufed for a thoufand ;• according to the verfe,
M cqfuU eft mtmerlp ^memfdmus fmOe teneri.

When a da(h is added to the top of it, as m ; it fig-
nifies a thoufand times n thoufand*

Y y t M,

MAC

Mnt

[ 356 1

MAC

My as ka abbrmature^ ftands for Manllusy Marcus,
Martius, and Mitcius : M. A. iignifieg mag'tfler-arthtnif
or mafter of arts i MS. manafcripti and MS8. manu*
fcripts.

M, in ailronomical' tables, and other things of that
kind, ia ufed for meridional or fouthern $ and fonpetimes
for meridian or mid-day.

My in medicinal prefcription, is frequenlTy ufed to
fignify a maniple or handful : and it is fometimes alfo
pittat the end of a recipe, for tm/ee ** mingle ;" or for
mix/vrd *' a mixture;" Thus, m. f, julapiumf figaifies
*' mix and make a julep."

M, in law, the brand or ftigma of a perfon convic-
ted of manflaughttr, and admitted to the benefit of
his clergy. It is to be burnt on the brawn of liisleft
thumb.

MAAT (John). Sfee Blankot.

MAB A, in- botany : A genus of the triandnr br-
der, belonging to the dtoecia clafs> of plants. The
perianthium of the male is trifid ; that of the female
is as in the male ; the fruit is a plum two-celled' fu*
perior.

MABILLON (John), a very learned writer of
France in the 17th century^ was bom at Perre-monte,
on the frontiers of Champagne, in T6^Tk He was
educated in the univerfity of Rheims, and afterwards
entered into the abbey of the Benedi6tines of St Remy.
Iii the year 1663, he was appointed keeper of the
treafurcs apd monuments of France at St Dennis : but
having unfortunately broke a tboking-glafs there;
which was pretended to have belonged to Virgil, he
defired leave of his fupenors to quit an employment
which frequently obliged him to tell things he did not
believe. Next year he went to Parift ;■ and was very
ferviceable to Father d'Acheri, who wasdciiroos of
having fome young monk who eoul# affift him in com^
piling his SpicSegium. This made him known. Soon
after, the congregation of St Maur having formed, a
defign of publifhing new editions of the fathers, re-
vifed firom the MSS. in the' libsaries of the Benedict
tines, Mabillon was charged with the edition of St
Bernard^ which he prepaired with extraordinary dili-
gence. After that, he published many other worksf
which are evidences oF his vaft capacity and induilry.
In 1682, he was employed by Mr Colbert in examin*
ing fome ancient titles relating to the royal family.
The year foHowtng he fent him into Germany, to
fearch the archives and libraries of the ancient abbeys,
for what was moft curious and proper to illuflrate the
hiflory of the churdi itt general, and that of France
in particular. He has published an account of thisi
journey. In 16^$^ he undertook another journey
into Italy, by order of the king of France ;. and re-
turned the year foHowingwith a very noble colle6Uon.
He placed in the king's library above 3000 volumes
of rare books, printed and in MSS. and compofed two
Wiimes of the pieces which he had difcovered in that
country. He was highly efteemed for his virtues as
wrll as his learning.

MACACO, or Macau CO. SeeLEMtjR.

MACAO, a town of China, ,in the province of
Canton, feated in an iihtnd at the mouth of the river
Tae. The Portuguefe have been in pofleffion of the
harbour for 150 years. Formerly they had a great
trade here \ but now they have only a fort with a iinaQ

garrifon* The houfes are built after the "Rtuoftm Mc
manner ; and therie h a Chinefe mandarui» as ^''^ssa
Portuguefe governor, to take care of the town and ^^
the nei^bouring country*. E. Long; 1.1 2. 1 3* N. Lju

32. 12.

Macao, in ornithology. See Psittacus.

MACARIANS, in ecclefiaitical hiilory, the fd.
lowers of Macarius, an Egyptian monk, wrho vras di-
fUnguiHied. towards the clofe of the fourth century ib'
kis fan6iity and virtue. la his writings there are iomt
fuperftitiouS' tenets, and alfo certain. opinions that fisca
tainted with. Origenifin.. The name has been aliiv ap-
plied to thofe who adopted the fentiments of Macarici
a native of Ireland^ who, about the clbic of the aleth
century, propagated in France the error afterwards
maintained by Averrhoes, that one individual intelii*
gence or foul performed the fpirituai and xatioaal
mnflions in all the. human race.

MACARONI. See Fol£m>cio^ and the next
article.

MACARONICrOr Macakoman, a kind of bm^
lefque poetry, confiiling of a jumble of words of diSe*
rent languages, with words of the vulgar tongue 1j^
tonized, and Latin words modernized. Matcarm
among the Italians, as has been obferved by Czlii»
Rhodiginus, figniiics a coarfe clovnujb man s and be-
caufe this kind of poetry is patched out of feveni
languages, and full of extravagant words,. &,c^ tbe
Italians,, among whom it had its rife, gave it tbe name
»£ maccaronian^ ok maccaromc poetry. Others chooie
to derive ib a macaronibusy from macaroons^ a kind cf
confection- made of meal not boulted, fweet-almondi,
fuear, and the white of eggs, accounted a great
dainty among the country-people in Italy.; whicb,
from their being compofed. of various ingEedseats, oc-
cafioned this kind of poetry, which coniiHs^of Latia,
Italian, Spanifh, French,. Englifh, 8cc. to be called by
their name.

Example.— *A bold fellow in the macaromc kf\t§
feys,

Et^Uaw omnet fcadr^ma &* re^mandos^ &c.

Another example :. .

jirchelot ptfloliferot furiamque mananiumy

Et grandem ejmeutam (put inopinumfoQa rueUe efi ,"

ToMMUmque a&o trotMuUem cordajdochero^ &c«

Theoph. Folengius,. a Benodi6iinc monk of Mantui,
was the firft who invented, 01 at leail cultivated^ this
kind of verde. See Fol£n<;io-

The beft pieces of this kind are, the Baldas of Fo-
lengio, and Macaroms Forza by Stefonio a Jcfoit,
among the Italians ;. and the Reahu veritaM^ fiftr
terriiilt efmeuta faifancarum de RuelTuy, amon£^ the
French. The famous Rabelais firft transferred the
macaromc ftyle out of the Italian verfe into Frendi
profe : and on the nu>del thereof formed fome of the
beil things in his PeaUagrueL We have little tn
Englifh in the macanmian yr^j i nothing fcaree, but
fome little loofe pieces coSeCked in Camden's remains.
But the Germans and Netherlanders have had their
macaromtc poets ; witnefs the Certanun CatboBcum ntm
Calvitttfiis, of one Martinius Hamconius Frifius, which
contains abo\it 1 200 verfesy all tha words whereof be-
gin with the letter C^

MACARSEA>

MAC

t 357 1

MAC

MACARSKA, a towft of I)almatia» and capital
of Primogria, with a pretty good harbour, and a bi-
(hop's feei fcated on the gulph of Venice. £. Lon. 1 7.
57. N. Lat 43. 4^.

MACASSAR, a confiderable kingdom of the
sHand of Celebes, in the Eafl-indies. The climare is
very hot ; and would be intolerable, were it not for
the rains which fall when the fun is dirc6tly over their
heads. The foil is extremely fertile, and there are
ripe fruits at all times of the year. There are great
numbers of monkies, who are devoured by monftroua
ftrpents ; fome of which are f« large, that they wiU
fwallow one of thefe animals entire. The MacaiTars
are large, robufl, courageous, and greatly addided to
war. They profefs the Mahometan religion.

containing the hiilory of Judas and his brothers, and ^^^cabei
their wars againii the Syrian kings in defence of their
religion and liberties, fo called from Judas Mattathias,
furnamed Maccabem^ as fome fay from tHe word ^^^9
formed of the initials of mm o'^ks toq^ »n, q. d. iVho if
like unto th^e^ Lordf among t6a, Gods ; which was the
motto of his ftandard ; whence thofe who fought un-
der his ftandard were called Maccabtfes^ and the name
was generally applied to all who faifei-ed in the caufe
of the true religion, under the Egyptian or Syrian
kings. ' The firib book of the Maccabees is an excel-
lent hiftory, and comes 'nearefl to the ftyle and manner
of the facred hiflorians of any extant. It was written'
originally in the Chaldee language, of the Jerufalem
diale£k, and was extant in this language in the time of

Macassar, a large,* l^rong^ and handfome town of Jerom. From the Chaldee it was tranflated into
the ifland of Celebes, and capital of the kingdom of Greek, from the Greek into Latin. It is fuppofed to

the iiland of Celebes, where the king refides. The
houfes are all built of wood, and fupported by thick
po(ls>;r and they have ladders to go up into them,
which they draw up as foon as they have entered.
The roofs are covered with very large leaves, which
prevent the rain from entering. It is feated near the
mouth of a large river, which runs through the king-
dom from north to fouth. £. Long. 1 1 7. 55.3. Lat. 5. o.
Macassar Poifony in natural hiitory, callM ttpo in
the MacaiTar and Malayan tongue, is the gum of a cer-
tain tree, ihining, brittle^ black, and every way Kk*
d:onerpitch, growing in the iiland Celebes, in the
South Seas ; with which all the natives arm themfelves
in travel, having a long hollow trunk of a hard red
wood like braill, accurately bored,, and at one end is
fixed a large lance-blade of iron. Then they make a
fmall arrow, very flraight, and fomeWhat bigger than a
large wheaten l^raw : at one cad they fix it into a-

have been written by John Hyrcanus tlie fon of Si*
mon, who was pi-ince and high priefl of the Jews near-
30 years, and began his government at the time wheve
this hiilory ends. It contains the hiliory of 40 years,
from the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death
of Simon the high priefl \ that is, from the year of
the world 3829 to the year 3869 ; 131 years befot^i
Chrift. The fecond book of the Maccabees begins
with- two e^iiUes fent from the Jews of Jerufalem to*
the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria ; to exhort them
to obierve the feaft ol* the dedication of the new altar
eredied by Judas on his purifying the temple. The firft
was written in the 169th year of the era of the Se*'
leucidx, i.e. before Chriil 144; and the fecond in the-
i88thy«arof the fame era, or 125 before Chriil |
and both appear to be fpurious. After thefe epiflles
follows the preface of the author to his hillory, which*
is an abridgement of a larger work, compofcd by on&

round piece of white^ light, foft, wood, like corkr Jafon, a« Jew of Cyrene,. who wrote in Greek the hi-

about the length of the little finger, juil fit for the
bore of the trunk, to pafs clear by the force of one's
breath, and to fill it fo exadly, that the air may not
pafs by, but againfl it, in order to carry it with the.
greater force. At the other end they, fix in it either

ilory. of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren, and the
wars againil Antiochus Epiphanes, and Eupator his
fon. This fecond book does not by any means equal
the accuracy and excellency of- the firfl. It contains
a hidory of about 15 years, from the. execution o£

a fmall fifh»tooth for that purpofc, or make ar blade of Heliodorus's commifHon^ who was fent by S^leucus

wood of the bignefs of tho point of a lancet, about
three-quarters Qd an inch long, and making a- little
notch in the end of the ant>w, they ilrike it firnv
therein, which they anoint ^ith poi£on. The poi-
fonous gum, when gathered, is put into hollow bam-
boos or canes, flopped up very dofe, and thus brought
to Macaffar. When they fit it for ufe» they take a
piece of fxnooth turtle-fhelly. and a fli^ cut flat and
f^fnooth at the end : then they take green galan*
ffal rooty gnite it, and with the addition of a: little

to fetch away the trcafjures of the temple, ta the vic-
tory obtained by Judas Maccabeus over Nicanor i^
that is, from the y«ar of th(* world 3828^ to the year
3843, 147 years before. ChrifU.

There are in the Polyglot bibles, both of Paris and.
London, Syriac verfions. of both thefe books; but
they^ as well, as the Engliih verfions which we have
among the apocryphaL writers in our> Bibles^ are de-»
rived from the Greek. There. is>alfo a third .bo<^ o£
the Maccabees, containipg.thc hiflory of the perfecu«

fair water, prefs the juice into a. deaa china difh v tion of Ptolemy Philoj^ator againil the. Jews in £•
then with a knife fcraping. a little of the poi£sn . upon gypt, and their fufferings under it ; and ieems to havo
the iheli, dip the end of the flick in the forementioned been written bv fome Alexandrian* Jew in the Greek

language^ not long after the time of Siracides. Xt is

liquor, and with this diffolve the poifontothe oonfifl*
ence of a fyrup :. when this is done,, they anoint the
fifh-tooth or wooden blade with the (usat flick, and lay
it in the fun, fo*that it may be baked hard. The
pointed arrows thus prepared, are put in hollow bam-
boos, clole fhut, and in. this flate they retain their vir-
tue for a month*
MACCABiEUS (Judas). See Judas.

in moil of the ancient manufcript copies of the Greek
Septuagint, particularly in the Alexandrian and Va^-
tican, but. was n&ver inferted into the vulgar Latii»^.
verfion of the Bible, nor coiifequently into any bf ous
Engliih copies. Moreover, Jofephus's hiflory of the
nuirtyrs that fuffered under Antiochus Epiphanes, is
found in fome n^nufcript Greek Bibles, under the
MACCABEESytviro apocryphal books of fcripturet. name of the fourth book of the Maeca^es.

4, MACBETH,.

MAC C 358 ] MAG

M4c!>Qdi, Macbeth, a Scots nobleman tn the nth cen* to obuin the ty«e priocspfet of widwfcrj c^uUcni ^

r^^ turf, nearly allied to Duncan king of Scotland.--* as a fcicnce. At the lame timey he waa no lefa ktdo-^

Not contented with curbing the king's authority, he ftrious ia improving himMf tn die fiicceia&I pavdicc

carried his peflilant ambition fo &r as to put him to of both arts by attention''at hofpitala*
^eath ; and, chaiing Malcolm Kenmure his Ton and Thus piepared for the excrcire of his profefiooy »•

heir into England, ufurped the crown. Siward eaii bout the end of the year 1749 he fixed hit refidcaee

of Northumberland, whofe daughter Duncan had mar- "in Dublin in the chara^ior of liuigeon and acoouchcor.

rled, undertook, by the order of Edward the ConfefTor, If amiable manners, and ezteofive knowledge of bis

the protedlion of the fugitive prince.-— He marched profeffion, could alone have been fufficient intredoc-

with an army into Scotland; defeated and killed Mac- ttons to pra^kice, he might ia a (hort time hsTe look*

beth ; and reilored Malcolm to the throne of his ance^ ed for a competent (hare of bufineis in that coital ;

tors. Shakefpeare has made this tranfadlion the fub^ but while he had to combat that objection which very

jeck of one of his beil tragedies. generally arifes from youth, his progrc& was aUb coc

MAC BRIDE (Dr David % an eminent phylician a little retarded by an uncommon degree of iiiode%.
and pliilofopher, was d<:fcended from an ancient family Hence for feveral years he remained almoft so a ftate
in the county of Galloway in Scotland. His grand- of obfcurity, and was employed by but few p«»pleei-
father, a clergyman, had fettled in Ireland about the ther of rank or fortune. Cut, if it is to be regretted
end of the lafb century, as miniller to a Prefbyterian that for auuty years his time was not fo fully empJoyed
congregation at Belfail ; and his father, who followed iA the lucrative part*of lus profeffion as waa due to
the fame line,' was fettled at Ballymony in the county his merit, it ought iUU to be remembered* that thiscf-
of Antrim, where he married, and where our author fentially promoted the caule of fcience : for by this
was born in April 1726. After a proper fchool-edu- means his genius and induilry were directed to medical
cation, and having pafled fome time under the tuition refearches; and were productive of difcoveries whidk
of an eminent furgeon in his native place, he was fent will with honour tranimit his name to latefl: poftcrity.
to the univerfity of Glafgow. Having* there comple* Thefey though fome of them might have been fucco*-
ted the ufual courfe of academical (Indies, he came to fully turtfed to his own enu>iument, were ficeiy com*
Edinburgh for the further profecution of medical fci- muaicated to the world in different publications ; and
ence. After a (hort flay here, a war then prevailing he did not ihow greater ingenuity in nmkin^ difco*
between France and Britain, he was induced to go on veries, than liberality of fentiment in publiiking them
board the navy in the ftation of a furgeon's mate. In ^or the advantage of others.— His lirSt pnbfacation,
the fervice of his country he continued for feveral intitkd, *« Eaperimental Eflkys on Mediod and Phi-
years ; and after difcharging for fome time the duties lofophical Subje^,'' made its appearance in the year
of an affiilant, he was raifed to the rank of furgeon. 1764- — ^Thefe eifays are fixe in number: i. On the
Jn this fituation', he firfl turned his thoughts towards fermentation of alimentary mixture and the digexboa
the difcovery of a remedy for the fea-fcurvy. It was of the food. 2. On the nature and properties of fix-
not, however, at this period, that cither chance or rea- cd air. 3. On the different kinds of antiieptics. 4* Of
foning fuggefted to him the employment of an article the diflblvent power of quicklime. 5. Of the fca-
which has iince been attended with the moft beneficial fcurvy. The merit of all thefe is fofficiendy knowa
confequences. Here he had an opportunity only of and acknowledged: but the lad of them is unqueftioa*
cbferving the fymptoras, of fludying the nature, and ably the molt important ; the method therein prapo-
of lamenting the confequences, of the difeafe. fed of both the prevention and cinre of that dreadful

The termination of the war by the peace of Aix-la- difeafe the fcurvy, having been confirmed by repeated

Chapclle put a period to Dr Macbride's employment aud undeniable obfervation.

as a naval furgeon. He had now probably obtained Having thus equally diilinguiihed himfelf as an ia*

much medical knowledge in the fckool of experience j genious philofopher wid able praditioner, the worid

but he was fenfible that he had ftiU much to acquire ^cre not now fiowin bellowing upon himthetrtbou

in that of fcience. An ardent keennefs to mingle in of applaufe to which, he was intitled. His name was

adive life had led him from the fchools of medicine at enrolled with honour in the lifts of many learned focic-

an earlier period than could have been wiihed ; and an ties 5 and the univarfity where his ftudies had fir*

eameft dcfire to found his futtnrc praAice in the beft been commenced, were proud to confer upon him the

eftablilhed principles led him back to them, when a degree of Doctor of Medicine.

judgment, matured by years, and informed from the The reputation, however, of being a dtftingmihed

obfervation of fads, rendered hiih capable of hearing author, was to him but a £econdary objcd ; and bis

teachers with greater advantage. He returned there- talents were not confined to the advancement of mcdi«

fore to Edinburgh, and again entered on the career of cine alone. Having fuccefsfidly difcovered a confide-

academical purfuits, under the tuition of Dr Monro, rable improvement in the art o£ tanning* with that

and thofe other teachers, whofe abilities raifed the fpirited generofity which is ever the coocomitant of

fame of the medical fchool at this place. But not fa« real worth, he fpeedily and fireely communicated it to

tisfied with the inftrudions to be had from any one fet the public, by publiihing, firft, *< An Account of a

of profeffors, the celebrity of the medical teadiers in New Method* of Tanning ;** and afterwarda, ** Inftruc*

London led him alfo to vifit that capital. I'here he tions for carrpng on the New Method of Tanning.*'

particularly became the pupil of thofe diftinguifhed As a mark of approbation for this liberal condud, aa

iedufers, Dr Hunter and Dr Smellie. And while well as a teftimony of refped for his ingenuity, prize-

from the former he laboured to acquire an accurate medals were conferred upon him by the Socktiea of

chirurgical knowledge, from the latter he endeavoured Arts both in Loadoa and Dublin. But his lafl and

MAC C 359 ] MAC

icl>ridc. aioft extenfive publicatton wn more iimncdiatclf it MACEy m ancient weapon* formerly much iifed M'lre^

' lite line of his own profefiion : It h intitled, •• A Me- by the cavahy of all nations. It wa« commonly made Maceaa^
thodicat Intrododion to tfce Theory and Pradice of -of hon ; its figure much refembles a cbocqlate-mill ; '

Medicine." In that TahnUe work he hai given a anany fpecimens may be feen in the Tower It wa?

concife and conne^d view of the principiei and prac^ with one of thefe that Walworth mayor of London

tice of the heaKng art^ as beft' eftabli^ed by found knocked the rebel Wat Tyler from off hts horfe ia

svafco* and confirmed by accurate obfervation. Mofty Smithfield for approaching the young king Richard 11.

if not all of thefe publications^ not only went through in an infolent manner ; and at he fell, he difpatched

various editions* but were translated into different Ian* him with his dagger. • The maCe in modern times

guages. changed its form ; and being no longer a war inflni*

After the merit of Dr Macbride came to be proper* tnent, is made of copper or filver gilt* ornamented with

}y kaovn» the public feemed to (how a defire of ms^ a crown, globe, and crofs, and is nowthephief itiftgnia

king compenfation for having fo long overlooked it* of authonty throughout Great Britain. Similar to

His employment increaled fo rapidly* that he had more the ancient maces, were thofe ffavcs at the end of

buiinefs than he could tranfa6i either with eafe or fafe- which iron or leaden balls armed u*ith fpikcs were fuf*

ty. This having kept him in perpetual agrftation both . peaded by chains: they were till lately carried by the

of body and mind, at laft induced an almoft total in- pioneera of the trained-bands or city militia
capacity offleeping. From this drcumftance his health Mace, in the materia medica, the fecond coat or

could not fail to be impaired. In this iituationi after covering of the kernel of the nutmeg, is a thin and

accidental ejipofure to cold» he was attacked with a membranaceous fubflance» of an oleaginous nature, and

fever, which pot an end to his life on the 1 3th of De^ a yellowiOk colour; being met vrith in ilakes of an inch or

cember 1778, in the yjd year of his age. more in leng^th* which are divided into a multitude of

Thofe who were his moil intimate acquamtance ramifications. It is of an extremely frag^rant, aroma-
were inclined to believe that his death was not a tittle tic, and agreeable flavour; and of a pleafant, *but acrid
haftened by domeftic calamities. During his refidence oleaginous tafte.

in Dublin he was twice married, and was as often fub- Mace is carminative, ftomachie, and aftringent ;

jeded to that inexpreifible diftrefs which muft refult and poffeffes all the virtues of nutmeg, but has lefs

from a final ieparation in this world from the ntoft in* allringency.-— The oik of mace and nutmeg, whether

timate and loving friends. By both of his wives he prepared by d ill illation or cxpreffiont ane fo much of

had feveral children $ but none of them forvived their the fame nature, that they may be indifcriminately

£ither. And on thefe calamitous events, althougrfa he ufed for one another on alloccafions. They give eafe

was able to conceal his filings from the wosld, yet in cholics> and often in nephritic cafes,, taken mternal-

they gave a fevere fiiock to his conftitution. A^er Vy from one drop to five or fix of the diililled oil, ora»

his death* feveral of the playful trinkets of his infants, equal quantity of the- expreffed ; and externally, they

prith the figaature of Men exitvU^ were found in his are of ii£e to nib paralytic limbs : they aUb affift di-

repofitories among paperaon medical and other impor« geftion; and will -oiften ilop vomitings and hiccoughs^

tant fubje&s: an mcoatrovertible proof, that in him at only by being rubbed on the region of the ftomach.

leaft, the great mind of the philofbpher was conjoin* The nurfes have a cuftonv of applying oil' of mace by^

«d with the feeling heart of the affe^ionate father, expreflion to childrens navels to cafe their gripes* andT

But if his abiliticB were remarkable as a pLilofopher that often with fuccefs $ and we are affured, by rni-

and phyfictan^ if his condud was exemplary as an hut- Shors of credit* that when rubbed on the temples* it

hand and parent* bis maimers were no lefs amiable as promotes deep.

a companion and friend. His poUte and benevolent MACEDON, or Macedonia, a moft celebrated

coadud, joined to his tafc for the fine arts* conciliated kingdom of antiquity, was bounded on* the eafb by

the affo6tioi» and efteera of all who knew hhn. His the ^gean fea ; on the fouth by Theffaly and Epirus ;

death was univerfally and fincerely lamented in the city on the weft by the Toniaa feft or Adriatic ; on the

of Dublin. ^ north, at firft by the river Strymon and the Scardian y-

MACCLESFIELD, a tovrn of Chefhire in Eng* mountains, but afterwards by the river Ncflus or Ne-SItuaN'oni,

hnd, 171 miles from London, is feated on the edge of ftus. In a dircA line the whole country extended *<^- <^f ^^

a foreil of the fame name, upon a high bank near the only 1 50 miles in length ; but the wnding!^ of the ^°"°^'y*

river Bolh'n 5 and is a large handfome town> with a coaft lengthened it out to three times that extent ; in

fine chitrdx and a very high fteepk» It wascre6\ed' whfch almoft every convenient iituation was occupied

kto a borongli by King Edward IIL is governed by by a Grecian fea-port. The country was naturally

a mayor* and enjoys great privileges and jurifdicUbns divided by the Thermaic and Strynionic giilphs, into'

. by virtue of the court and the liberties of the foreft. the provinces of Picria, Chalcis, and Pangaeus. The

In its church^ are two brafs plates* on one of which middle region* which took its name from a city of

there is a promise of 26*000 years and 26 days pardon Euboea from whence it was originally peopled, was

^^^ ^ar^ ^*- ^*^^''"N^^^'' »"<^ fi^^ A^^ It« chief very fertile and pleafant ; the inland country, being

Biannfiadure ta mohair button& The market i« on diverfificd by lakes* rivers, and arms of the fea, was

Mondays ; the fairs are Jtene 1 1 and 50; and Nov. 2. extremely convejTicnt for inland navigation*, while the

In Macclesfidd foreft are inany pits dug for tlie fake tow:ns of Amphipelin, Potidasa, Acanthus, and many,

nf the turf; in. whicfi it is common to fee fir-trees others, afforded marts for the commerce of the republics

buried, which are dug up for various ufes* but chiefly of Greece, eb well as of Thrace and Macedon. On one

tor fpluiters that ferve the poor for candles. W.Long, fide of this diftria were the mountains of Pangseus,.

^ 10. £L Lat«.53.. i j. ^<^ on. the other the plains of Pieria. Tlie Pangarau*

v.^-

=6«-.3

MAG C 3^0 1 MAC

Maeedor. mountains, which extended 90 mjlcs towards the eaft to them in return fotne part at the Grecian csvil:^^.

^"^"^ and the river Ncfius, though proper neither for com ti<Jn »nd polite behaviour. Thus they grmdumUj af-

jior paflurey produced plenty of timber for fliip-build- fociated with the fierce and warlike tr^ies in their

ing ^ while the fouthem branches of the mountain neighbourhood ; and this prudent condudkj ixdng' fbl«

contained rich veins of geld and filver; but thefe, though lowed by fucceeding generations, jnay be looked upon

.wrought fucceflively by the Thafians and the Athe- as one of the caufesof the Macedonian gneatneis.
nians, were only brought to perfedUon by Philip of Caranus, dying after a reign of three years, Idttke

Macedon, who extrafkcd from them gold tmd filver to kingdom to iiis fon Ccenus ; who hasrin^ confidenh^.

the value of 20O9OO0I. Sterling annually. Pieria ex- enlarged his dominionst was fucceeded by Thurym^

tended 50 miles along the Thermaic gulph, to thf and he by Perdiccas I. This kdl prince is by Tbu-i

confines of TheiTaly and mount Pindus. The inland 4:ydide« and Herodotus accounted the founder of the *•

part of the, country was beautifully diverfified with Jilacedonian monarchy ; though his hiflary isfo ob-

ihady hills and fountains; a ndfo admirably calculated for Icueed by fable, that nothing certain <ain now be

folitary walks and retirement^ that the ancients look- known .concerning it. In proce& of time^ however,

ed upon it to be the favourite haunt of the mufes» the eood undeHlandtng which had fubfiiled between

and accordingly beflowed upon them the title of Pie^ the Macedonians and ^eir barbarous nei^bours be-

riJes. gan to fuffer an interruption; and in 691 B. C. the

Diffeient In the moil early times this country was called i£m^ kingdom was for the.firft time invaded by the Illy- ,J

•*>*°>€s* ihia^ from JEmaihius one of its princes. The name of rians. At firft theyxiid xx>nfiderable damage by their ,'^ .^^

MiKedoni% faid to have been derived from Macedn a ravages } but the Macedonian monarch, Argaeus^ ha^rusb

deCcendant of Deucalion ;' though others fuppoie it .ving decoyed them into -an ambuflv cut off great nam*

to .have been only a corruption of Mygdonia a diitri^ bers, and obliged the remainder to leave the king.

of the country. In thofe remote ages of anttquityt 4oro« In the xeign of his fucceifors, faowevcr» they

Macedon, like moll other countries of Europe, was returned, and occafionally proved /^ery -tFoufalefoiDe

divided into a great number of petty principalities, enemies till the reigns of Philip and Alexander.
of which fcarce even the names are known at this In the mean time the kingdom of Macedon began Inr--

_. 3 time. All authors agree, however, that CaranuswsM to be aiFe<5bed by thofe great events which took place "^^•'^

fouwicd by ^^ ^'^ who eftablifhed any permanent fovcreiguty in other parts of the world. Cyrus having overthx^wa^''^

.Caranus. in Macedon. He was an Argivc, a defcendant of the Babylonian empire, and conquered aU the weflero | ,;„,

Hercules, and about 8cc yeai^s B« C. condu£led a fmall part of Afia, eftablifhed a mighty monarchy, whkh
f . colony of his countrymen into the inland diilridt of threatened .all the eailern parts of Europe with fiib-
.Macedon at that time diilinguifbed by the name of jedion. The Greeks', however, having now emerged
JEmatbia as already mentioned. Tliis territory was from their barbarifm, and acquired great knowledge
about 300 miles in circumference. On the fouth it in the art of war, were able to refift efFe6biaUy this
was feparated from the fea by a number of Greek re- very formidable power ; but the kingdom of Mace-
.publics, of which the 'mpft confiderable \vere thofe of don, obfcure and unconneded, was obliged to yield,
Olynthusaiid.Amphipolis; and on the north* eaft,. and and though not formally made a province of the Per«
weft, was fu)-rounded .by the barbarous kingdoms of fian empire, was neverthelefs accounted in fome fint
Thrace, Pceonia, and Illyricum. According to the as under the vafialage and protedion of the Perfians.
traditions of thofe time^ .Caranus, having confulted Alcetas,xWho afcended the Macedonian throne about
■ -the oracle on the fuccefs of his intended expedition, the time that the Perfian monarchy was founded, hid
was commanded to be direded by the goats in the the dexterity to preferve his dominions from the ea-
•eftablifhment of his empire. For fome time he pro- * croachments of the Greeks on the one band, and of
ceeded at random, without knowing what to make of ^e Perfians on the other ; but in the reign of his fiic-
•the oracle's anfwer ; but happening to enter the fmall cefibr Amyntas a formal demand was made of fob-
kingdom of JEmaihitf at tliat time governed by King miffion to the great King Darius, by fending him a
.Midas, he obferved a herd of goats running towards prefent of earth and water. Seven ambafladors were
£dtfa the capital. Recollecting then the anfwer of fent gn this errand by Mefi^bizus, one of the officers
the oracle, he attacked and took the city by furprife, of Darius. They were (umptuoufiy entertained by
foon after making himfelf mailer of the whole kingr Amyntas ; but having attempted to take fome inde-
dom. In memory of this remarkable event he called cent liberties with the Macedonian women, Alexan*
the city M^tOy and the people JEgiatesy from the goats der the king's fon caufed them all to bemuitiercd*
who conducted him, and made ufe of the figure of a This rafii adtion had almoft proved ' the ruin of the
goat in his ilandard. From this fable alfo we fee why kingdom \ but Alexander found means to pacify Bn«
the figure of a goat is fo frequently feen on the coins of baris the general fent againft him by Megabizus, by .
Philip and his fucceflbrs. (howing him his fifter Gygaea, a very beautiful wo-
. 4 The little colony of Argivjes led into -ZEmathia by Ca- man, with whom the Perlian fell in love at firft fight,
Jv^'^.*'*^ raniis would foon have been overwhelmed by the barha- and afterwaids married her.

' * rous nations who furrounded it, had not this prince and From this time tlie Macedonians were accounted ^^1^,53.

his fubjc^s taken care to ingratiate thcmfelves with the faithful ctUies of the Perfians; and, throngh thefts ur.-

their neighbours, rather than toatteinpt to Cubdue them intcreit of his fon >in-law, Amyntas obtained the country •-"g *^^

by fprce of arms. They iuilnidcd them in the Grecian in the neighbourhood of mount Haemusand Olympus,^^^ '.^

religion and governmeui, and in the knowledge of many at the fame time that the city of Alabanda in Phry-[^^

ufclpl arts ; adopting themfelvcs, in fome degree, the gia was jfi^en to Amyntas the nephew of Alexander,

language and niaiincrs of the barbarians \ imparting The Macedonians diftinguifhed themfelvcs in the time
N^J8i;. of

MAC C 361 } M A d

ttf Ae Perfian bipftfioa of Greece, by fiimiihisg their wicked aonarclM* A luimber of eompetitoft «Oii^ Mtcc^ettfr

allies with 200»ooo recruits } thouffh feme citith par* ftantly appeared for the throne | and thefc by turns
tictthriy PetidaBa» Olynthost and PaUeBe» adhered to called in to their aiBftance the Thracians» lUyrianst
the Grectan interefL The two laft were taken and l*heiraliaass the Olynthian confederacy, Athens, Spar-
' xafedf and the inhabitants maflisared by the Perfians | ta, and Thebes. Bardyllis, an adive and daring
but Potidsea efcaped by reafon of the Tea breaking chief, who, from being head of a~ gang of robberst
into the Perfian camp, where it did great damage, had become fovereign of the lUyrians, entered Ma-
Alexander, however, afterwards thought pix>pertocourt cedon at the head of a numerous army, depofed A-
the fiiTour of the Greeks by giving them intelligence myntas II» the father of Philip, and fet up in fats
of the time when Mardonius defigned to attack them, place one Argaeus, who confented to become tributary
The remaining tranfa£kions of this reign are entirely to the lUyrians. Another candidate for the throne,
unknown, farther than that he enlarged his dominions named Paufaniasy vras fupported by the Thracians ;
to the river NeiTus on the eaft and the Axius on the but, by the affiftance of the ThelTalians and Olyn-
Q weft. thians, Amyntas was enabled to refume the govern-
^ign of Alexander I. was fucceeded by his fon Perdiccas IL ment. After his reftoration, however, the Olynthians
:rdiccM vi^ho, according to Dr Gillies, *^ inherited his father^s refufedlo deliver up feveral places of importance be«
abilities, though not his integrity/' But from his do- longing to Macedon which A°iyntaa had either en-
plicity above mentioned both to Greeks and Perfians, trufted to their care, or which they had taken from
It does not appear that he had much to boaft of as his antagonifl. Amyntas complained to Sparta 1 and War with
to the latter quality. In the Peloponnefian war he that republic, which had already formed fchemes of the Oljn^
cfpoufed the caufe of the Spartans againft the Athe- vcyy extenfive ambition, fo readily complied with the'^'**^
nians, from whom he was in danger by reafon of their requeft, that it was generally fuppofed to have pro-
numerous fettlcments On the Macedonian coaft, and ceeded from Spartan emiflaries fent into Macedonia*
their great power by fea* For fome time, however, They pretended indeed to. hefitate a little, and to take
he amufed the Athenians with a (how of friendihip ; time to deliberate on the army which ought to be
but at kfi, under pretence of enabling Olynthus and raifed for the purpofe ; but Cleigenes, the prindpal
fome other cities to recov^ their liberties, he affiiled ambaffador, reprefented the , urgency of the cafe in
in defiroying the influence of the Athenians in thofe fuch a manner, that the droops which happened at
places, in hopes of efbtblifhing that of the Macedo* that time to be ready were ordered to take the field
nians in its iVead. But this defigpa failed of fuc- without delay. Two thoufand Spartans, under the
cefs \ the Olynthian confederacy was broken, and command of Eudamidas, were ordered into Macedon^
the members of it became fubjeft to Sparta, until at while a powerful reinforcement under the conuaand
tail, by the misfortunes of that republic, they became of Phcebidas, brother to the general, was ordered to
fufiiciently powerful not only to refifl the encroach* follow him as foon as poflible. By accident, Phcebi*
ments of the Macedonians, but to make coniiderable das and his auxiliaries were detained till the (eafon
lO conqucfts in their country. for adion was paifed \ but Eudamidas with his fmali
:>f Arche- Perdiccas 1 1, was fiiceeeded about 416 B.C. by army performed very eflentialfervice. The appear*
»ui I. Archelaus I. He enlarged his dominions by the con« ance of a Spartan array at once encouraged the fub*
quefl of Pydna, aiid other places in Pieria, though je6b and aUies of the Olynthians to revolt $ and the
his ambition feems rather to have been to improve his city of Potidxa, a |^ace of . great importance in the
dominions than greatly to extend them. He hxSil* ifthmus of Pallene, funrenderedt foon after .bis arrrval
tated the communication between the principal towns in the country. Being too much elated with his fuc«
of Macedon, by cutting Araight roads through mofl cefs, however, Eudamidas approached fo near the city
part of the country : he built walls and fortreiTes in of Olynthus, that he was- unexpc^edly attacked, de«
fuch places as afforded a favouiable iituation ; encou* feated, and killed in a faUy of the citizens. He was
raged agrriculture and the arts, particularly thofe fub-> fucceeded by Teleutias the brother of Agefilaus, who
fervient to war ; formed magazines of arms $ raifed had under his command a body of 10,000 men, and
and difciplined a coniiderable body of cavalry ; and was farther affiffed by Amyntas king of Macedon and
in a word, fays Dr Gillies, added more to the folid Derdas his brother, the governor or fovereign of the
grandeur of Macedon than had been done by all his mofl weflerly prorince of Macedon, whidi abounded
predeceifors put tagether. Nor was he regardlefs of in cavalry. By thefe fbnniable enemies the Olyn*
the arts pi peace. His palace was adorned by the thians were defeated in a number of battles, .obliged
works of Grecian painters. Euripides was^ong en* to ihut themfelves up in their city, and prevented
tertained at his court ; Socrates was earneiUy folicited from cultivating their territory ; on which Teleutial
to live there, after the example of this phil<5f<5phic advanced with his whole forces to in^fl the city it-
poet, formed by his precepts and cherifhed by his felt*. His excefiive eagemefs to deftroy his enemies
friendihip : men of merit and genius in the various proved his ruin. , A body of Olynthian horfe had the
walks of literature and fdence were invited to refide boldnefs to pafis the river Amnias in fight of the allied
in Macedon, and treated with diilinguifhed regard by amfy, though fomuch-fuperiorin number* Teleutias
a monarch duly attentive to promote his own glory ordered his targeteers to attack themt the Olyn*
,f and die happinefs of his fubje^'' thians, having retreated acrofs the river, were dofely
Thiking- This great monarch died afler a reign o# fix ycarl, pnrfued by the Lacedemonians, great parUof whom
dom be- a fpace by far too fliort to accomplifh the magnificent alfo pafled the river ; but the Olynthians fuddenly turn<^
^re^'to *- P'^J^^* ^^ ^^ formed. After his death the king- ingupon them, killed upwards of 100, with Tlcmoni*
^Udiffe^' dom fell under the power of ufurpers or weak and das their leader* Teleutias, exafperated at this difafler^
lioos. Vol. X. Part L Z z ordered

MAC

C 362 J

MAG

Mac*4oD.

ordered the remainder of the targeteers and cavalry to

purfuc ; while he himfelf advanced at the head of the

heavy armed foot with fuch celerity that they began

to faJI into diforder. The Olynthians allowed them

to proceedi and the Lacedaemonians very imprudently

advanced juft uhder the towers and battlements of throne ; but he was depofed by the Theban

the city. The townfmen then mounted the walls, Pelopidas, who^reinftated Perdiccas in hia dominioos ;

huflmnd had formerly (hown to himfelf, and he like- }Usst
wife faw the advantages which muft enfiie to hit coua- •-
try from a connediion with Macedon. During the .^
minority of the young prince, however, hi« brother ^'^.
Ptolemy, who was his guardian, openly afpired to thcctcari^

*.1
TKe Olyn-
thians ohli-
ired to fttb-
mit.

and difcharged upon them a (hower of darts, arrows,
and other miffile weapons, while the flower of the
Olynthian troops, who had been purpofely poAed be-
hind the gates, (allied forth and attacked them with
great violence. Teleutias attempting to rally hid
men, was flain in the firft onfet ; the Spartans who
Mtended him were defeated, and the whole army at
lafl difperfed with great (laughter, and obb'ged to
(helter themfelves in the towns of Acanth u«, Apollo-
nia, Spartolus, and Potidaea,

The Spartans, undifmayed by this terrible difafter,
next fent their King Age(ipolis with a powerful re-
inforcement into Macedon. His prefence greatly
raifed the fpirits of the Lacedaemonian allien, and his
rapid fuccefs feemed to promife a fpeedy termination
to the war, when he himfelf died of a calenture. ^Ic
was fucceeded in the throne by his brother Cleomb^)*
tus, and in the command of the army by Polybiadea
an experienced general, who likewife brought along
with him a powerful reinforcement. Olynthus was
flow completely blocked up by land, while a fqua-
dron of Lacedaemonian galleys blocked up the neigh-
bouring harbour of Mycebema. The Olynthians,
however, held out for nine or ten months, but at laft
were obliged to fubmit on very humiliating condi-
tions. They formally renounced all claim to the do-
minion of Chalcis ; they ceded the Macedonian cities
to their ancient governor $ and in confequence of this
Amyntas left the city of JEgxsk or EdeiTa, where
till now he had held his royal rcfidence, and fixed it
at Pella, a city of great ilrength and beauty, fituated

Tc^

and in order to fecure, in the moft effe^ual manner,
the de^ndcnce of Macedon. upon Thebes, carried along
with him thirty Macedonian youths as hoftages ; and
an^ong them Philip, the younger broths of the king.
Perdiccas now, elated by the prote6Ubn of fuch power-
fid aDies, forgot Iphicrates and the Athenians, and
even difputed with them the right to the city of Am-
phipolis, which had been decreed to them by the ge-
neral council of Greece, but which his oppofitioTi
rendered impoffible for them to recover. . In oonic-
quence of the truft he put in thefe new allies, alfo, it
is probable that he refufed to BardylHs the Illyriaa
the tribute which the Macedonians had been obliged
to pay him ; which occafioned a war with that nation.
In this conteft the Macedonians were defeated with
tlie lofe of 4000 men, Perdiccas himfelf being taken i
prifoner, and dying foon aftei^of his wounds. dd-.^.".

The kingdom was now left in the raoft dcploTafalef^^ * '
ftate. Amyntas, the proper heir to the throne, was !^l^J^
an infant ; the Thebans, in whom Perdiccas had'pbcedij.^'
fo much confidence, were deprived of the fovereignty
of Greece ; the Athenians, jufUy provided at the oa-

frateful behaviour of the late monarch, (howcd aa
oftile difpofition; the lUyriaas ravaged the weft, and
the Pzonians the north quarter of the kingdom ; the
Thracians ftill fupported the caufe of Paufanias, and
propofed to fend him into Macedon at the head of a
numerous army ; while Argaeus, the former rival of
Amyntas, renewed his pretenfions to the thrane, and
by flattering the Athenians with the hopes of recover-
ing Amphipolis, eafily induced them to fupport his

14
l^ella made

the capital on an eminence, which together with a plain of con- , claims ; and in confequence of this they fitted out a
of Mace- - _•-

don.

«5

Paifanias

uTttTps the
ihro&e.

£derable extent was defended by impaffable meraffes,
and by the rivers Axius and Lydias. It was <fiftant
about 15 miles from the ^gean fea, with which it
communicated by means of the abovementioned rivers.
It was originally founded by the Greeks, who had
lately conquered and peopled it ; but in confequence
of the misfortunes of Olynthus, it now became the
capital of Macedon, and continued ever after to be fo.
Amyntas, thus fully eftablifhed in his dominions,
continued to enjoy tranquillity during the remaining
part of his life. ' The ragn of kis fon Alexander was
fliort, and difturbed by invafions of the Illyrians;
from whom he was obliged to purchafe a peace. He
left behind him two brothers, Perdiccas and Philip,
both very young ; fo that Paufanias again found means
to ufurp the throne, being fupported not only by the
Thracians, but a confiderable number of Greek mer-
cenaries, as well as a powerful party in Macedon it-
felf. In this critical jun^iur, however, Iphicrates
the Athenian happening to be on an expedition to Am-

fleet, having on board 3000 heavy armed foldiers,
which they fent to the coail of Macedon. .

Philip, the late king's brother,, no iboner heard of p|^ g.
his defeat and -death, than he fet out privately from ma ic
Thebes $ and on his arrival in Macedon fbimd matten ^f>se&
in the (ituation we have juil now defcribed. Fired
with an infatiable ambition, it is very probable that
from the very firft moment he had refolved K> feize
the kingdom for himfelf ; yet it was neceflary at firft
to pretend that he aflumed the throne only to preferve
it for his nephew. Philip, as has already been menf
tioned, was carried off as an hoftage by Pelopidas,
but for a long time paft had remained in fuch obfcuri-
ty , that hiftorians difagree as to his place of refidence ;
feme placing him in Thebes, and others in Macedon.
It is certain, however, that from the age of 15 he
had been very mudi in the fsimily of Epaminondas,
from whofe lefTons he could not but derive the greateft
emolument. It is probable alfo that he attended this
celebrated general in many of his expeditions ; and it

phipolis, was addreffed by Eurydice the widow of is certain, that, with an attendance fuitable to his rank,

Amyntas, fo warmly in behalf of her two Tons, whom he vifited moft of the principal republics,, and (howed

(he prefented to him, that he interefted himfelf in their an attention to their inftituticns, both civil and mili-

behalf, and got Perdiccas the eldeft eftablifhed on tary, far fuperior to his years. Having eafy accefs to

the throne He was induced alfo to this piece of whomfoever he pleafed, he cultivated the friendfhip

generofity by the kifidneft which Eurydice and her of the firft people in. Greece* Even iu Athens^

where

MAC C 3«3 3 MAC

^^^cedap, where no good-*wiH fubfiftcd with MaccUon, the philo- and independent, and fubjcft only to the government Macedom
^ fophcrs Plato, Ifocrates, and Ariftotlc, cultivated his of its own free and equitable laws. This artful con- - ' '
acquaintance : and the conne6tion he formed with the duft, together with his kind treatment of the pri-
principal leaders of that republic in the 'early period foners, fo wrought upon the minds of the Athenians,
of his Hfe, no doubt contributed greatly to the accom- that they confented to the renewal of a treaty which
,^ plifhment of the defignsin which he afterwards proved had formerly fubfifted between them and his father
jRetrievei fo fuccefsfuL His appearance in 'Macedon inflantly Amyntas. ' Thus he found means to remove all jea-
*f^h^^* changed the face of affairs: the Macedonian army, ' loufy of his ambition or the fchemes he might. aner-
2^^* ^* though. defeated, was not entirely deftroyed ; and the wards undertake to their prejudice $ and not only this,
remainder of them fecured themfelves in the fortreffes but to induce them .to engage in a ruinous war with
which had been built by Archelaus. There were aU their allies, which occupied their attention until Phi-
fo confiderable garrifons in the fortreffes, and walled Up had an opportunity of getting his matters fo well
towns fcattered over the kingdom ; and the Illyrians, eftablifhed that it was impomble to overthrow them. 44
.who had made war only for the fake of plunder, foon The new king being thus left at liberty to regulate Reduces th«
returned home to enjoy the fruits of their victory. His his domefUc concerns, began to circumfcribe the power P^^'^l^f.
other enemies, the Thracians and Paeonians, were of his chiefs and nobles ; who, efpecially in themorct.
much lefs formidable than the lUyrians, being flill in remote provinces, paid very little regard to the autho-
a very rude and untivilized flate, incapable of uniting rity of the kings of Macedon ; fometimes, even in
ynder one head in fuch a manner as to bring any for- times of public calamity, throwing oflf their allegiance
midable army into the field. While the Illyrians there- altogether, and affuming an independent government ^^
fore gave up the campaign through mere caprice and over confiderable tra6ts of country. To counterad^ Choore^ s
unfleadinefs, JPhilip himfelf applied to the Paeonians, the ambition of thefe chiefs, Philip chofe a body of P"™*'«*" ^
and by fair proraifes and flattery prevailed upon them the bravefl Macedonian youths, whom he cntertamed *!^^"^'
to deiift. The king of Thrace, by means of a fum at his own table, and honoured with many tefUmoniesforhiscom*
•f money, was eafily prevailed upon to abandon the of Iris friendfhip, giving them the title of his com//7-paiiicms«
• caufe of Paufanias ; fo that Philip, freed from thefe monj, and allowing them conflantly to attend him in
barbarians, was now left at liberty to oppofe the A- war and hunting. Their intimacy with the fovcrcign,
thenians, who fupportcd Argaeus, and threatened a which was confidered as an indication of their merit, '
very formidable invaiion. . obliged them to fuperior diligence in all the fevere du-
The appearance of the Athenian fleet before Me- ties of military difcipline ; and the young nobility,
th«ne, with that of Argaeus at the head of a nume* eager to participate fuch high honours, vied with each
rous army in Pieria, filled the whole country with con- other in their endeavours to gain admiflion into this
fternation ; and Philip, who was by no means deficient diflinguifhed order ; fo that while on the one hand
in talents neceffary to recommend himfelf to the good fliey ferved as hoflages, on the other they formed an
^ graces of the people, took the opportunity of getting ufeful feminary for future generals, by whom both
TalLe«ap- ^^y"^** ^^ afide, and himfelf declared king; for Philip and Alexander were afterwards greatly affifted
on him the which indeed the danger, of the times afforded a very . in their conquefls. ^^
fovereiga- plauiible pretext. Argaeus, in the mean time, advan- Diodonis Siculus, and all the Roman writers who Whether
*y* ced with his Athenian allies towards EdefTa, or -figae, have treated of the hiilory of Greece, affert that Phi- he inftita*
the ancient capital of the Macedonian empire, where lip, in the firft year of his reign, inflituted the Mace-**^^.^*
he hoped to have been amicably received ; but finding donian phalanx; a body of 6000 men armed with^' *****
^, the gates fhut againfl him, he returned back to Me- fhort fvvords fitted either for cutting or flabbing, ha-
Befeats and thone. Philip haraffed him in his retreat, cutting off vjng alfo llrong bucklers four feet long and two and
kilU Argae- great numbers of his men, and afterwards defeated an half broad, and pikes 14 feet long; ufually march-
iH an ur- jjjj^ ^^^ ^ general engagement j in which Ar^us him- ing 16 men deep. But this opinion is controverted
^^' ' felf, wjih the flower of his army, was cut in pieces, by others. Dr Gillies fuppofes that the opinion had
and all the rell taken prifoners. arifen from the Romans meeting with the phalanx in
This firfl inflance of fuccefs contributed greatly to its moil complete form in Macedon ; and as they be-
raife the fpirits of Philip's party ; and he himfelf took came acquainted with Greece and Macedon pretty
FhihV « Po- ^^^^ ^^ improve it in the befl manner peffible. Ha- nearly at the fame time, it was natural for them to
Utic treat- ^^ng taken ^a great number of prifoners, both Mace- fuppofe that it had been invented amon? the Macedo-
ment of the donians and Athenians,^ he determined, by his treat- nians. The phalanx, he fays, is noming different
prifoacri- ment of them, to ingratiate himfelf with both parties, from the armour and arrangement which had always
The former were called into . his prefence, and, after prevailed among the Greeks, and which Philip adopt-
a gentle reprimand, . admitted to fwear allegiance ed in their mofl perfe«S^ fonn ; " nor is there reafon
to him ; after which they were diflributed through (fays he) to think that a prince, who knew the dan-
the army : the Athenians were entertained at his table, ger of changing what the experience of ages had ap»
difmifled without ranfom, and their baggage reflored.- proved, made any alteration in the weapons or ta6iic«
The prifoners were juft allowed time to return to their of that people. The improvement in the counter-
native city and to fpread abroad the news of Philip's march, to which Philip gave the appearance of ad-
generofity, when they were followed by ambaffadors vancing inflead of retreating, mentioned by ^lian in
j^g„Q„nccg'. "om Macedon with propofals for peace. As he knew his Tadtics, c* xxviii. was borrowed, as this author
kis nght to that the lofs of Amphipolis had greatly irritated them, teUs us, from the Lacedaemonians. If Philip increafed
Amphipo* he now thought proper to renounce his jurifdidion the phalanx, ufually lefs nmnerous, to 6000 men, this
^ over that city ; ai\d it was accordingly declared free was far from an improvement ; and the later kings of

Z z 2 MacedoDy

MAC r 364 ]

Miee^. Ma<te4ot»9 who fwelled it to f6>ooo« oiily rendered tion.
that Older of battle more unwkMy and InconTenient."
Inftead of thia, Philip, according to our author, em«
ployed hiaofelf in procuring arms, horfes, and other
neceffary adaterials ror war \ and in introducing a more
ftvere and exa6^ military difcipline than had formerly
been known in Macxdon.

While the king thus took the beft methods to ren-
der himfelf fecure at home and formidable abroad, the
Pleoniant again began to make incurfions into the
kingdom. The death of Agn their king, however,
who was a man of great military (kill, depriTcd them
almoft of every power of refiftance when they were
attacked. Philip*, of confequence, over-ran their
country with little oppofition, and reduced them
to the ftate of tributaries to Macedon. No fooner
was tliis accomplifhed, than he undertook a winter's
campaign againfi the Illyrians, who had long been
the natural enemies of Macedon. They had now ex-
tended their territory to the eaft ; by which means the
Macedonians were exchided from the harbours on the
coaft of the Adriatic. This was a grievance to Fhi-

Overcoflut
she Paeo-
Plant snd

lUjiians.

rtc

cse;^.

M A C

Moft of the towns in Cludcidice
its allies orfubje^ls } fo that this popukms and weakiky
province, together with Pangaeus on the right snd
Picria on the left, of both which the cittea were »•
ther independent or fubje^ to the Athenians, fDroaed
a barrier not only fufficient to gnaard again ft any in-
curfions of the Macedonians, but which was even for-
midable to them. But though Philip was fenfibk
enough of the importance of thofe |dacet, he coofi-^ ^
dered the conqueft of Amphipolis as more 'neceflkry rf at^,
at the preTent time. By the poiTeffion of this place
Macedon would be conned^ with the fea, and wooU
be fecured in many commercial advantages, whidi
could not but contribute greatly to the profpcrity c^
the kingdom at large ; a road was likewife opened to
the woods and mines of Pangxus, the former of which
were fo neceilary to the railing of a naval power, and
the latter for the eftablifhment of a proper military
force. This city had indeed been declared indepen-
dent by Philip himfelf in the beginning of his reign ;
but this was only to prevent a rapture wtth the Athe-
nians, who ftill aflerted their right to it as an ancient

lip, who feems early to have meditated the raifing of colony i though, by reafon of the perfidy of Chari-
a naval power | neither could he hope to be in fafety, demus, a native of Euboea, they had hitherto failed
fhould the kingdom be left open to the incurfions of in their attempts to recover it. The Amphipolitans*

They arc
frirced to
lieeome
uibtttajry.

a barbarous enemy ; for which reafons he determined
at once to humble thofe enemies in fuch a manner
that they (hould no longer be in a fituation to give
him any difturbance. After an inefTe^ual negociation,
he was met by Bardyllis at the head of a confiderable
body of infantry, but with only 400 horfe. They
made a gallant refiftance for fome time ; but being un-
able to cope with fuch a (Icilfol general as PhiHp, they
were defeated with the lofs of 7000 men, among
whom was their leader Bardyllis, who fed at the age
of 90.

By this difafter the Illyrians were fo much difhear-
tened, that they fent ambaifadors to Philip, humbly
begging for peace on any terms. The conqueror
granted them the fame conditions which had been im-
pofed upon the Paeonians, viz. the becoming tributary,
and yielding up to him a confiderable part of their
country. That part of it which lay to the caftward
of a lake named Lychnidus he annexed to Macedon ;
and probably built a town and fettled a colony there ;
the country being fertile, anid the lake abounding with

however, having once enjoyed the Tweets of Kbcrty,
prepared to maintain themfelves in their independence.
In the mean time the hoftile defigns of Philip, which
all his precaution had not been able to conceal, alarm-
ed the inhabitants to fuch a degree, thkt 'they thought
proper to put themfelves under the protection of the
Olynthians. By them they were readily receivtd in-
to the confederacy ; and, trufting to the ftrength of
their new allies, behaved in fuch an infolent manner
to Philipi that he was not long of finding a fpccious
pretext for hoftility ; at which the Olynthians, great-
ly alarmed, fent ambaiTadcis to Athens, requeiing
their affiftance againft fuch a powerful enemy* FhiKp,
however, juftly alarmed at fuch a formidable confpi-
racy, fent agents to Athens, with fuch expedition
that they arrived there before any thing conld be con-
cluded with the Olynthian deputies. Having gained
over the popular leaders and orators, he deceived and
flattered the magiftrates and fenate in fuch an artful
manner, that a negociation was inftantly fet on foot,
by which Philip engaged to conquer Amphipolis farsao:

many kinds of fifh highly efleemed by the ancients. *the Athenians, upon condition that they lurrendered

irrz ff'

This town and lake were about 50 miles diftant from
the Ionian fea ; and fuch was the afcendency which
the arms and policy of Phihp acquired over his neigh-
bours,, that the inhabitants of au the intermediate di-
itri6l foon adopted the language and manners of then*
conquerors ; and their temtory, hitherto unconne6led
with any foreign power, funk into fuch abfolute de-
pendence upon Macedon, that many ancient geogra-
phers fttppofed it to be a province of that country..
Philip had no fooner reduced the Qlyrians, than he

t6 him the flroiig fortrtfs of Pydna, a place '"^hich^^^
he repi'efented as of much lefs importance to them;'
promifing alfo to confer upon them many other ad-
vantages, which, however, he did not fpecify at that
time. Thus Jthe Athenians, deceived by the perfidy
of their own magiibrates, ehted with the hopes of re-
covering AmphipoHs, and outwitted by the fuperior*
policy of Phih'p, reje^ed with difdain the proffns of
the Olynthians.

The ambaifadors of Olynthns returned home high-

began to put in execution greater defigns than any ho ly difgufted with, the reception they had met with ;

had- vet attempted. The rich coails to the ibutliward
of Macedon, inhabited chiefly by Greeks, prefented
a ftrong temptation to lus ambition and avarice. The
confederacy of Olynthus, after having thrown off the
yoke of Sparta, was become more powerful than ever.

but had fcarce time to communicate the news to then-
country men,. iK^en the ambaifadors of PhiHp arrived
at Olynthus. He pretended to condole with them on
the.affiront they had received atv Athens ; but telHfied
his fnrprife that they flionld court &e affiftance of that

end conld feml into the field an. army of 10,000 heavy diftant and haughty republic, when they could avail
mrmed troops, befides a number of cavalry in propor<^ tbemfehes of the powernil kingdom of Macedon, which

viibcd

MAC [ 3^5 i . MAC

J^^ace^on. wifhed for nothing more than to enter Into eqnal and awaked him from his teveric j and Cotys, finding him- Maccdeft

""■ lafling engagements with their confederacy. Asa proof felf deftitute of other meant of oppoiition, attempted '

of his moderation and iincerity, he oiFered to put them to ftop the progrefs of the encniy by a letter. To this

in poiTeiHon of Anthemus, an important town in the
neighbourhood, of which the Macedonians fhad long
claimed the jurifdiftion, making many {other fair pro-
mifes ; and among the reft, that he would reduce for
them the cities of Pydna and Potidaca, which he chofe
rather to fee in dependence on Olynthus than Athens^
Thus he prevailed upon the Olynthians not only to
abandon Amphipolisy hut to aflill him with all their
power in the execution of his defigns.

Philip now loft no time in executing his purpofes
on A'mphipolis ; and prefled the city lo clofely, that
the people were glad to apply to the Athenians for
relief. Accordingly they difpatchcd two of their moft
eminent cttizens, Hierax and Stratoclesi to reprefent
the danger of an alliance betwixt Philip and the Olyn-
thians, and to profefs their forrow for having fo deep-
ly offended the parent ftate. This reprefent ation had
fuch an effect, that though the Athenians were then
deeply engaged in the focial war, they would proba-
bly have paid fome attention to the Amphipolitans,
had not Philip taken care to fend them a letter with
frefh aifurancesof friend(hip, acknowledging their right
to Amphipolis, and which he hoped (hortly to put in-
to their hands in terms of his recent agreement. By
thefe fpecious pretences the Athenians were perfuaded
to pay as little regard to the deputies of the Amphi*
politans as they had already done to thofe of the Olyn-
>^aiph!po!'tthian8 ; fo that the city, unable to defend itfelf alone
i«rren<lok again ft fo powerful an enemy, furrendcred at, laft at
difcretion m the year 357 B. C.

Philip ftiU proceeded in the fame cautious and poli-
tic manner in which he had begun. Though the ob-
ftinate defence of the Amphipolitans might have fur-

Philip paid no regard : the Thracians were inftantly
expelled from their pofleffibns at Crenidae, where there
were very valuable gold mines. Thefe had formerly
been worked by colonies from Thafos and Athens j but
the colonifts had long fince been expelled by the barba-
rous Thracians, who knew not how to make ufe of
the treafurc they were in poffefiGon of. Philip took
the trouble to defcend into the mines himfclf, in order
to infpcd the works; and having caufed them to' be
repaired, planted a Macedonian colony at Crenidae«
beftowed upon it the name of Philippi, and drew
annually from the gold mines to the value of near
locx^udents, or 200,000 L fterling; ah immenfe fum
in thofe days. The coins ftruck here were likewifc
called Philippi.

Philip having obtained this valuable acquifition, Settles the
next took upon him to fettle the affairs of Theffaly^ affairt of
where every thing was in confufion. This country Thcffaly
had been formerly opprefled by Alexander tyrant of^^^^.
Pherae; afrerwhofe death three othersapp«ared, v/z. Tif- tagc.
fiphomus, Pitholaus, and Lycophron, the brothers-in-
law of Alexander, who had like wife murdered him. By
the united efforts of the Th«ffalians and Macedonians,.
however> thefe ufurpcrs were eafily overthrown, and
effeftually prevented from making any difturbances for
the future ; and the Theffab'ans, out of a miftaken gra-
titude, furrendcred to Philip all the revenues arifing
from Uieir fairs and towns of commerce, as well as au
the conveniencies of their harbours and fhipping ; a<
conceflion which Phihp took. care to fecure iathe moft-
effe6tual manner.

Having now not only eftablifhed Ims fovcreignty iii«
the moft effe^ual manner, but rendered himfelf very
nifhed a pretence for feverity, he contented himfelf powerful and formidable to his. neighbours, > Philip de-
with banifhing a few of the popularleaders from whom termined to enjoy fome repofe from -his fatigues. Ha- MarriM

u^ 1..J __ii „_..r. *_ J — J i?*«__ . — .: — .v_ ving formed an aJliance with Aryhbas king of Epiru8,01ympia«r-

he, in the year 357 B.C. married Olympias die fi-
fter of that prince 5 a match thought the more^ligiblc» ,
as the kings of Epirus were fuppofed to be defcended
from Achules. The nuptials were folemnized at Pel-
la with great pomp^ and fcveral months were fpent
in fhows and diverfions; during which * Philip (howed
fuch an extreme pronencfs to vice of every kind, as •
difgraccd him fn the eyes of his neighbours, and mofl
probably laid the foundation of his ruture domeftic un-
nappinefs. So much was this behaviour of the Mace* A'jrnieral'

he had moft caufe to dread oppofition, treating the
reft of the inhabitants with all manner of clemency ;
but took care to add Amphipolis to his own domi-
nions, from which he was determined that it nevei^
ihould be feparated, notwithftanding the promifes he
had made to the Athenians. Finding that it was not
his intereft at this time to fall out with the Olynthiaof,.
he cultivated the friendfhip of that republic with great
afliduity ; took the 'cities of Pydna and Potidaea,.
which he readily yielded to the Olynthians, though^
they had given him but litle alliftance in the redudlion •

of thefe places. Potidsea.had been garrifoned by the> donian monarch taken notice of hj^ the neighbouring combina.

Athenians ; and them the artful king fent back with-
out ranfom, lamenting theneceflity of his affairs which
obliged him, cqntrary to his inclinatioui to oppoTe their
republic. Though this was rather too grofs, the A-
thenians at prefent were fomuch engaged with thefo-
Gial war, that they had not leifure to attend to the affairs
of other nations. Pliilip made the heft ufe of his time;,
and next projected the conqueft of the gold mines of
3yfaj^)jI„,.Thrace. That rich and fertile country was now held
fif oiafter by one Cotys, a prince of fuch weak intelledlual facul-
of the gold tics,, that .^he fuperftition of the Greeks, into which
he was newly initiated, had almoft entirely^ fubVerted
kis reafon ; and he wandered about in queft of the
goddefs Minerva, with whom he fancied himfelf in
luve* The invaflbn of the Macedonians^ hdwever»

inine« of
XbraiC.

ftates, that the Pseonians and IByrians threw off the ^^^^ ^{
yoke, engaging in their (cheraes the king of Thrace : [J^* '^.^'gl*-

and notwithftanding the inCane ftate of that prince, thck|^rircc»*
defigns were now carried on with more judgment than ft rmed a- -
was ufual with barbarians. Philip, however, not- ff"^^ 1^1*"»
v^nthftanding his diflipation, got. warning of his dan-
ger in fu&ient time to prevent the bkd confequences
which might have- enfued had the confederates' got
time to bving their matters to a proper bearing. Early
in the fpring 356 he took the field with the. flower of '
the Macedonian troops.- Having marched in perfon^
againft the Pxonians and Thracians, he difpatched^
Parmenio his beft general into lUyria. Both enter-'' ,y
prifes proved fuccefilful; and while "Philip returned Dcfcata '^^
vidtorious from Thrace, he rcoeived an account of the ^"c«****''
I vi^ory..

iKTacedon*

3»
Birth of

Alexander

the Great.

39
Aiiftotle

appointed
his precep-
tor.

MAC I: 36<5 1 MAC

▼iftory gained by Parmenio j t feeond meffengcr in* the town of Seftoa wai taken by ftonD* and tL« xmb^- ^u
formed, him of a vidory gained by hii chariot at the -bitants cruelly treated by Chares, while Philip ec^pluT.

Olympic games ; and a third, that Olympias had been
delivered of a fon at Pella. This was the celebrated
Alexander, to whom the diviners propbefied the
hi^hefl profperity and glory^ as being born in fudi au-
fpicioufi circumftances. ^

A fhort time after the birth of Alexander, Philip
wrote a letter to the philofopher Ariftotle, whom he
chofe for preceptor to his young fon. The letter was
written with great brevity, containing only the fol-
lowing words : ** Know that a fon is bom to us. We
thank the gods not fo much for their gift, as for
beftowing it at a time when Ariftotle lives. We af»

ed himfelf in the fiege of Methone in Picria. Thk ctr -.
he likewife reduced ; but the king loft an eye at the St^'.: .
in the following extraordinary manner, if we fnay gfr^ ■:.
credit to fome ancient hiftonans, A celebrated arcbsr,^
named After, had it feems offered his fervices to F:^>
lip, being reprefented as fuch an excellent markfirzi,
that he could hit the fwifteft bird oa the wing-. Fa-
lip replied, that he would be of excellent ulc if Viq
were to make war with ftarlings. After, dilgufted wit*.
this reception, went oyer to the enemy » and Tsitii
an arrow wounded the king in the eye. Whea tic
weapon was extraded> it was found to have on tc the

40
Extent of
the Mace*
<}onian tcr-
zitories.

fure ounelves that you wiU form him a prince worthy following infcription : ** For the right eye of Philip-.'

4t
J*rojcfit
the con-
i^ueft ofO-
lynthuB
and ol* all
Grecte.

of his father,' and worthy of Macedon." He next
fet about the farther enlargement of his territories,
which were already very confiderable. Paonia was
now one of his provinces ; on the eaft his dominions
extended to the fea of Thafos, and on the weft to
the lake Lychnidus. The ThefTalians were in effeA
fubje£l to his jurifdidion, and the poiTeflion of Am-
phipolis had fecured him many commercial advantages ;
he had a numerous and weU-difciplined army, with
plentiful refources for fupporting fuch an armament,
and carrying through the other fchemes fuggefted by
his ambition ; though his deep and impenetrable poli-
cy rendered .him more truly formidable than all thefc

The king ordered the arrow to be (hot back a^z,
with another infcription, importing that he would
caufc After to be hanged when the town ^-as take. .
A report was raifcd after Philip's death, that he hid
loft his eye by prying too narrowly into the amour> J
Olympias and Jupiter Ammon ; which the vanity J
his fucceffor prompted him to chcri/h, as his flatterers
had probably been the inventors of it.

All this time the Phocian war raged with the grfat-
eft fury, and involved in it all the ftates of Grrecf.
Lycophron, one of the Theflalian tyrants, whom PhVlp
had formerly deprived of his authority » had agi 3
found means to re-eftablifh his authority ; and his coua-
put together. His firft fcheme was the redudion of trymen having taken part with the Phocians, Lyo ,
Olynthus, the moft populous and fertile country on phron called in Onomarchus the Phocian general roj*^ •
the borders of Macedon ; after which his ambition proted him again ft the power of Philip, by whom be *^**^

Account of

4Jhe Pho-
cian war.

prompted him to acquire the Sovereignty of all Greece.
Toaccomplifh the former, he had hitherto courted the
friendship of the Olynthians by every pofliblc method ;
and without letting Aip-any opportunity to acomplifh
the latter,he deprived the Athenians gradually of fevcral
of their fettlements in Thrace and Macedon, In thefe de-
predations, however, he took care always to give fuch
appearance of juftice to his a6iions, that his antago-
nifts, who had ftudied the matter Icfs deeply, could
not find a plaufible pretext for engaging in war againft
him, even when he had openly committed hoftilities
againft them. Philip eafily perceived that the affairs
of the Greeks were coming to a crifis, and he deter-
mined to wait the event of their mutu^ diffentions.
That event did not difappoint his hopes. The Phoci-
ans had violated the religion of thofe dayQ in a moft
extraordinary manner; they had. even ploughed up
the lands confecrated to Apollo : and however they
might pretend to excufe themfelvcs by examples, the
Amphidbfons fulminated a decree againft the Phocians,
commanding the facred lands to be laid wafte^ and im-
poftng an heavy fine upon the community.

By this decree all Greece was again involved in the
war called Phocian^ from the name of the city about
which it commenced. Philip at the beginning of the
troubles was engaged in Thrace, where a civil war had
taken place among the fons of Cotys ; and wherever
Philip interfered, he was fure to make matters turn
•ut to his own advantage. His incroachments at
length became fo enormous, that Kerfobletes, the moft
powerful of the contending princes, agreed to cede
the Thracian Cherfonefus to the Athenians ; who
immediately fent Chares at the head of a powerful ar-
vnameat to take poffeffion of it. In this expedition

was fenfible that he would foon be atUcked. The king r^-j-
accordingly marched intoThefTaly with a confiderabk-. >.:j
army, defeated Phyallus the brother of Oaomarchis ?^^
whom the latter had fent into the country with a <k-
tachment of 7000 men. After this he beficgcd z^^-)
took the city of Pegafac, driving the enemy towards is^c;
the frontiers of Phocis. Onomarchus then advanced
with the whole army; and Philip, though inferior ia
numbers^ did not decline the engagement. The Pbo-
cians at firft gave ground, on which tie Mac«doniais
purfued, but in gdod order 5 but coming near a pre-
cipice, on the top of which Ouomarchus had poJld
a detachment of foldiers, the latter rolled down ftona
and fragments of the rock in fuch a manner as did
dl-eadful execution, and threw them into the utmoU
diforder. Philip, however, rallied his troops frith
great prefencc of mind, and prevented the Phocian?
from gaining any farther advantage than they haJ
already, done ; faying, as he drew off his men, that
they did not retreat through fear, but like rams, ui
order to ftrike with the greater, vigour. Nor was he
long before he made good his affertion ; for having re-
cruited his army with the g^reateft expedition, he re-
turned into Thcffaly at the head of 20,000 foot and ^
500 horfe, where he was met by Onomarchus. l1ieBci^<
Macedonians at this time' were fuperior in number to^^'
their enemies ; lind Philip moreover tdok care to it-*[*^^
mind them, that their quarrel was that of heaven, and*
that their enemies^^ad been guilty of facrilege, by pro-
faning the temple of Delphi. That they might be
ftill more animate<l in the caufe, he put crowns of laurel
on their heads. Thus fired by enthufiafm, and having
befides the advantage of numbers, the Phocians were
altogether unable to withftand them* Tliey threw away
S , thdr

M A C [ 3^7 ] MAC

B« their arms an^ fled tpwards the fea, where they ex* he wasilill enabled t© make a very formidable appear- Maccd»a>^
"^ pe6lcd to have been relieved by Chares, who, with ancej and the Phocians took the field with great pro* »
the Athenian fleet, was nigh the (hore : but in this fpefi of fuccefs. . 50
they were difappointed, for he made no attempt to Philip now thought it time to throw off the maflc Philip ei>.
fave them. Upwards of 6000 periflicd in the field of entirely, for which the proceedings of the Athenians,"^*?^' •"
battle or in the purfuit, and 5000 were taken- prifb- particularly their league with Olynthus, AimifhedhimJJ^^**''
nera. The body of Pnomarchus being found among with a plairfible pretext ; and the revenging fuch hor-
the flaJn, was by order of Philip hung up on a gib- rid facrilege as had been committed at Delphi feemed
bet as a mark of infamy, on account of his having to give him a title to march at the head of an army
polluted the temple ; the bodies ofthe reft were throwir into Greece. The fuperftition of the Greeks, how-
into the fea, as being all partakers of the fame cHme.- ever, had not yet blinded them to fuch a degree, but
The fate of the prifoners is not known, by reafon of they could cafily perceive that Philip's piety was a
an ambiguity in a fentence of Diodorus SicCilus, which mere pretence^ and that his real defign was to invade*
may imply that they were drowned^ though it does and conquer the whole country. The Athenians no
not exprefsly fay fo. fooner heard of the marth of the Macedonian army,
ur- After this vidory, Philip fet about the fettlement than they difpatched, with all expedition, a ftrong ^
»*»- of Theflaly, waiting only for an opportunity to put guard to fecurethe pafs of ThermopylsB ; iothat Phi-^fspreTcnc.
ill execution his favourite fcheme of invading Greece, lip was obliged to return greatly chagrined and dif-edfromcn*-
In the mean time, he rejoiced to fee the ftates weak- appointed. Their next flxp was to call an affembly, JJ^'inf
ening each other by their mutual difienfions; of which to deliberate upon the meafures proper to be taken in.- ^^^^>
he never failed to take advantage as far as poflible. order to reftrain the ambition of the Macedonian mo- '
He now, however, began to throw off the maik with narch ; and this aflembly is rendered memorable by
regard to the Olynthians, whom he had long deceived the firft appearance of Demofthenes as an orator a-
with fair promifes. Having detached Kerfobletes from gainft PhDip. Athens for fome time had been in a-
the intereft of the Athenians, he eftablifhed him in very alarming fituation. They were deeply involved'
the fovereignty of Thrace f not out of any good will, in the facred war ; their northern pofl*eflion8* were
but ^4th a view to deftroy him whenever a proper op- continually infulted and plundered by Philip ; while
portunity offered. Were he once poffeffed of the a number of his mercenary partifans drew off the pub-
dominions of that prince, the way to Byjtantium vrz$ lie attention U> fuch a degree, that, inftead of taking>
open to him ; the poffeflion of which muft have been a meafures to counteract that ambitious prince, they a-
great temptation to Philip, wh^ well knew how to mufed themfelves with fpeculations about the defigns
value the importance of its fituation both with refpe6t of the Perfian monarch, who was preparing for war
to commerce and war : and in order to pave the way againft the Cyprians, Egyptians,' and Phaenicians. I-
to this important conqueft, he attacked the fortrefs focrates the celebrated orator, and Phocion the ftatef- iBitreme
of Heraeum, a fmall and in itfelf unimportant place, man, joined the multitude in their pipefent opinion. Indolence
though, by reafon of its neighbourhood to Byzan- though not from any mercenary motives; but purely *°^**r**^^*"
jf^jj tium, the acquifition was valuable to Philip. The from afenfcof the unfteady condudt of the Athenians;'^^^^^^
A- Athenians, however, at lad began to perceive the de- who, they were affured, could not contend with a .
us. figns of Philip, and determined to couaterad them, prince of the vigour and adlivity of Philip ; and there-
For this purpofe they entered into an alliance with fore exhorted them by all means to cultivate the friend--
Olynthus; and having warned Kerfobletes of his dan- fl&ip^of Philip, whdm they could not oppofe with swy
^ gcr, they ordered a powerful fleet to the defence of probability of fuccefs. Xfocrates,. indeed, greatly wifh- Advice oB
the Heraeura. But thefe vigorous meafures were foon ed for an expedition. into Afia, and looked upon Phi-Ifocratc*
counteracted by the report of PhiKp's death, which lip to be the onlyi^neral capable of conducing it, ^*** orator
had been occafioned by his wound at Methone, ,and a though at prefent the Greeks had no pretence for'*' ' '^™*
diflemper arifing from the fatigues he had afterwards making war upon the Perfians, but that of revenging
undergone. The incoaftant Athenians too eafily gave farmer injuries : and on this fubje^l he addreffed a.
> credit to this report ; and, as if all danger had been difcourfe to Philip himfelf ; and it is even faid, that
over with his death, difoontinued their preparations, Ifocrates, by the power of his rhetoric, prevailed upon
and dire£ted their whole attention to the facred war. Philip and the Athenians to lay afide their aninioii-
9 — ^This conteft, inftead of being ended by the death ties for a fhort time, and confent to undertake this
of Onomarchus^ now raged with double fury. Phy- expedition in Gonjun£tion.

alius, abovementioned, the only Airviving brother of If this coalition, however, did really take place, it 54.

Onomarchus, undertook the caufe of the Phocians; was of very fhort duration. The views of Phocion -He and

and his affairs becoming every day more and more de- and Ifocrates were violently oppofed by Demoflhenes. P'locion^

fperate, he undertook the moft unaccountable method Though fenfiblc of the corruption and degeneracy ^^UmSz^J^

of retrieving them which could be imagined ; having- his countrymen, he hoped, to be able to roufe themthenes.

converted into ready money the moft precious mate- from- their lethargy by dint of his . eloquence ; a ta- .

rials belongii% to the temple at Delphi, and with thi» lent ho had been at great pains to cultivate, and in

treafure. doubled the pay of his foldiers. By this new which he is faid' to have excelled all men that' ever

piece of facrilege, he indeed brought many adventu- cxifted.

rers to his ftandard, though he cut off aU hopes of mer* In his firft addi^es to the people, this celebrated Qra- SubfUace

ey for himfelf or his party fliould he be defeated, tor exhorted them to awake from their indolence, andtif his firft

Having the affiftancc of 1000 Lacedemonians, 2000 to affume the diredlion of their own affairs. Theydrfcourfcsk.

Acbeansi, and 5000 Athenian foot, Ynth 400 cavalry, had been too long goversed|.he faid^, by the incapa*

nna
)f the
tan

. i

MAC [ 368 1 MAC

MmAon. city of a fev ambitious men, to ttie great dtfiidvantage cootribtite {bmewbat to this {candaloiis behavioor, tbt lb
' as well as difgracc of the community. la the firft he might thereby recommend himielf to the libotka -

place, an orator who had placed himfelf at the head of Athens, and prevent even many of the more tkiii
of a h€doti of no more than 300 or 400, availed him- ing part of the people firom fafpeding hu ddSpi
felf and his followers of the carelefsnefs and negligence But in whatever exceifes he might at times iadi^
of the people to irule them at pleafure* From a con* himielf^ he never loft fight of his msun objedytbefEb-
.{ideration of their prefent weaknefs and corruption, jugation of the Greek Ixatcs. On pretence of bds|
m well as of the defigns and commotions of the neigh- in want of money to defray the expence of hu bdi
bouring powers, he advifed them to abandon all ro- '
mantic and diflant fchemes of ambition ; and inftead
of carrying their arms Into .remote countries, to pre-
pare for repelling the attacks which might be n!ade
upon their own dominions. He inMed alfo upon a
better regulation of their finances, a more equid dif-
tnbution of the public burthms, in proportion to the
abilities of thofe upon whom they were laid, and upon
the retrenching many fuperfluous expences* Having

pointed out in a ftrong light the vigorous condu<5^ of country $ at leaft as far as it could be ruined by fsb-
Philip ; and fhown by. what means he. had attained je^^ion to a prince who would have obliged thcQ u
to fuch a refpedabfe footing in the world, he next remain at peace, and apply themfelves to ufeiui tru
laid down a proper plan for their military operations*

ings, he borrowed money at a very high price tbrocgi
out the whole country ; and this he found an eaff ex.
ter to do, as the diffipation of the Delphic trafara
had rendered caih very plentiful in Greece. Thosb*
attached his creditors firmly to his own iotGc;
and on pretence of paying debts, was enabled vitbix;:
moleflation to beftow a number of penfions siid giar&-
ties upon the Athenian orators, who by their trade-
rous harangues contributed greatly to the ruin of thdr

He told them, that they were not yet prepared to
meet Philip in the field i they muft begin with pro-
teding Olynthus and the Cherfonefus, for which it
would be neceflary to raife a body of aooo light arm-
ed troops, with a due proportion of cavalry, which
ought to be tranfported under a proper convoy to the
illands of Lemnos, Thafos, and Sciathos, in the neigh-
l>ourhood of Macedoa. In thefe they would enjoy
all kinds of neceflaries in abundance, and might avail
themfelves of every favourable incident, to appear at
the firft fummons of their allies; and either to repel the
incurfions of the Macedonians, or harafs their territo-
ries. While this was going on, more vigorous pnepa-
Tations might be made for war at home ; and it was
propofed, that only the fourth part of the Athenian
citizens fhould enliil, and no more fuppUes were want-
ed at prefent but 90 talents. But notwithftanding the
moderation of thefe propofals, and the urgent neceifi-
lies of the Rate, it was impoffible to prevail upon the
indolent and carelefs Athenians to provide for their
own fafety. They appear, indeed, at this time, to
Jiave been defperately funk in effeminacy and diffipa-
■tion ; which difpofition Philip took care to encou^ge
to the utmoft of his power. There was an aifembly
in the city called the Sixty f from their confiding ori-
ginally of that number, vf^o met exprelsly for the pur-
pofes of extingui/hinr all care about public afFairs, and
to intoxicate therafelves with every kind of pleafure
they had in their power. With this affembly Philip
was fo well pleafed, that he fent them money to fup-
port their extravagancies ; and fo effedually did they
anfwer his purp«fes, that all the eloquence of Demof-
thenes could not counterad the fpeeches of orators
much his inferiors when backed by Macedonian gold.
Philip himfelf, as we have already hinted, was ex-
ceiiively debauched in his private charader, and the
mod (hameful ftories are related of him by the ancient
writers, particularly by Demofthenes. Theoporopus
too, an author who flourifhed in the time of Alexan-
der, and was rewarded and honoured by that monarch,
alfo fpeaks of him in fuch terms as we cannot with de-
cency relate: but thefe accounts, coming from the
avowed cnonies of the king, are fcarcely to be credit-
4ii i and perhaps policy^ as well as inclioation, might

Thefe he himfelf encouraged in a very eminent degn^
The greatell part of his time was employed at Pel,
which city he adorned in the mod magnificent tnbsz
with temples, theatres, and porticoes. He inTiiec,
by liberal rewards, the mod ingenious arti& in Greece;
and as many of. thefe met with very little encoai&gt*
ment in their own country, great numben fiockd to
him from all quarters. , In the government of iiis peo-
ple, alfo, Philip behaved with the utmod impartiaLtr;
lidening with cbndefcenfion to the complaints of ib
meaned of his fubje^, and keeping up a conibnt cor-
refpondence with thofe whom he thought woitiiT uf
his acquaintance \ from which, it is not eafy to ira-
gine how he could be fo guilty of the vices v« lu^
already mentioned from fome ancient hidorians.
. The fate of Olynthiu was now foon dctennisri
This city, which held the balance of power bdvixt
Athens and Macedon, was taken and plundered, ai^
the inhabitants fold for flaves 1 but the chief lup^^
Pbilip was in putting -an end to the Phocian wir.
For this piurpofe he a&6led a neutrality, that be m^^
thereby become the arbiter of Greece. Hi« hops
were well founded ; for the Thebans, who weit it
the head of the league againd the Phocians, St-
ated him on the one fide, and the fiatei ^xv^'
rate with the Phocians did the like on the stk.
He anfwered neither, yet held both in depeodisce.
In his heart he favoured the Thebans, or ntlK?
placed his hopes of favouring his own caufe in tict
date ; for he well knew, that the Atheaians, Sp
tans, and other fbtes allied with Phocis, would se-
ver allow him to pafs Thermopylae, and lead aa ^!
into their territories. So much refped, howc'^f ^
he (how to the ambaiTadors from thefe Hates, pvti*
cularly Cteftphon add Phrynon, who came from A*
thens, that they believed him to be in their intrrtt a
and reported as much to their maders. The AJ^e*^
Atans, who were now difiblved in eafe and luzuTi ^^
ceived this news with great fatisfa6iion \ and ow^tii
inmiediately ten pleiupotentiaries to go and tiest « >r ^
f^iU and lafUng peace with Philip. AmoDg thefe i^
nipotentianes were Demodheaes and ^fchisesitK
mod celebrated orators in Athens.. Phibp g>^ r,
regions that thefe ambafladors fhodd be treited vi^
the utmoft civflitri «««»«. attbeAmctia.,^^

MAG

I 3% 1

MAG

cedAn. his miniftcw to confer with them, viz. Antipater, Par-
fnenio, and Eurylochus. Demofthencs being obliged
to return to Athens^ recommended it to bis colleagues
fiot to carry on their ncgociations with Philip's depu«>
ties; but to^pfocecd with all diligence to courts there
to confer with the king himlclf* The ambafla-
dors, however, were fo far from following his in-
^IruAions, that they fulFered themfelvcs to be put
off for three months by the arts of PhiHp and his mi-

-niiters.

In the mean time, the king took from the Athe-
^nians fuch places in Thrace as mig^t beft cover his
frontiers ; giving their plenipojtentiaries, in their ft|^,
abundance of fair promifes, and the firongeft affuran-
■ ces that hi« good-wiU (hould be as beneficial to them
as ever their colonics had been* At laft a peace was
concluded $ but then the ratification of it was deferred
till Philip had poffcffed himfclf of PhersBa in Theflaly,
and faw himfelf at the head of a numerous army :
then he ratified the treaty ; and difmiffed the plenipo-
tentiaries with aflurances, that he would be ready at all
times to g^yt the Athenians proofs of his friendihip.
On their return to Athens, when this matter came to
be debated before the people, Demofthenes plainly
told them, that, in his opinion, the promifes of Phi-
lip ought not to be relied on, becaufe they appeared
to be of little fignificance in themfelves, axid came

or grand eotmcil ef Greece. By their dectce the Maoa4«fi.'

walls of three Phocian cities were demolifhed, the peo- * -L
pie were forbid to inhabit in any but villages, to pay
a yearly tribute of 60 talents, and never to make ufe
either of houfes or arms till they had repaid to the
temple of Apollo the money they had fr.crilcgiou/ly
carried from thence. Their aims were taken from
them, broken to pieces, and burnt $ their double voice
in the council was taken from them, and given to the
Macedonians. Other orders were made for fettling the
affairs both of religion and ftate throughout Greece :
all of which were executed by Philip with great ex-
a£lnefs and moderation, he paying the moil profound
refpedt to the council ; and, when be had performed
its commands, retiring peaceably with his army back
to Macedon, which gained him great reputation*

At Athens alone, the juftice and piety of Philip waa
not underftood. The people began to fee, though a
little too late, that they had been abufed and deceived •
by thofe who had oegociated the late peace. They faw^ j, ^-^-^ .
that, through their acceptance of it, the Phocians oppofcd by
were deilroyed ; that Philip was become mailer of the AAe«
Thermopylx, and might enter Greece when he plea- <^i^**i
fed ; that, in abandoning their allies* they had aban
doned themfelves s and tliat, in all probability, they,
might foon feel the weight of his power, whom they,
had fo fooliihly truiled : they therefore began to take

from a prince of u) much art, and fo little iidelity, that new and hoilile meafures ; they ordered that the wo«.
they could derive no authority from their maker. iEf- men fliould retire out of the villages into the dty, their

chines, on the other hand, gave *it as his fentiment,
that the king of Macedon's aiTurances ought to give
tliem full fatisfadion. He (aid, that for his part,
he was not politician enough to fee any thing of dif-
guifc or diiTimulation in the king's condud ; diat there
was great danger in diftrufting princes ; and that the
furefl method of putting men upon deceit was to
ihow that we fufpefted them of It. s The reil of the
plenipotentiaries concurred with ^fchines ; and the
people, defirous of quiet, and addided to pleafure,
eafily gave credit to all that was faid, and decreed

walls be repaired, and ibeir forts new llrengthen-
ed. They feemed inclined to queilion Philip's elec«.
tion into the council of the Amphi^iyons, becaufe it
had been done without their confent; and even to pro-
ceed to an open war. In all likelihood they had car*
ried things to extravagancy, if Demofthencs had not
interpofed. He told them, that though he was not
for making the peace^ he was however for keeping it;
and that he faw no manner of occafion for their enter-

^ar

ing into fo unequal a conteil as would needs enfue»
if they took up amui, not only a^ainil Philip, but
that'tlH; peace ihould be Kept. All this was the eafier againil all the Hates concurring with him in the late
brought about, becaafe Phocion, the worthieil man tranfadlions. This ieems to have cooled the rage of
in the republic, did not oppofe Philip; which was the Athenians ; and to have brought them to think of
owing to his having a juft fenfe of the ftate his country rmning Philip by degrees, as by degrees they had r(i/-
was in. He conceived, that the Athenians of thofe fed him.

times were nothing like their anceftors \ and therefore. The fame of his atchievements without the bounds Pvrfoes hit
as he ezpreiTed himfelf on another occafion, he was of Macedon having difpofed the fubjeds of Philip tQconquefts
defirous, fince they would not be at the head of hope everything from his condudl, and the feveral 'a 'I'h'"^^
Greece themfelves, that they would at leail be up- ilatcs pf Greece to defire above all things .his friend-,
on good terms with that poWer which would be fo. (hip ; that prudent monarch laid hold of this favourable
Philip, who knew how to ufe as well as to procure iituation to fix his dominion oD^ch a flable founda-
tion as that a reverfe of fortune (nould not immediate-
ly deilroy it. To this end, while he carried on his
oegociations through Greece, he likewife kept his ar-
my in excrcife, by taking feveni) places in Thrace» ^
which terribly incommoded the Athenians. Diopi- Hig dom*.
thes, who had the government of the Athenian colo-oion^ io-
nics in thofe parts» perceiving well what end Philip ^^^^ ^T
had in view, did not day for inftruAions from home j ^^P*'^!^
but having raifed with much expedition a confider-
able body of troc^s, taking advantage of the kibg'a
being abfent with his army, entered the adjacent
territories of Philip, and wailed them with fire and
fword.
The king» who, on account of the operations of the
/ j A ^ ^

Thermo- opportunity, while the Athenians were in this good
pyl«,<u«i humour, paffed Thermopylae, without their knowing
jnd« the viiiether he would fall on Phocis or Thebes; but he
quickly undeceived them, by commanding his foldiers
to put on crowns of laurel, declaring them thereby
the troops of Apollo, and himfelf the lieutenant-gene-
ral of that god. He then entered Phocis with an air
of tiiumph ;. which fo terrified the Phociana, whom
he had caufed to be projclaimed facrilegious perfons,
that they immediately difmiiTed sdl thoughts of de-
fence, and without more ado fubmitted to his mercy.
Thus the Phocian war, which had fe long employed
all Greece, was ended without a ilroke ; and tlie judge-
ment on the Phocians remitted to the Amphi^yonsi
,VoL.X. Parti.

AM.

MAC . r 37

Mkc tdanl campaign in the Cherfoxiefc> was not tt Icifure to re-
'**""*v^- pel Diopithes by force, nor indeed could divide hisar-
my without imminent hazard* chofe» like an able ^e*
neraly rather to abandon his provinces to infultt, which
might be afterwards revenged, than, by following the
dilates of an ill-timed paffion, to hazard the lofs of
his veteran army, whereon lay all his hopes. He con-
tented himfelf, therefore, with complaining to the A-
thenians of Diopithes's condud, who in a time of
peace had entered his d<Mmnions, and committed fuch
devaftations as could fcarce have been juHified in a
time of war. His partifans fupported this apj^ication
with all their eloquence- They told the Athenians,
that nnlefs they recalled Diopithes, and brought him
to a trial for this infringement of the peace, they ought
not to hope either for the friendihip of Philip or of
any other prince or ftate ; neither could they juftly
eomplain, if, prompted by fuch a precedent, others
^ Ihould break faith with them, and fall without the
"Who if de- leaft notice upon thetr dominions. - Demofthenet de«
•fjf^^jy fended Diopithes; and undertook to (how that he de-
^Jl"*^*" fcrved the praife and not the cenfurc of the Athenians.
Thofe of the other party began 4hcn to charge him
with crimes of a different nature ; they alleged, that
he oppreffed the fubjeds and maltreated the allies of
Athens. Demofthenes replied, that of thefe things
tiiere were as yet no proofs ; that when fuch ihould
appear, a iingle galley might be fent to bring over Dio-
pithes to abide their judgment, but that Philip would
not come if they fent a fleet ; whence he inferred,
that they ought to be cautious, and to weigh well the
merits of this caufe before they took any refolution.
He faid, that it was true Philip had not as yet at-
tacked Attica, or pretended to make a defcent on their
territories in Greece, or to force his way into their
ports ; when it came to that, he was of opinion they
would be hardly able to defend themfelves ; wherefore
he thought fuch men were to be efteemed as fought
to proteft their frontiers, in order to keep Philip as
long as might be at a difUnce : whereupon he moved,
diat, inftead of difowning what Diopithes had done, or
dire^ii^ him to difmifs his army, they (hould fend
kim over recruits, and fhow the king of Macedon
they knew how to protef^ their territories, aiid to main-
tain the dignity of their flate, as well as theh* ancefbors.
Thefe arguments had fuch an effed, that a decree was
made conformably to his motion.

While affairs ftood thus, the lUymns recovering
courage, and feeing Pbflip at fuch a diftance, haraffed
ttie f^ntiers of Macedon, and threatened a formidable
ijivaiion: but Philip by quick marches, arrived on
the borders of Ilfyrium ; and flruck this barbarous
people with fuch a panic, that they were glad to com-
pound for their former depredations at the price he
was pleafed to let. Moil of the Greek cities in Thrace
'now fought the friendfhip of the king, and entered in-
to a league with him for thetr mutual defence. As it
oannot be fuppofed, that each of thefe firec cities had
a power equal to that of Philip, we may therefore look
upon, him as their prote6lor. About this time Phi-
fcbemss de-l^'s negotiations in Pdoponnefus begaiv to come ta
'^•••^^ Kght ; the Aigivcs and Meflemans) growing weary of
that tyrannical authority which the Spartans exercifed*
o^er them, applied to Thebes for affiftance ;. and the
'Si$hmiH,9\it cftbetr. naturaUTcrfioAto Sp^ta^ tofaghx

MiUp't

o ] MAC

to open a paflage for Philip into Pdopooacfaiy tint,
in conjun^ion with them, he night Inunble die Lace-
demonians* Philip readily accepted the offer | and le-
folved to procure a decree from the Amphidyotts, di-
reding the Lacedemonians to leave Argot and Mefieaic
firee; which if they complied not with, he, as the lici^
tenant of the AmphiAyons, might, with great appear-
ance of jttflice, march with a body of troops to oiforae
their order. When Sparta .had intdligeiioe of thts»
fhe immediately applied to Athens, eamcfUy ifltreat-
ing affiflance, as m the common caufe of Greece. The
Argives and Meffentans, on the other han€l» laboozed
aflvuoufly to gain the Athenians to their fide; allegi^
that, if they were friends to liberty, they ought to a£^
fill thofe whofe only aim V9s to be free. Dcbio^
thenes, at this junAure, ontwrefUed Philip, if wc naf
borrow that king's expref&on: for, by a vchcAent ha-
rangue, he not only determined his own citKcna to he*
come the avowed enemies of the king, but aUb made
the Argives and Meffenians not over- fond of faim Sot
an ally ; which when Philip perceivedt he laid aficle
all thoughts of this enterprife for the pcefent» and he*
gxa to pra6tife in £ubcea»

This country, now called Negrtpom^ ia feparated
from Greece by the Euripus, a fbait fo narrow, thac
£ub<ea might eafily be united to the continent* Thk
fituation made Philip call it thefettert of Greece^ which
he therefore fought to have in his own hands. There
hsd been .for fome years great difktirbancca in that
country ; under colour of which, Philip (cat Ibices
thither, and demoliQied Porthmos, the ftrongeft city
in thofe parts, leading the country under the govern-
ment of three lords, whom Demofthenes roundly calls
tyranii efbblifhed by Philip. Shortly after, the Ma-
cedonians took Oreus, which was kft under the go*
vernment of five magifbates, ftyled aHb tyrants at A-
thens. Thither Plutarch of Enstria, one ef the moft
eminent perfOns in Eubcea, went to reprefent the di«
i^reffes of his country, and to implore the Athcannc
CO fet it free. This fuit Ejpmofthenes recommended
warmly to the people; who fent thither their fiunous
leader Phocion, fupported by formidable votea, but a
very flender army : yet fo well did he manage the af-
fairs of the commonwealth and her allies, that Philip
quickly found he muft for a time abandon that projed;
which, however, he did not till he hfd formed another
no lefs beneficial to himfclf, or le& dangerona to A«
thens. It was^ the profecution of his conqocfls i«
Thrace, which he thought of pufhing much farther
than he had hitherto done, or could be reafbnably fu*
fpe£ted to have any intention of doing.

Extraordinary preparations were made by the Bffa-
cedonian monarch for this campaign. His fon Alea«
ander was left regent of the kingdom \ and he himfdr
with 30,000 men laid fiege to rerinthus, one of the
ftrongefl cities in the country. At prefent, however^
all his arts of cajoling and pretending friendfhip were
infnfficient to deceive the Athenians. They gave the
command of their army 'and fleet to Phocion ; a geae«
ral of great abilities, and with whom Philip Woul^
have found it very hard to coatendi Ob the other
hand, the king of Perfia began to torn jerious of the

f rowing po^lrer of the Macedoataa monarch. The
*erfian kmgs had been accuflomed to r^ard thofe of
IdEaoxlai m thdr faithful ilUea; but the food fertood

MAG

i 37« 1

MAC

cedcm. of PInlipy tlie contimial clamour of Uie Athenians chofen him thetr general, with full powci* X6 a A 'as he Maeedani

againft him, and his dethroning at plcafUre the petty thought fit againft fuch as had oppefed the authority r ^

{mnces of Thrace, made him now regarded in another of the Amphi6tyons. ' Thus of a fuddcn Fliilip ac-i5^.jjQj^„

ight. When therefore he led his troops againft Pe- quired all that he fought ; and having an army ready^eneral by

• f f ^1^ K^* 1 Alii \ ^*\ \ * C\ m * ^ \ * ^ A ^ V*fl ««*i

«3
9f he at

rinthus, the Great Ktng^ as he was ftyled by the Greeks,
fent his letters mandatory to the governors of the ma*
ritime provinces, direding them to fupply the place
with all things in their power; in confcquence of which
they filled it with troops, granted fubfidies in ready
money, and fent befides great convoys of provifion and
ammunition. The Bytantines alfo, fuppofing their
own turn would be next, exerted their utmoft endea*
voiu*s for the prefervation of Perinthus ; fending thi-
ther the flower of their youth, with all other neceliaries
for an obfUnate defence* The confequence of all this
was, tliat Philip found himfelf obliged to raife the ficge
with great lofs.

That the reputation of the Macedonian arms might
gaiDcd jj^t Unj^ ^y ^j^ difgrace, Philip made war on the Scy-

^^^ ' thians and Triballi, both of whom he defeated ; and
then formed a defign of invading Attica, though he
had no fleet to tranfport his troops, and knew very
well that the TheiTalians were not to be depended up-
on if he attempted to march through the Pifscy and
that the Thebans would even then be ready to oppofe
his march. To obviate all thefe difficulties, he had
recourfe to Athens itfelf ; where» by means of his paf-
tifans, he pn>cured his old friend ^fchines to be lent
their deputy to the Amphi^tyons. This feemed a
fmaU matter, and yet was the hinge on which his
whole proje^ turned. By that time ^fchines had ta-
ken his feat, a queftion was (lirred in the council, whe-
ther the Locrians of Amphifia had not been guilty of
facrilege in ploughing the fields of Cyrrhain the neigh-
bourhood of the temple of Delphi* The aifembiy be*
in? divided in their opinions^ ^fchlnes propofed to
take a view ; which was accordingly decreed. But when
Ihe Amphi^yons came in order to fee how things
flood, the Locnans, either jealous of their property,
#r fpurred thereto by the fuggeilions of fome who
faw farther than themfelves, fell upon thofe venerable
perfons fo rudely, that they were compelled to fecure
themftlves by flight. The Amphidyons decreed, that
an army fhould be raifed, under the command of one
of their own number^ td chaflife the delinquents ; but
as this army was to be compoied of troops fent from
all parts of Greece, the appearance at the rcndesvoua
was fo inconfiderable, that the Amphidfyons fent to
command them durft undertake nothing. The whole
matter being reported to the council, ^fcbines, in a
long and eloquent harangue, fhowed how much the
welfai*e and- even the fafety of Greece depended'on the
deference paid to their decrees; and after inveigh uig
ag^inik the want of pubUc fpirit in fuch as had not
fent their quotas at the time appointed by the coun-
cil, he moved that they fhould eled Philip for their
general, and pray him to execute their decree* The
deputies from the other ftates, conceiving that by this
expedient their refpedive conftiituents^ would be free
j^m any farther trouble or e^pence, came into it at
once; whereupon a decree was immediately drawn up,
purporting that ambaifadors fhould be ient to Philip

in expedation of this event, he immediately marched the Wa*
to execute the commands of the Amphidyoas in ap-P^^^y'^**^
pearance, but in reality to accomplish his own de-
figns. For having pafled into Greece with his army,
inilead of attacking the Locrians, he feized immedi-
ately upon Elatea a great city of Phocis upon the river
Ccphifu8» ^^

The Athenians in the mean time were in the utmoft (* oppofcd
confufion on the news of Philip's march. However, ^y'^^*.
by the advice of DemoRhenes, they invited the Thc-^^^^hc?
bans to join them againft the common enemy of Greece, bins.
Philip endeavoured as much as poflible to prevent this
confederacy from taking place; but all his efforts pro-
ved ineffedual. The Athenians raifed an army, Vhich
nuurched immediately to Eleufis, where they were join-
ed by the Thebans. The confederates made the befb
appearance that had ever been feen in Greece, and the
troops were exceedingly good ; but unfortunately the
generals were men of no conduct or (kill in the mili« ^
tary art. An engagement enfued at Cheronaea; where- Whom fio
in Alexander commanded .one wing of the Macedonian ^cf'catt at
army, and his father Philip the other. The confedc-^*^^^^'*'^
fate army was divided according to the different na-*
tions of which it confifted; the Alheniaas having the
right and. the Bceotians the left. In the beginning
of the battle^e confederates had the better; wheiv^
upon Stratocles an Athenian commander crfed out,*
" Come on, brother foldiers, let us drive them back to
Macedon :" which being overheard by the king, he faid
very coolly to one of his officers, «« Thefe.Atheniana
do not know how to conquer." Upon this he dirc6^* *
^d the files of the phabnx'to be ftraitened; «nd draw*
ing his men up very clofe, retired to a neighbouring
eminence! from whence, when tlie Athenians were
eager in their purfuit, he rufhed down with impetuo<»
fity, broke, and routed them with prodigious f)augh«
ter. The orator Demoflhenes behaved very unbeco^
mingly in this engagement ; for he deferted his poft^^
and was one of the firft that fled : nay, we are told^
that a flake catching hold of his robe, he, not doubt«i
ing but it was an enemy, cried out, ^< Alas! fpare my-
life*'* . ' 6>

This vi<ftory determined the fate of Greece j And fsappointa^
from this time we muft i;eckon Philip fupreme lord ofgeneral
all the Grecian ftaUs, The firft ufe he made of his*"^^ **«
power was to convoke a general affembly, wherein he^^'^"**
was recognifed generaiiffimo, and witli fall power ap-
pdnted their leader againft the Perfians. Havings by.
virtue of his authority, fettled a general peace among
them, and appointed the quota that each of the ftatea.
fhould fumifh for the war, he diftaifFed them ; and re-
turning to Macedon, began to make great prepara*
tions for this new expedition. His pretence for ma-*
king war on the Perfians at this time was the afliflance
given by the Perfians to the city of Perinthus, as al-'
ready mentioned. In the mean tinnei^ however, the
kin^, by reafon of the diffenfions which reigned in his
fanuly, was made quite miferable. He quarrelled with'

i>f Macedon, in the name of Apollo and the Amphic- his wife Olympias to fuch a degree, that he divorced
tyons, once more to require his al&ftance, and to no- ,hert and married another wonutn named Cleopairi^
lify to kuD, HaX the ftat^i of Gieecebad unaaimoufly This produced a qitirrd between him and his fon A«

. 3 A a lexander;

MAC t374i MAC

Miccdofl. lexander } which alfo came to fuch an height, that A- however, had very little eflFcA. The people beard wit!i y^=r

6»

ttinur-
dcnd.

h cha-

lezander retired- into Epirus with his nyother. Some
time afterwards, however, he was recalled, and a re-
conciliation took place in appearance ; but in the mean
time a confpiracy was formed againil the king's life,
the circumftances and caufes of which- are very much
unknown. Certain it is, however^ that it took effe£^.

pleafure all the harfli things which the orators could '^'*
iay of the young Alexander king of Macedon, whun
they reprefentedas a giddy wrong-headed boy, rat&j
to grafp all things in his imaginatioB, aBd*?.ble to per-
form nothing. The affairs of Macedon indeed vrere
in a very diltraifled ilate on the acciflion of Alexander;

as the king vras exhibiting certain (hows inr honour of for all the neighbouring nations had the fame noti-ja

his daughter's marriage with the king of Epirus. Rii-
lip, having given a public audience to the ambaffadora
of Greece, went next day in date to the theatre. All
the feats were eariy taken up ; and the fhows began
with a fplendid proceiRon, wherein the images of the
1 2 fuperior deities of Greece we»e carried, as allb the
image of Philip, habited in Hke manner, as if he now
made the 13th, at which the people fhouted aloud.
Then came the king alone, in a white robe, crowned,
with his gruards at a confiderabte diflance, that the
Greeks might fee he placed his fafety only in his con-
fidence of the Ibyalty of his fubje6)is. ' F^ufanias, the
aifafiin, however, had fixed himfelf dofe by the door
of the theatre ; and obferving that all things fell out
as he had forefeen they wouH, took his opportunity,
when the king drew near him, and plunging his fword
in-his'left fide, laid him dead at his feet. He then fled
as faft a» he was able .towards the place where his
horfea were ; and would have efcaped, had not the
twig of a vine catched his (hoe and thrown him down^
This gave time to thofe who purfued him to come up
with him; butinftead of fecuring him, in order to ex'<>
tort a difcovery of hia accomplices, they put aa end
to his life.

With regard to the chara£br of this monarch, it
appears certain^ that he was- one of the mod eminent

of the young king with the Athenians ; and being i;
ritated by the ufirrpations of Philip, iraxnediatcsy re-
volted ;* and the ftates of Greece entered - into a cori-
federacy againil him.> The Perfians had been cc£«
triving to transfer the war into Macedon; but as foon
as the news of Philip V death reached thinny they U'
haved as if all danger had been over. At the fscie
time Attalusi one of the Macedonian commanden, a*
fpikred to the crown, and fought to draw- oS the (d-
Sen from their allegiance.

In the councils held on this oacafion, Alexander's
bed friends advifed him rather to make ufe of dtffimu-
lation than force, ahd- to cajole thofe vrhom thcr
tlipught he could not fubdue. Thefe advices, how-
ever, were ill-fuited to the temper of their monarch.
He thought that vigorous meafures only were proper,
and therefore immediately* led hia army into Thel^r. ^
Here he harangued the princes fo effcfhially, that beA.^.
thoroughly gained them over to his intereft, and vLi<ir±
by them de<^red general x)f' Greece; upon vrhich hf T;'*
returned to Macedon, where he caufed Attains to bc^^
ftixed and put to deaths

In the-fpring of the next year (335 B. C.) Alcs^
ander refolvedto fubdue- the Triballlans and Uhrrians,
who inhabited the countries now called Bulgaria arid
Sdavonsaf and' had been very' fbrmidaUe enemies to

penons that ever fat on a throne. Had he lived for the Macedonian power. In this expedition he difco

gant joy
«f tbe
Atbcnianf

ibme time longer, he would in all probabflity have
fiibdued the Perfians ; which was in truth lefs chfficuk
dian what he had dready done. '** Had that event
taken place (fays Dr Gillies), the undertakings of his
long and fucceisful reign would have been enaobled and
illuminated by the fpKnd<»r of extenfive foreign con-
^ueft. Philip would have reached the height of fuch
atnownts ia obtained by the habits of a6livity, vigi-
lance, and fortitude, in the purfuit of imbounded great-*
nefs; and-iathe opinioir of poflerity, would perhaps
have furpafTed the glory of sdl kings and conquerors
who either preceded or followed him. Yet, even on
this fuppofition, there is- not any man of fenfe and
probity, who, if he allows himfelf time for ferious re<«
fle£lion, would purchafe the imagined^ grandeur- and
pndfpertty* of the king of Macedon at the price of his
fntifices and his crimes ; and to a philofopher, who
eonfidered either the means by Yfhlch he had obtained
kitf triiunphs or the probable confcquences of his domi*
Bion over Greece and Afia, the bufy ambition of this
mighty conqueror would Sippear but a deceitful fcene
of fplendid mifery."

No fooner did the news of Philip's death reach A^
thens, than, as if all danger had been pad, the inhabi-
tants fhowed the mod extravagant figns^ of joy. De-
^modhenes and his party put on chaplets of flowers, and
behaved as if they had gained a great vidory. Pho«>
cTon reproved them for this madnefs ; bidding them
remember, that *• the army which had beaten them at
Cheroasca was leffcacd but by oac'^ This reproofi

vered, though then but 20 years of age, a -furprilis^
degree of military knowledge. Having advanced rcr,^ .
^the pafleft of Mount Hsemus, Ife found that the barU-Tn>
nans had poded themfelves in the mod advantageoci
manner. On the tops of the diffs, and at the head ot
every paiTage, they had placed their carriages and wag-
gons in fuch a manner as to form a* kind" of- parapet
with their ihafta inwards^ that when the Macedonian?
fhould have half afcended the rock, they- might be abi?
to pufli tbefe. heavy carriages down upon them. Thcr
reckoned the -more upon this- contrivance, becaufc of
the dofe order of the phalanx, whichy they- imagiactl,
would be terribly expofed^ by the M^tn vranticg
room to ftir^ and thereby avoid the falling- waggoD>.
But Alexander, baring dire£^ed his heavy-armed troops
to march, ^avc orders, that, where the way would per^
mit, tRey fhould open to the right and left, and fufltt
the carriages to go through i but that} in the narro^r
paffes, they fhould throw themfelves on their faces with
their fhields behind them, that the carta mright nin
over thenk This had the defired effefk; and the M^
cedonians reached the enemies works without the hk
of a man« The difpute was then quickly decided ;
the barbarians were driven from their pods with grest
(laughter, and- left behind them a confiderablc booty
for the conquerors.

The next exploits of Alexander were- againd the
Gets, the Tanlantii, and fome other nations inhabi*
ting the country on the other fide of the DanuBe;
Them be aUb overcame ; fhowing in ^ his a&'oas

the

MAC

r -373 1

MAC

Macedon. the moft perfeft flcill in mSitary afiair8» joined with the
greateit valour. In the mean time, however, all Greece
waa in commotion by a report which had been confi-
dently fpread abroad, that the king was dead in Illy-
The Thebans, on thi» news, feiaed Amyn^as and

73
The The

na.

news »f his
«tbuh.

bans revolt Timolaus, two eminent officers in the Macedonian gar-
•" *^* rifon which hdd their citadel, and dragged them to the
market-phice, where they were put to death without
either form or procefs, or any orime alleged againft
them. Alexander, however, did not fuffer them to
remain long in their miftake. He marched with fuch
expedition, that in (cvcrv days he reached Pallene in
lliefTaly ; and. in fik days more he entered Bocotia,
before the Thebans had any intellifi^ence of his paifing
the ftraits of Thermopylae. Even then they would not
believe that the king was alive ; but iniifted that the
Macedonian army was conunanded by Antipater, or
by one Alexander the fan of JEropus* The reft of the
Greeks, however, Avere not fo hard of belief; and
therefore fent no aifi (lance to the Thebans, who were
thus obliged to bear the confequences of their own
folly and obftinacy. The city was taken by ftorm,
and the inhabitants were for fome hours maifacred with-
out dxilin^tion of age or fex ; after which the houfes
were demoliihed, all except that of Pindar the famous
poet, which was fpared out of refpeft to the merit of
its owner,. and becaufe he had celebrated Alexander I.
king of Macedon. The lands, exceptii^ thofe deftt-
ned to regions ufes, were ihared among the foMiers*

Thc>>cs
mkctt and
4diroyciL

to Abdera. Crolfing the river Ebrus, he proceeded Macedon.
through the country of Pati<^, and in 20 days reached
Seflos ; thence he came to Eleus, where he (acriiiced
on the tomb of Protefilaus, becaufe he was the firft
among the Greeks who at the fiege of Troy fet foot
on the Afiatic /hore. He did this, that his landing
might be more propitious than that of the hero to ^
whom he facrificed, who was flaia»foon after. The
greateft part of the army, under the command of Par-
menio, embarked at Seftos» on board a fleet of 160
galleys of three benches of oars, befides fmall cralk
Alexander himfelf failed from Eleus ;. and when he
was in the middle of the Hellefpont, offered a buU to
Neptune and the Nereids, pounng fortli at the fame
time a libation from a golden cup. When he drew
near the fliore, he lanched a javdin, which fluck in
the earth ; then, in complete armour, he leaped upon -.
the ft rand ; and having erected altars to Jupiter, Mi*
nerva, and Hercules, he proceeded to Ilium. Here
again he facrificed to Minerva; and taking down fome
arms which had hung in the temple of that goddefs
(ince the time of the Trojan war, confecrated his own
in their Head. He facrificed alfo to the ghoft of
Priam, to avert his wrath on account of the defceot-
which he himfelf claimed from Achilles.

Inr the mean time the Perfians had affembled a great .
army in Phrygia ; among whom was one-Memnon a«
Rhodian, ihe htk officer in the fervice of Darius. A^
lexand^r, as^fsonashe had performed all the cetemo^

and all the prifoners fold for dave&s by which 440 ta« aies which 'h^ judged neceffary, marched dire6Uy ta-
lents were brought into the king'tf treaitiry. wards the enemy. Memnon. gave it as his opinion, .

By this feverity the refb of the Grecian flates were that they . (hould burn .and deftroy- all the country

fo thoroughly hunfbled, that they thought no more of round, that they might deprive the. Greeks of the

making any refifbrnce^aad Alexander had nothing fur- means of Aibfifting^ and thentranfport a part of their

ther to hinder him from his favourite projefk of inva-
ding Afla. Very little pfcpantion was neceflary for
the Ma!cedonian monarchy who went out as to an af-
funed conqueft^ and reckoned upon being fupplied only
by the fpoik of his enemies. Hiflorians are n«t agreed
ts tp the number of his army:- Arrian fays,, that these
Number of were 50,000 foot and 5000 horfe. . Diodonis Sicuhis
the army tells ijs, that there were 1 3^000 Macedonian foot, 7000

with
be

Aiia.

army into Macedon. But the PeHians, depending on
their, cavalry, reje6ted this falutary advice; and pofted 1
themfelvea along the river Granicus^ in order to wait
the arrival of Alexander. . In the engagement which i
happened on. the banks of thatriver,. the Perfians were
defeated t, and Alexander .became mafter of all th£fSft€raf
neigbouring country ; .which he immediately began to "''*'•
take care of, as if it had been part of his hereditary

?*^^*of the confederate ftates* and 5000 mercenaries. Thefec dominions. The cityof • Sardis was immediately de- Cotifcq

ven^

were under the command of Parmenio. Of the Odri^ liyered up 9 and here Alexander bcilt a temple to Jv^ ce« of his
flans, Triballians, asd lUyrians^ there were 5000; and piter Olympius. After this, he reflored the.Ephefians firilviaoriv
of theAgrians, who were armed only with darts* I ooo. . to their liberty; .ordered the tribute which they for^

As for the horfe, he tells us- there were 1^,000 com-
manded by Philotas^ and'as many Theffalians under
the command' of Callas: out -of the confederate flates
of Greece, were 60Q commanded by Eurygius ; and
900 Thracfans and* Peonians, who led the van undor
Caffander. Plutarch tells us^ that, according to a low
computation^ he had 30,000 foot and '5000 horfe; and>
according to the largefl' reckoning, he had. 34,000
foot and 4000 horfie. As to his fund for the pay-
ment of the army,.Ariftobulu6 fays it was but 70 ta-
lents; and Oneficritus, who was alio in this expeditiou,
not only takes away the 70 taknts, but affirms that
• the kin^ was 200;iR«debt. As for provi^ons^ there

was juft'fafficient'forva -month and no more; and t«
prevent diflurbances^ Aatipater was; left in MacedoB ;
j^ with 1 2,000 foot and 1 500 horfe. .
Set-out on The army having affembled at AmphipoCs, he
Jy^» «q>cdi- laarcbed from thence to the mouths of the river Stry-
aoa i . then ooffing mowlkt Bto^^ua^ he took thcraiS

tion.

merly -paid> to the Periians to be applied .towards the
rebuilding of the magnificent - temple of Diana; and
having fettled the a£Fairs of the city, marched againfl
Miletus.:. This p^ce wa&deflBnded by Memnon with
a confiderable body of troops who had fled thither af-
ter, the battle o£Gcanicus} and therefore made a vigo*
rous refiftance. . TJie fortune of Alexander, hewevesy
prevailed ; -and the. city was foon reduced, .though •
Memnon with pan of the troops efcaped to Halicac- <
nafTus* After this, the king difmifTcd his fleet, fqpr -
which various veaibns. have been affigncd ; .though it
is probable,, that the chief one was to fiiow his army
that their only refource now .was iafubverting.the Per* -
fiaa empire.

Ahnoft all the 'cities between Miletus and* Hah'car-
naiFus fubmitted as foon as they heard that the -former ^
wad taken ; but.Halicamaffiis,. where .Meomon com* -
manded with a very numerous ganifon,.made an obfli>>
Aatedc&occt Kothingi. hgwcver. was able to reftii ;

MAC I 374 1 MAC

"Mftidon. the Macedonian army. Memnon was at lall obliged hat its waters eaceflively cold» be fdl into (%mA m ^ Ift^
' to abandon the place; upon which Alexander took temper as threatened his immediate diflblutiocLr Ha*-^
and rafed the city of Tralles in Phrygia ; received the army loft their ijpirits imioediately $ the genenU knew
fubmillion of feveral princes tributary to the Perfians^ not what to do ) and his pfayiiciaos were £a n»K^ af-
and having dcftroyed the Marmanans, a ptople of Ly- frighted, that the terror of bis death kiadered tbe^
cia who had fallen upon the rear of his anny» put an from ufing the neeeflary methods for prderring his lit r.
tnd to the Campaign; after which he fent home aU '*»^*'* -• *
the new-married %en ; in obedience, it would fcem,
to a precept of * the Mofaic hw, and which endeared
him more to hi* foldicrs than any otlier adion of his
hfV:.

As foon as the feafon would permit, Alexander

Philip the Acamaniaa alone preierred temper enos^h
to examine the nature of the king's difiealie i the vtzri
fymptom of whic^ was a continual wakisgy and vtick
he took off by means of a potion, and in a (hort time
the king recovered his ufual health.

Soon afttf Alexander's rectr/trfp he reoetired the
quitted the province of Phstfelus; and having fent part agreeable news that Ptdemy and ACuider bad ddieatrJ

of his army through the mountainous country to Perga,
by a (hort but difEcult road, took his route by a
certain promontory, where the way is altogether ira-
'pa (Table, except wnen the north winds blow. At the
time of the king's march the fouth wind had held for
a long time; but of a fudden it changed, and blew from
•the north fo violently, that, as he and his followers
declared, they obtained a fafe and eafy paflagc through
nhc Divine afliftancc. By thany this march is held to
be miraculous, and compared to that of the children
*of Ifrae! through the Red Sea ; while, on the other
liand, it is the opinion of others, that there was nothing
:at all extraordinary in it. He continued hi 4 march
^towards Gordium, a eity of Phrygia ; the enemy ha-
iring abandoned the ftrong pafs of Telmiffus, through
which it was neceffary for him to march. When he
arrived at Gordium, and found himfclf under a ne*
ceffity of ftaying fome time there till the feveral
corps of his army could be united, he exprefTed a
^rong defire of feeing Gordius's chariot, and the £1-
Tnous knot in the harnefs, of which fuch ftrangc ftories
liad been publiihed to the world. Tht cord m which
this -knot was tied, was made of the inner rind of
the cornel-tree ; and no eye cotdd perceive where it
tJnUin the had be^n or ended. Alexander, when he could find
^^J*"*" no pomble way of untying it, and yet was unwilling
tp leave it tied left it (hould caiife fome feavs in the
breads of his foldiers, is faid by fome authors to have
cut the cords with his fword, faying, ** It matters not
how It is undone.** But Ariftobulus affures us, that
the king wrefted a wooden pin out of the beam of the
waggon, which, being driven in acrofs the beam, held
it up ; and fo took the ^ke from under it. Be this
as it will, however, Arrian informs us, that a great
tempeft of thunder, lightning, and rain, happening the
fucceeding night, it was held declarative of the true
Tolution of this knot, and that Alexander Ihould be*
come lord of Afia.

The king having left Gordium, marched towards
Cilicia ; where he was attended with his ufual good
fortune, the Ferfians abandoning sdl the ftrong pafTes
as^ he advanced. As fbon as he entered the province,
lie received ddvice that Arfanoes, wKom Darius had

7«

the Periian generals, and made greal conquefts on the
Hellefpont ; a little after that« he met the Fcrfias aray
at IfTus, commanded by Darius himiidf. A Uaody
engagement enfiied, in iHiich the Periiaaa were de-
feated with great ilaughtcr, as related under the aitick
Issus. The confequences of this vidorjr were very
advantageous to the Macedonians. Manjr gOftanoTf
of provinces and petty princes fubmltted tbcmfielvcs xm
the conqueror ; and Uich as did fo were treated^-not as
a newly^onquercd people, but as his old hereditarf
fubjera; being neither burthe&ed with loldicrs see
opprelTed vnth tribute* Amone^ the somber of thofe
places which. Within a fhort i^ace after the battle
of Iffus, fent deputies to fubflut to the cooqueror, im
the city of Tyre. The king, whole name was Azd-
micfis, was abfent in the Per^n fleet ; but his foci vm
among the deputies, and was very favourably received
by Alexander* The kinc^ probably intended to confer
particular honours on the city of Tyre ; far he ac«
quainted the inhabitants that he woiod come and Sa-
crifice to the Tyrian Hercoles, the patron of thcxr
city, to whom they had ereded a moft tnagiuikxnt
temple. But thele people^ like moft other tradiag
nations, were too fnfpicious to think of admittia^
ftich an enterpriiiDg prince with his troops wfthin
their walls They Tent therefore their deputies agm
to him, to inform him, that they were ready to de
whatever he (hbu!d command them } bat, as to ha
coming and (acri^cing in their city, they could oa
confent to that, but were pofitively deterinined not to
admit a finale Macedonian within thctr mea. Akxai-
der immediately diimiffed their deputies in great 6^-

Sleafure. He then aflembled a council of war, whsetn
e infifted flrongly on thedifaffeded flate of Gnqect,
(for moft of the Grecian ftates had iicnt amba^ladois
to Darius, to eater into a league with him againft the
Macedoniaas), the "power of the Perfiant by fca, and
the folly of carrying on the war in diftaot provinces,
while Tyre was left mircdaced bdiind them : he aUb
remarked, that if once this city was fubducd, the fove^
reign tv of the fea wonid be transferred to them, be*
came it would 6% their po&ffion of the coafls $ and as
the Periian fleet was compofed ^hitAj of tr3>mary
fquadrods, thofe tributarieswouldltght the battles, not
of their late biit of their prefent maftera. For tbele ^
reafons the ^ege of Tyre was re^oihcd on. The 7^1^

made governor of Tarfus, was about to abandon it,

and that the inhabitants were \cty apprehenfive that

he intended to plunder them before he withdrew. To

^g prevent this, the kin^ marched incefTantly, and arrived town was not taken, howeveri without great dzA-aaddi

Hit lick- jiift in time to fave the city. But hia faving it had cuky ; which pnovoked Alexander to fndi a degree^ fin?*^

mfiandre.^g)]f,{gh coft him his life: for, either through the that he treated the inhabitants with the greatdl crndty.

**'*'^' exceflrvc fatigue of marching, as fome fay, or, accord- See Tvat.

ing to others, 'by his plui\ging when very hot into the After the redtlftioti of Tyre, AJeaaader, tknufh

viver Cyda^is, wkioh, as it mas throagh thkk ikadt^ dM>ca&Mi-wai «bta4y iat aJwuwcd^ sdahtd to mit

MAC

wn.

lib*

an expedition into S/jttK ; and in hn vny tkitherpro-
pofcd to diaftife the Jcwb, who had highly offended '
him during the fiege of Tyre : for when he fent to
them to demand proTifions for hi« foldiers, they an-
fwcred, That they were the fubjc^ls of Darius, and
bound by oath not to fiipply his enemies. The king,
however, was pacified by their (bbmiffion ; and not
only pardoned them, but conferred many privileges
upon them, as related under the article Jews,

From Jerufalcm Alexander marched dire6Uty to
Gaza, the only place in that part of the world which
ftin held out for Darius. This was a very large and
ftrong city, fituatcd on an high hill, abont fivt miles
from the fca-(hore. One Batu, or Betiif an eunuch,
had the government of the place ; and had made
every preparation ncceffary for fuftaining a long and
obftmate fiege. . The governor dc&n&d the place
with great valour, and feveral times repulfcd his ene- '
Aiies : but at lail it was taken by ftorm, and aH the
garrifon (lain to a man ; and this fecnredto Alexander
an entrance into Egypt, which having before been
▼ery hnpaticnt of the Perfian yoke, admitted the Mace-

I 375 1

MAC

lent#» Having received alfo* at this time a fupply Macedonr
of 6000 foot and 500 horfc from Maccdon, he fet -^-nr-^
about reducing the nations of Media, among whom
Darius was retired. He firft reduced the Uxians :
and having forced a paifage to Perfepolis the capital
of the empirey he like a barbarian dcflroyed the
ftately palace there, a pile of building not to be.
equalled in any part of the world ; after having given
up the city to be plundered by his foldiers. In the
palace he found izo^oo talents, which he appro-
priated to his own ufe, and caufed immediately to
be carried away upon mules and camels ; for he had
fuch an extreme averfion to the inhabitants of Per-
fepolis, that he determined to leave nothing valuable
in the city.

During the time that Alexander remained at Per-
fepolis, he received intelligence that Darius remained
at Ecbatana the capital of Media ; upon which he 84
purfued him with the greateft expedition, marchihg He purfuSi^^
at the rate of near 40 miles a-day. In 15 days he^*"^"**
reached Ecbatana, where he was informed that Da-
rius had retired from thence five days before, with an
intent to pafs into the remoteft provinces of his em«

donians peaceably

Here the king laid the foundations of the city of pire* This put fome ftop to the rapid progrefs of
Alexandria, winch for many years after continued to the Macedonian army ; and the king perceiving that
^f be the capital of the country. While he remained there was nd neceffity for hurrying himiielf and hia
here» he alio formed the extraordinary defign of vi/it" foldiers in ^ch a manner, began to- give the orders
Rig the temple of Jupiter Ammon. As to the mo- requifife in the prefent fituation of his affairs. The
trves by which he was induced to take this extraordi-
nary journey, authors are not agreed ; but certain it
is, that he hazarded himfelf and his troops in the
higheft degree ; there being two dangers in this march,
which, with the example of Cambyfes, who loft the
I^Teateft part of his army in it, might have terrified

ThefTsJian horfe, who had deferved exceedingly well
of him in all his battles, he difiniffed according to. his
agreement ; gave them their whole pay, and ordered
2000 talents over and above to be diitributed among
them. He then declared that he would force no
but if any were willing to ferve him longer for

man

any body but Alexander. The firft was the want of pay, he defired they would enter their names in a

water, which, in the fandy defarts furrounding the
temple, is no where to be found ; the other^ the un<^
certainty of the road from the fluftuation of the fands ;
which changing their fhuation every moment, leave the
fiaveller neither a road to walk in nor mark to march
by. Thefe difficulties, however, Alexander got over f
though not without a miraculous interpofition, as is
pretended by all his hiftorians.

Alexander having confuhed the orac?e, and received
a favourable anfwer, returned to purfue his conquefls.

book, which a great many of them did ; the refl fold
their horfes, and prepared for their departure. Thtf
king appointed Epocillus to conduiEt them to the fea,
and ttfligned him a body of horfe as an efcOTt : he
Ifkewife fent Menetes with themt to take care o£
their embarkation, and that they were fafely lande<t"
in Eubeea without any expence 1% chemfelves.

On receiving frefh information conoerning the fiate
of Darius*8 affairs, the king fet out again in purfuit
of him, advancing as far as Rhages^ a city one day's
Having fettled the government of Egypt, he appointed journey from the Cafpian flraits : there he undcrftood
the general rende2rvous of his forces at Tyre. Here that Darius had pafled thofe fitniti foane time before 1
he met with ambaffadors from Athens, requefting htm whfch information leaving him again without hopes»
- to pardon fuch of their countrymen as he found ferving he halted for five dayst . Oxidates, a Perfian whom •
tiie enemy. The king, being defirous to oblige fuch Darius hud left prifooer at Sufa, was made governor
a famous ftate, g^nted then: requeft; and fent alfo a of Media, while the king depastedron^ui^xpedltioiv
fleet to the coaft of Greece, to prevent the effeds of into Parthia« The Cafpian ftrsuts ha pa£fed^mniedi«
fome commotions which had lately happened in Pelo-^ ately withbut oppofkion ; and then ga«e dire£kiona
ponnefus. He then direded his march to Thapfacus ; , to his officers to collet a quantity ^of previfions fuffi-
and having paffed the Euphrates and l^igris, met with oient to ferve his army on a long maich through a , ^ ,
Darius near Arbela, where the Perfmns were again, wailed country.- But before his officers -could ac-«^^i^^fy
cyfr^ overthrown with prodigious Haughterf, and Alexander; oomplifh thofe conunandst .the king receivad iateil^marderc^^*.

to effeA became mafier of the Perfian empire. gence that Darius had been muvdered-b^ JBeiFusy one- -

^' Alter this important vi6k)ry, Alexander marcHed of his own fub|e6b, andvgpvemor of Ba^riay^s-ifrre-

rich ^T^^J to Babylon, whieh vnn immediatdy ddivered kted at length under th&articte^'PEasfrA^ . ^

ju\k up ; the inhabitants being great^ diialitSed to the.* As foon as Alexander had coUaSed kts forcer tCMAlcitnder
•^polia. r^i^n ihtereft. Af^er 30 days ftay in this-countryy^ grther» and fmled the goveromeat ofParthia, .he^«h>cet^
the king mardied to Su»» w)iich httd already furren^ entered Hyreaniv^ aad havingy aceordCng to his nfual^P^"^
dered to FhSoxenus ; aad bene he received the trear- cuftoiiiy committed the greatcA pavt of iiis army u^
foies of the Perfias monarchy amonnting* aecondiDg. tke care of Cratcnis, hcy at tl^e ikead ofva choic«
to the moft gtncsaUjr itcdved accooati to 59^QW tr^ bodj of Uoopsi p iffed throu|^h certain csaggy roads, .

ic, and?

MAC C 37« 1 M A <3

Macedcn. and before the arrival of Crateru8» wh^ tOok an open erer, he p i^ f erved the Mkcedooum difcmliiie * W
^ ^ and cafy path, ft ruck the whole provinces with fuch then he made choice of 3o»cx>o hoys out of thcpf.
terror, that all the principal places were immediately vinccs, whom he catifed to be inflrudcd in tic Grcci
put into his hands, and foon after the province of Aria language, and direded to be brought up in fuel i
dlfo fubmitted, and the king continued Satibarzanes manner as that from time to time he might wztlit\-
the governor in his employment. — ^Thc redu6lion of fill up the phalanx. The Macedonians (aw v:v.
this province fin ifhed the conqueft of PcrAa ; but the ff^^^ concern thefe extraordinary meafures, vh..
ambition of Alexander to become maftar of every Aiited very ill with their grofs underibudin^j ; ir
'nation of which he had the leaft intelligence, induced they thought, after all the vidories they had gzod,
him to enter the country of the Mardi^ merely be- to be abfolute lords of Afiay and to poflcis not oiV
caufe its rocks and barrennefs had hitherto hindered the riches of its inhabitants, but to rule the r^,^
any body from conquering, or indeed from attempt- tants themfelves ; whereas tliey now faw, that Aia.
ing to conquer it. This conqueft, however, he.eafily ander meant no fuch tiling ; but that, on the cc:.
accompliftied, and obliged the whole nation to fub- trary, he conferred governments, offices at cost*
mitto his pleafure. But in the mean time difturbanees and all other marks of confidence and favour, i&i;l
began to arifein Alexander's new empire, and among criminately both on Greeks and Periians.— Frosi i^

his troops, wlitch all his a6^ivity could not thorough- time al£b the king feems to have given inftaacei of i

ly fupprefe. He liad fcarcely left the province of Ana* cruelty he had never ihown before. Phflotas lui nci

when he received intelligence, that the traitor BefTua intimate friend was feized, tortured, and put to data

had caufed himfelf to be proclaimed king of Alia by for a confpiracy of which it could never be prcri

the name of Artaxerxet ; and that Satibarzanes had that he was guilty ; and foon after Pameaio and

joined him, after having maffacred all the Macedonians fome others were executed without any crime at a]

who had been left in thd province. Alexander ap- real or alleged. Thefe things very much diUmkd

'pointed . one Arfames governor in the -room of Sati- the army. Some of them wrote iiome to Macedoiik

barzanes; and marchod thence >with his army againil of the king's fufpicions of his friends, and )a!i dii^

the Zarangmj who under. the command- of Barzaentes, istion toiiuat out enemies at the very extremities gi

one of thofe who had con(pired againft Darius, had the world. Alexander having intercepted fuse d

taken, up arms, and threatened to make an obftinate thefe letters, and procured the beft information he

defence. But their numbers daily falling off, Bar^ could concerning their authors, picked out tkH; &

zaentes being afraid thev ^woidd .purahafe their own iatisfied people, and having difpofed them tato oat

fafety at the expcnce of his, privately withdrew from corps, gave it the title of the turbulent kuc^ti

his camp, and, croiling the river Indus, fought Hielter hoping by this means to prevent the (pint of ^i^'

among the nations beyond it. But they, either dread- tion from pervading the whole army,
ing the power of Alexander, or deteftingthe treachery As aiarther precaution againft any future coofpin-

of this Perfian towards .his. former mafter, feiced and cy, Alexander thought fit to appoint HephsflioQ iad

delivered him .up: to Alexander, -who caufisd himim- Clytus generals of the auxiliary horfe; being app

%j mediatcly-.toheputlo death. ' henfive, that if this authority was lodged in the Iuaj

?hie Mace- Theimmenfe treafure which the Macedonians had of a iingle perfon, it might prompt him to dangeroci

dMiians acquired in the conqueft of Periia began now to cor* undertakings, and at the fame time furniih hin ^^

*Sc\viau"t *"P^ them. The king himfelf was of a moft generous the means of carrying them into execution. To k«p '

iuii^.^ ^ difpofition,. and liberally beftowed his gifts on. thofe his forces in a6bon, he fuddenly marched into tii: i

around him; but they ^made a bad ofe of his bounty, countiy of the Euergctae, i. e. BenefaSors; andibiiii |

andfooliihlyindulgedin thofe vices by .which the former them full of that kind and hofpitable difpofitioa tV |

pofieffors of that wealth -had loft it. The king did which that name had been beftowed on their anc^^'

all in his power to difcourage the lazy and ina6live he therefore treated them w^ith great refpetl; and it Li

pride which jnow began to fhow itfelf among his of- departure added fome lands to iheir dominiuiis» vhia

iicers ; but neither hisdifcourfes nor his example had lay contiguous, and which for that reafon they hid it<

any confiderable eife£l. The jnanners of his -courtiers quefted of him.

from bad became worfe, in fpite of all he could fay Turning then to the eaft, he entered Aracho£3i»

or do to prevent it; and at laft they proceeded to inhabitants of which fubmitted without gi> ing hu^^i

cenfurc his condud, and to exprefs themfelves with trouble. While he paffed the winter in thefe ^

•fome bittemefs on the fubje<ft of his long continuance the king received advice, that the Ariansj whom k

of the war, and his leading them coivftantly from one had fo lately fubdued, were again up in ann*, ^'

labour to another. ^ This came to fuch an height, that barzanes being returned into that country wiU i^

tlie king was atiaft ol>ligcdAo ufe fome feverity in order thoufaiid horfe afligned him by Beifus. Alexander js-

88 to keep .his army within the limits of their duty, ftantly difpatched Artabazus the Perfian, wiih Engj''f

JUcjrencIer From this (tme forward^ however, Alexander himfelf and Caraniis, two of his commanders, with a cos>

'*^*'^^'"* ^^^ began to alter his condud^ and by giving a little in- fiderabic body of horfe and foot: he likewifc ordcia

tfuflomj?*" ^ ^^ icuftoms of the Orientals, endeavoured to fc- PhraUphcrnes, to whom he had given the go*^^*^ j

cure that obedience from his new fubjecls which he ment of Parthia, to accompany them. A ^,'Jg

found fo difficult to be preferved among his old ones, ral engagement enfued, wherein the Arians ba^^^^

He likewife endeavoured, by various methods, to blend very well, as long as their commander Sauba]72|>

the culloms of the Aiiatics and the Greeks. The Iived;but he eng^ghig£rigyus, theMacedoiiiafli^'

form of his civil government refembled that of the him firft into the throat, and then, drawing
4^cient Perfian kings: in the military afiursi koW" ^'^ ^P^^ again^ through the 4noulh; fo that he |^
JN« 190.

MAC

I 377 1

MAC

cedon. mediately expired, and with him the coiinge of his
fbldiers, who infbmtly began to fly ; whereupon Alex-
ander's commanders made an eafy conqoefl of the reft
of the country, and fettled it effedually under his obe«
dience.

The king, notwithftanding the inclemency bf the
feafon, advanced into the country of ParopamiifuS, 'fo
called from the mountain Paropamifus, which the fol*
diers of Alexander called Caucafvu Having trofT-
ed the country in 1 6 days, he came at lengfth to an
opening leading into Media ; which finding of a fuffi*
cient breadth, he direded a city to be built there^
which he called Alexandria^ as alfo feveral other
towns abont a day's journey diilant from thence : and
in thefe places he left 7000 perfons, part of them fuch
as had hitherto followed his can^p, and part of the mer-
cenary foldiers, who, weary of continual fatigue, were
content to dwell there. Having thus fettled things in
this province, iacriiiced folemnly to .the gods, and ap-
pointed Proexes the PcHxan prefident thep!of, with a
fmall body of troops under the command of Niloxenus
to afiift him, he rdfumed his former defign of penetm^
ting into Badria.

Beflus/ who had aflamed the title of Artaxtrxesy
when he was aflured that Alexander was marching
towards him, immediately began to wafte all the
country between Paropamifus and the river Oxus \
which river he palled with his forces, and then burnt
till the veiTels he had made ufe of for tranfporting them,
retiring to Nautaca, a city of Sogdia ; fully peifuaded,
that, by the precautions he had taken, Alexander
Would be compelled to give over his purfuit. This
conduct of his, however, difheartened his troops, and
gave the lie to aU his pretenfions ; for he had affe6ied
to cenfure Darius's condud, and had charged him with
cowardice, in not defending the rivers Euphrates and
Tigris, whereas he now quitted the banks of the moft
dt^nfibk river perhaps in the whole world. A s to his
hopes, tho^ it cannot be faid they Were ill founded, yet
they proved abfolutely vain ; for Alexander, continuing
his march, notwithftanding all the hardfhips his foldiers
fuftained, reduced all Bad^ria under his obedience,
particularly the capital Ba£lna and the ftrong caftle
Aomus : in the latter he placed a garrifon under the
conunand of Archelatuj but the government of the
province he committea to Artabazus. He then con-

iius re-
cedand
t to
ath.

the chief commanders under Beflus, iignifyiag, that, Mtotoi>
if he would fend a fmall party to receive Beflus, .^
Ihey would deliver him into his hands ; whidi they
did accordingly, and the traitor vras put to death
hi the manner related in the hiftory of Persia.

A fupply of horfes being now arrived, the Mace-
donian cavalry were remounted. Alexander continued
his march to Maracanda the capital of Sogdia, from
whence he advanced to the river laxartes. Here he
performed great exploits againft the Scythians ; from
whom, however, tho' he overcame them, his army fuf-
fered much ; and the revolted Sogdians being headed
by Spitamenes, gave him a great deal of trouble.
Here he married Roxana the daughter of Oxyartes, a ^r
prince of the country whom he had fubdued. But du- Alcxandet
ring thefe expeditions, the king greatly difgufted his n^)^^
army by the murder of his friend Clytus in a drunken
quarrel at a banquet, and by his extravagant vanity
in claiming divine honours.

At laft he arrived at the river Indus, where Hephg* -^^(^Am
flion and Perdiccas had already provided a bridge of in^u^-
boats for the paflage of the army. The king refrefhed
his troops for 30 days in the countries on the other (ide
of the river, which were thofe of his friend and ally
Taxiles, whcjgave him 30 elephants, and joined his army
now with 700 Indian horfe, to which, when they were
to enter upon a^ion, he afterwards added 5000 foot.
The true reafon of this feems to have been his enmity
to Poms, a famous Indian pnnce, whofe territories lay
on the other fide of the river Hydafpcs. During this
recefs, the king facnficed with great folemnity ; recei-
ving alfo ambafladqrs from Ambifurus, a very potent
prince, and from Doxareas, who was likewife a king in
thofe parts, with tenders of their duty, and con fider able
prefents. Thefe ceremonies over, Alexander appointed
Philip governor of Taxila, and put a Macedonian gar-
rifon into the place, becaufe he intended to ere6l an hof-^
pital there for the cure of his fick and wounded foldiers.
He then ordered the veflels, of' which his bridge had
been compofed when he paiTed the Indusj to be taken
to pieces, that they might be brought to the Hydafpes^
where he was informed that Poms with a great army
lay encamped to hinder his paflage. When he ap«
proached the banks of this river with his army and the
auxiliaries under the pommand of Taxiles, he found
that the people he had to do with were not fo eaiily

tinued his march to the river Oxus : on the banks of to be fubdued as the Perfians and other Aiiatics. The

which when he arrived, he found it three quarters of Indians were not only a very tall and robuft, but alfo

a mile over, its depth more than proportionable to its a very hardy and well-difciplined people ; and their

breadth, its bottom fandy, its ftream u> rapid as to ren- king Poms was a prince of high fpirit, invincible cou-

der it almoft unnavigable, and neither boat nor tree rage, and great conduft.

in its neighbourhood ; fo that the ableft commanders It was al>out the fummer folflice when Alexandef

in the N^icedonian army were of opinion that they reached the Hydafpes, and confequently its waters

fliould be obliged to march back. The king, how- were broader, deeper, and more rapid, than at any

ever.

having firft fent away, under a proper eicort, all
his infirm and worn-out foldiers, that they might be
conduced fafe to the fea-ports, and from thence to
Greece, devifed a method of paifing this river without
either boat or bridge, by caufing the hides which co-
vered the foldiers tents and carriages to be ftuffed with
ftraw, and then tied together, and thrown into the ri-
ver. Having crofled the Oxus, he marched dire^Uy ilrained to divide his army into fmall parties, and to
towards the camp of Beflus, where when he arrived, pradtife other arts, in order to get the better of fo ▼*•
he found it abandoned ; but received at the fame time gilant a prince. To this end he caufed a great quan-.
ktters from Spitamenes ^d Dataphemei, who were tity of corn and other pnivtfiona to be brought into
t Vol* X. Part I. 3 B ^

other time \ for in India the rivers fwell as the fun's
in creating heat melts the fnow, and fubflde again at
winter approaches. Alexander therefore had every dif«
Acuity to ftruggle with. Poms had made his difpofi-
tions fo judicioufly, that Alexander found it impofltble
to pra6Ufe upon him as he had done upon others, an4
to pafs the river in his view : wherHbre he was con-

MAC C 378 ] MAC

Maccdon. his camp j giving out, that he intended to remain where now, that they had not reached die cootinrnt at all, bet
• he wae till the river fell, and by becoming fordabje were in truth in another iiland niucb br^er than the
(bould give him an opportunity of forcing a paflage j* '""*

this did not, however, hinder Porus from keeping up
very ftrid difcipline in his camp ; which when Alex-
ander perceived, he frequently made fiich motions as
fcemed to indicate a change of his refolution, and that
he had ftill thoughts of paffin^ the river. The main
thing the Macedonians ftood m fear of were the ele<*
phants ; for the bank being pretty fteep on the other
fide, and it being the nature of horfes to ftart at the
firfl appearance of thofe animals, it was forefeen that
the army would be diibrdered, and incapable of fuftain*
iiig the charge of Porus's troops.

At length Alexander paiTed the river by tlie fol^
loving contrivance. There was, at the diilance of i$o
ftadia from his camp, a rocky promontory preceding
into the river, thick covered with wood; and over-

And the

HydiXpci
wirh diffi-
culty.

former. They crofTed it as fitft as they could*
found that it was divided from the ierra fy^ima by a
narrow channel, which, however, was fo fwelled by the
late heavy rain, that the poor foUiers were oUigcd tp
wade up to the breaft. When' they were oo the other
fide» the king drew them up again carefully, orderii^
the foot to march flowly, tbty bciuK in number abooc
6coo, while himfdf with 5000 hork advanced before.
As foon as Porus received inteHigenoe that Alexander
was actually paffing the river, he Dent his foo with 2000
horfe, and i ao armed chariots, to o{^ofe him. Bet
they came too late : Alexander waa already got oa
ihure, and even on his march.

When the Macedonian fcouts perceived them ad- ^
vance, they informed the king, who fent a detackmeat^^'' ■
to attack them, remainii^ fUU at the head of his ca-^[)^^
againft this promontory there lay a pretty large unin* valry in expectation of rorus. But when he found k^kf.

habited ifiand almoft ovei^rown with trees. The king
therefore conceived within himfelf a proje^ of convey-
ing a body of troops from this promontory into that
ifland ; and upon this fcheme he built his hopes of fur-*
priiing Porus, vigilant as he was. To this end he kept

tiiat this party was unfupported, he iniUntly attack*
ed with all hi& horfe, and defeated them with the
Daughter of many, and the iofs of all then- aimed
chariots^ the Ton of Porus being (lain in the fight.
The remainder of the horfe retai;ning to the camp with

him and his army conftantly alarmed for many nights this diiallrous account, Porus was in foaae con^xlioB i
together, till he perceived that Porus apprehend^ it however, he took very quickly the beft and m\Sc&. re*
was only done to harafs his troops, and therefore no
longer drew out of his camp, but trufted to his ordi-
nary gruards : then Alexander refolved to put his defign
in execution. A confiderable body of horfe, the A&-
cedonian phalanx* with fome corps of light-armed
foot, he left in his camp under the command of Cra-
terus, as alfo the auxiliary Indians ; giving thefe orders
to be obferved in his abfence, that if Porus marched
againft him with part of his army and left another part
with the elephants behind in his camp, Craterus and
his forces^ould remain where they were ; but if it fo
happened that Porus withdrew his elephants, thea Cra-
terus was to pais the river, becaufe his cavalry might
then do it (afeiy. Alexander having marched half the
way, or about nine of our miles, ordered the merce-
nary troops under the command of Attalus and other
generals, to remain there ; and direded them, that as
K>Qn as he knew he was engaged with the Indians
on the other fide, they (hould jpaCi in veflela provided
for that purpofe, in onkr to aiuil him. Then march*-
in^ a long way about^ that the enemy might not pei^
ceive his defign of reaching the rock» he advanced aa
diligendy as he could towards that poft. It happened
very fortunately for him, that a great ftorm of thun-
der, lightning, and hail, rofe in the night, whereby
his march was perfe^ly concealed, his veiTels of 30
f>ars put together, and his tents ftuffed and flitched, fo
that they pafled from the rock into the ifland, without
being perceived, a little before break of day ; the
ftorm ceafjng juft as he and his foldiers were ready for
their pafTage. When they had tiaverfed the ifland, they
koldly fet forward to gain the oppo£tefhoreia%ht of
Porus's out-guards, who inflantjy polled away to give
their mafter an account of the attempt. Alexander
landed fidH himfelf, and was followed as espeditioufiy
as poffible by his forces, whom he took care to draw
«p as faft as they arrived. When they began their
march again* they^bund that their good fortune was
•01 & great m at fiift thef efkctmcd it i for it appeared

however, he took very quickly the beft and
folutions his circumiUnces would allow \ which
to leave a part of his army, with fbme of his eie-
phantSy'to oppofe Craterus, who was now about to
pafs the river alfo ; aadt with the reft, to march agaiait
Alexander and his forces, who were already pafled.
This refolution once taken, he marched immediatclY
out of hia camp, at the head of 4000 horfe» 30,000
foot, 300 diariot^, and 200 elephants* He advanced
as expeditioufly as he could, till he came into a plain
which was firm and fandy, where his chariots and ele-
phants might a^ to advantage ; theie he halted, that
he might put his army in order, knowing well that he
need not go in queft of his enemy. Alexander ibon
came up with his horfe, but he did not charge Porus ;
on the contrary, he halted, and put hia troopc in or-
der, that they might be able to defend tfaemielvca in
cafe they were attacked. When he had waited fome
time, his foot arrived ; whom he immediately fmround-
ed with his horfe, that, after fo fatiguing a march»
they might have time to coot ahd breathe themfehes^
before they were led to engage.. Porus penaitted aB
this, becaufe it was not his intereft to fight, and bc^
caufe he depended chiefly upon his order of battle, the
elephants covering hia foot, fo that the Macedoniaas
could not charge them.

When Alexander had difpofed hia foot in proper S5
order, he placed his horfe on the wings: and, obfer-][^*|*'
ving that he was much fuperior in them to the encmy,.^
and that the cavalry of Porus were eafytobe chamd,
he refohed to let the foot have as littlft (haremp«£Ue
in the battle. To this end, having given the neccfla-
ry dire^oas to Ccsmu who commanded them, he went
himfelf to the right, and with great fury fell upon
the left wii^ of Popis. The dilpute, tho' fliort, waa
very bloody : the cavalry of Poma, tho' they fcn^ht
galUntly, were quickly broken ; and the ibot heing by
this nteans uncovered, the Macedcftiiaat chaigcd them.
But the Indian horfe rallyiog, eamc up to their rrUef,
yet were again defeated. Bf this time the archers had

MAC C 399 ] MAC

Mt ced tt ft * woundfd mtnj of the deplumti, Mid kiQcd moft of grett armr* Hie king immediatelf marched to rive Mte«te«
"^ ' their riders, fo that they did not prove lefs troubldbme them battle ; and in a few days reached a city cidied » '
and daogerous to their ovm fide thaa to the Macedo* Sa^gaJnf feated on the top of an hiU« and having a
nians ; vvhence a great coofufion enfued t and Cesnust fine lake behind it Before this city the confederate Sw^^ u*
taking thit opportunity, fell in With the troopt under Indians lay encampedr having three circular lines of kcnf^
kia command, and entirely defeated the Indian army, carriages locked together, and their tents pitched in
Poms himfelf behaved with the greateft intrepidity, the centre. Wotwithftanding the apparent difficultyr
imd With the moft excellent condu6t : he gave his or* of forcing thefe intrenchments, Alexander refolved im-
ders, and dire&d every thing, as long as bis troops mediately to attack them. The Indians made a noble
retained their form ; and, when they were broken, he defence; but at lad the firft line Of their carriages was «.
Kcdred from party to party as they made ftands, and broken, and the Macedonians entered. Tbe fecond '
continued fighting till every corps of Indians viras put was ftrongcr by far ; yet Alexander attacked that
to. the rout. In the mean time Craterus had pafied too, and after a defperate refiftance forced it. The
vrith the reft of the Macedonian army ; and thefe, fal* Indians, without trufting to the third, retired into the
ling upon 'the flying Indians, increafed the flaughter city ; which Alexander would have invefted : but the
of the day excefiively, infomttch that 20,000 foot and foot he had with him not 'being fufficient for that
5000 horfe were killed, all the chariots were hacked to purpofe, he caufed his works to be carried on both
pieces, and the elephants not killed were taken : two fides as far as the lake; and, on the other fide of that,
'Of Porus*s fons fell here, as alfo moft of his officers of ordered feveral brigades of horfe to take poft ; order-
all ranks. ing alfo battering engines to be brought up, and in
' As for Porusy Alexander gave ftri^ direffions that fome places employing miners. The fecond night, he
no injury might be done to his perfon : he even fent received intelligence that the befieged, knowing the
Taxiles to perfuade him to furrender himfelf, and to lake to be fordable, intended to make their efcape
aflure him that he (hould be treated with all the kind* through it. Upon this the king ordered all the car*
nefs and refpe^ imaginable; but Poms, difdaining this riages which had beei^ taken in forcfng their camp to
' advice froin the mouth of an old enemy, threw a jave- be placed up and down the roads, in hopes of hinder-
lin at him, and had killed him but for the quick turn ing their flight ; giving diredUons to Ptolemy, who
I of his horfe. Meroe the Indian, who was alfo in the commanded the horfe on the other fide of the lake, to
iervice of Alexander, fucceeded better : he had been be extremely vigilant, and to caufe all his trumpets to
the old acquaintance of Porus; and therefore when he found, that the forces might repair to that poft where
intreated that prince to fpare his perfon, and to fubmit the Indians made their greateft effort. Thefe pre*
He fubmiti^"''^*^ }^ fortune and a geaerous viAor, Porus fol- cautions had all the effed that could be defired : for
ro Aicxan* ^^*^ ^" advice; "and we may truly fay, that the con- of the few Indians who got through the lake, and
-4*' dition of this Indian king fuffered nothing by the lofs pafled the Macedonian horfe, the greater part were
of the battle. Alexander immediately gave him his li- kiDed on the roads; but- the greateft part of their
berty, reftored him (hortly after to his kingdom, to army was conftrained to retire again through the
which he annexed provinces almoft equal to it in va- water into the city. Two days afser, the phw« was
luc. Neither was Alexander a lofcr by his munifi«> taken by ftorm. Seventeen thoufand Indians were
ccnce ; for Porus remained his true friend and con- killed ; 70,000 taken prifoners ; with 300 chariots^
ftant ally. and 500 horfe. The Macedonians are iaid to have
To perpetuate the niemory of this viAory, Alex- loft only 100 men in this ficffc ; but they had 1200
ander ordered two cities to be eredcd ; one on the wounded, and amongf thefe levend perfons of great
field of battle, which he named Nic£a ; the other on diftindtion.

this fide the river, which he called Buce^ahy in The city waa no fooner taken, than Alexander dit.

honour of his horfe Bucephalus, who died here, as patched Eumenes his fccrctary, with a party of horfe^

Arrian fays, of mere old age, being on the verge of to acquaint the inhabitants of the cities adjacent with

50. All the (bkiiers, who fell in battle, he buried what had befallen the Sangalans; promifing alfo, that

with great honours ; offered folemn facrificcs to the they (hould be kindly treated if they wbuW fubmit.

gods, and exhibited pompous fliows on the banks tA But they were fo .much affrighted at what had hap*

the Hydafpes, where he had forced his paffagc. He pened to their neighbours, that, abandoning all their

then entered the territories of the Glaufx, in which cities, they fled, into the mountains j choofxng rather

were 3 y good cities, and a multitude of populous to expofe themfelves to vrild beafts, than to thefe in-

tillages. All thefe were delivered up to him without vaders, who had treated their countrymen fo cruelly.

fighting ; and as foon as he received them, he pre- When the king was informed of this, he fent detach-

l^nted them to Porus ^ and having reoondled him to mcnts of h(>rfe and foot to fcour the roads; and thefe,

Taxiles, he fent the latter home to his own dominions, finding aged, infirm, and wounded people, to the

About this time ambafladors arrived from fome Indian number of about 500, put them to the fword vrithout .^* -. .

princes with their fubmifiions ; and Alexander having mercy. Perceiving that it vras hnpoffible to peri'nade ^^ '*"'*•

conquered the dominions of another Porus, which by the inhabitants to i«tum, he caufed the city of San-

on the Hydraote\ a branch of the Indus, added them gala to be rafed, and gave the territories to the few

to thofe of Porus his ally. Indians who had fubmrtted to him.

In the middle of all this fuccefs, however, news Alexander, ftitt uofatcd vrith conqneft, now pre-

amved, that the Cathei, the OxydracsB, and the MaUt, pared to pafe the Myphafis. The chief reafon which

the moft warlike nations of India, were confcdeiated induced him to think of this expedition was, the in-

agamft the Macedoaiaas, aod had dimwB together a IwantiMi he haA Rccived of the ftateof the eo^ntriea

3 B a beyond

^cr«

MKedm.

MAC C 380 ] MAC

beyond that men He was told that they were In defperate battles, that they were determined to go no Mwii|

themfelves rich and fruitful ; that their iahabitanta- further^ either for fair fpeeches or fool. Upon this '

were not oalj a Tery martial people^ but very civilized;. Alexander retired to his tent, where he refuAoi to fee

that' they were governed by the nobility, who were his friends,, and put on the fame gloomy temper that

themfeWes fubjeS to the laws ; and that as they lived fcigoed* among, his troops. For three days thiaga

Ml happinefs and freedom, it was likely they wouldi remained in this iituation. At lajl the king fuddenly

fight obflinately in defence of tho(e bleilings. He< appeared ; and, as if he had been fuUy determined to

purfue his iiril deiign, he gave orders for iacrilicing

Aicno*
<kr*s troops
aelttfeto
proceed

was farther told, that among thefe nations there were
the laigeft, ftrongefl, and moii ufeful elephants bred
and tamed ; and was therefore fired with an earneft
dedre to reduce fuch a bold and. brave people under
his rule, and of attaining to. the poffeffion of the many
valuable things that were fuid to be amongfl them.
As exorbitant, however, as. his perfonal ambition was,
he found it impofiible to Infufe any part of it into the
minds of his foldiers ; who were fo far from wifhing
to triumph over new and remote countries, that they
were highly defirous of leaving thofe that they had
already cOnq^ucrcd. When therefort they were in-
formed o£ the king's intentions, they privately con-
futed together in the camp about the fituation of
their own affairs. At this confultation, the graved
and bcft of the foldiers lamented that they were made
ufe of by their king, not as lions, who fall fiercely
upon thofe who have injured them ; but as maftiifs,
who fly upon and tear thofe who are pointed out to
them as enemies. The reH were not fo modeil;
but expreiTed themfeives roundly s^gainil the king's
humour for leading them from battle to battle, from
iiege to fiege, and from river to river; protefting
that they would follow him no further, nor lavi(h
away their lives any longer, to purchafe fame for him.

Alexander was a man of too much penetration not
to be early in perceiving that his troops were very
uneafy*. He therefore harangued them from his tri-
bunal ; but though his eloquence was great, and the
love his army had for him was yet very flrong, they
did not rdenl. For fome time the foldiers remained
fallen and filent ; and at laft turned their eyes on Cce-
ous, an old and experienced general, whom Alexander
iDved, and in whom the army put great confidence. —
He had the generofity to undertake their caufe ; and
told Alexander frankly, ** that men endured toil in
Mopes of repofe ; that the Macedonians were already
much reduced in their numbers $ that of thofe who
Kmained, the greater part were invalids; and that
they expeded, in confideration of their former fer-
lices, that he would now lead them back to their na-
tive country : an a6l which, of all 9ther8, would mod
•ontribute to his own great deiSgns ; fince it would
encourage the youth of Macedon, and even of all
Greece, to follow him in whatever new expedition he
plcafed to undertake/' The king was fiu* from.being
pleafed with this,fpeedi of Coenus, and much lefs with
the difpofition of his army, which continued in a deep
filence. He therefore difmilFed the affembly : but
text day he called another, wherein he told the fol-

xs©

for the good fuccels of his new undertaking. An-
flander the augur reported, that the omens urere al-
together iuaufpicious ^.upon which the king fkidy that
fince his proceeding farther was neither picafing to
the gods nor grateful to his army, he would return.
When this wsu rumoured among the army, tkey af-
fembled in great numbers about the royat tent, falu- ^
ting the king with loud acclamations, vriQung himors.
fucce£s, in all his future defigns ; giving him at the
fame time hearty thanks, for that <' he who was in-
vincible had fuifered himfelf to be overcodie by their
prayers."

A Hop being thus put to the con^efts of Alexan-
der, he determined to make the Hyphafis the hoim-
dary of his dominions; and having ere^ed tw<dv<e
altars of an extraordinary magnitude, he £icrificed
on them : after which he exhibited fhows in the
Grecian manner; and, having added all the conquered
country in thefe parts to the dominions of Porua» he ^^
began, to return. Having arrived at the Hydafpes,SjiLi3«i
he made the necefTary preparations for failing down ^l^^
the Indus into the ocean. For this purpofe^ be or-
dered vail quantities of timber to be felled in the
neighbourhood of the Hydafpes, through which be
was to fail into the Indus ; he caufed the veflels with
which he had pafled other rivers to be brought thi-
ther, and afTembled a vail: number of artificers capable
of repairing and equipping his fleet ; whid^ when
finifhed, confifled of 80 vefiels of three banks of oars,
and 2000 leffer fhips and tranfports. Thofe who vrcre
to manage this fleet were colle^ed out from the Phoe-
nicians, Cyprians, Carians, and Egyptians following
his army, and who were reckoned per&tflly well fkilkd
in the naval art. When all things were ready, the
army embarked about break of day ; the king, in the
mean time, facrificing to the gods according to the
ceremonies ufed in his own country, and likewifc ac*
cording to thofe of the .country where he now was.
Then he himfelf went on board; and caufiog the fignal
to be given by found of trumpet, the fleet fct iuL
Craterus and HephaeAion-had marched fome. daya be^
fore with another diviiion of the arn^ ;. and in three
days the fleet reached that part of the river which was
of^xofite to their camps. Here, he had iaformationf
that the Oxydracae and Malli were raifing forces to
oppofe him : upon which he immediately detenmaed
to reduce them; for, during this voyage,* he made it
a rule to compel the inhabitants on both fides of the
river to. yield him obedience. But befose he anived

filers plainly, that he. would not be driven from his^ on. the coails of the people above mentioned, he himr

purpofe; that he would proceed in his conqjuefts with felf fuftained no ~

fiich as> fhould follow hinv voluntarily i as for the reft,

he would not detain them, but would leave them at

liberty to go home to Macedon, where they might

Hublifli, ** that they had left their kingpin the midft

•f his enemies." Even this expedient bad no fuccefs;

liaacmj wat (b thorougjhly tired with long, marches and

felf fuftained no fmall danger ; for, coming to the
confluence, of the Aceitnes with the Hydafpes, from
whence both rivers roll together into the Indus, the
eddies, whirlpools, ^ and rapid currents, rufhing with
tremendous noife from. the refpe(5Uve channels of thofe
rivers into the great one- formed by them both, at
on^e terrified thofe who nayig^ited his vdfels, and«ao

tuallj

MAC (38

t:iially deihroyed many of the long vcflels, with all who
•x^-ere aboard of them ; the king himfelf being in fome
danger, and Nearchus the admiral not a little at a lofs.
-As i'oon as this danger was over, Alexander went on
fhore ; and having ordered his elephants with fome
rroops of horfe and archers to be carried acrofs, and
put imder the command of Craterus, he then divided
liis army on the left-hand bank into three bodies $ the
firii commanded by himfelf, the fecond by Hyphse-
Hioiiy and the third by Ptolemy. Hyphxilion had
orders to move iilently through the heart of the coun-
try, five days march before the king ; that if, on
iVlcxander's approach, any of the barbarians ihould
attempt to ihelter themfelyes by retiring into the
country, they might fall into the hands of Hephae^
flion. Ptolemy Hague was ordered to march three
days journey behind the king, that if any efcaped his
army, they might fall into Ptolemy's hands ; and the
fleet had 01-ders to ftop at the confluence of this river
with the Hydiaotes till fuch time as thefe feveral corps^
ihould arrive.

Alexander himfelf, at the head of a body of horfe
'*di-and light armed foot, marched through a defart
![i^ country againil the Malli ; and, fcarce affording any
neil to his foldiers,' arrived in three days at a citv into
which the barbarians had put their wives, and children,
with a good garrifon for their defence. The country
people, having no notion that Alexander would march
through fuch a dcfert and barren region, were all un-
armed, and xa the utmoft confufion. Many of them
therefore were (lain in the £eld ; the reil Hed into the
city, and (hut the gates. But this only protnt^ed
their fate for a (hort time ; for the king, having or-
dered the city to be inveiled by his cavalry, took it,
as well as the caiUe, by ftorm, and put all he found
there to the fword. He fent at the fame time Per-
£ccas with a^confiderable detachment> to invefl ano-
ther city of the Malli at a coniidcrabk diflance ; but
when he came there, he found it abandoned. How-^
«yer, he purfued the inhabitants who had but lately
kft it, and killed groat numbers of them on the road*.
After this the king took fevcral other cities, but nut
without considerable refi^tance ; for the Indians fome-
tixnes chofe to bum themfeves in their houfes rather
than furrender. At. laft ha matched to their capital*
oity ; and finding that abandoned, he proceeded to
the river; Hydraoies, where he found 50,900 men
encamped on the oppoiite hank, lik order to difpute.
his pafiage. He did not hefitate, however, to enter,
the river with a oonfiderable party of. horfe : and fo
much were the Indians terrified at his prefence, that
their whole army retired before him« In a fhort time
they returned aad attacked him, being aihamed to fly
before fuch an isconfiderable number y but in the.
nean time the reflT of the Macedonian forces came up,
' and the Indians were obliged to retire toa city which

Uy behind them, and whicH Alexander inveftcd that-
ver^ nights The next day he flormed the city with
liich violende, that' the inhabitants were compelled
to abandon it, and to retire to the caille, where,
they prepared for -a* obfUnate defence. ' The king
inftaotly gave orders* for fcaling the walls, and the
ibldiers prepared .to ' execute thefe orders as fafl as
' they cpuld ; but the king being impatient caught hold

of aJadder and mounted it firfl himfdf^ being follow.e4

1 ,] MAC

by Lconatus; Peuccftas, and Abrcas, the latter a man Mtcedofc .
of great valour, and who on that account had doiible ' -'/
pay allowed him. The king havlii^r gained the top
of the battlements, cleared them quickly of the defeu- y.. ^^^^
dante, killing fome of them with his fword, and pu(h- ^^^e valotir
ing others over the walls : hut after this was done, he and danger,
was in more danger than ever ; for the Indians galled
him with their arrows from the adjacent towers,
though they durft nvt come near enough to engage
him. His own battalion of targetecrs mounting in
hafle to fecond him, broke the ladders ; which, as
foon as Alexander perceived, he threw himfelf down
into the caille, as did alfo Peuceflas, I^eonatus, and
Ahreas. As foon as the king was on the ground, the
Indian general ru(hed fort^^aid to attack him; but
Alexander inflantly difpatched him, as well as feveral -
others who followed him. Upon this the reH retired, .
and contented themfelves with throwing darts and*
ftones at him at a diflance. Abreas was flruck into ,
the head with :-;n arrow, and died on the fpot ; and, ,
fliortly after, another pierced through the king's breaft-
plate into his body. As long as he had fpirit8,^p
defended himfelf valiantly ; but, through a tall efliidln
of blood, loflng his fenfes, he fell upon his fliield.
Peuceflas then covered him with the facred fliield of
Pallas on one fide, as did Leonatus with his own
flueld on the other, t]u)ugh they themfelves were
dreadfully wounded. In the mean time, however, the '?^ ..^,
foldiers on the outfide, eager to fave their king, fup- 1^\^ ^ *
plied their want of ladders by driving. large iron pins ved by his^
into the walls. By the help of thefe many of them men»
afcended, and came to the afliflance. of Alexander and .
his companions. The. Indians, were now flaughtered
without mercy ; but Alexander, continued for fome -
dme in a very dangerous way ; however, he at lafl re-
covered, his ilrength, and f ho wed himfelf again to his .
army,, which. filled them, with the greatefl joy.

The MaUi, being now cenvinoedjthat nothing but .
fubmiifion could fave the remainder of them, fent de-
puties to Alexander, oflering the dominion of their *
ceuntiy ; as did alfo the Oxydracx : . and the king ,
having fettled every thing in thefe countries agreeable . lo/.
to his mind, proceeded on his voyage down the river He pro*
Indus. In this voyage he received the fuhmifiion of 5*^^*^* *° ^"•'^
fome other Indian princes ; . and perceiving, that, at Jownlhs v
the point of the ifland Pattala, the river divided itfelf Indus,
into two vail- branches, he ordered an haven and con-
venient docks to . be made there for. his fliips ; and .
when' he had careened his fleet, he failed. down the.
right-hand branch towards the ocean. In .his paflage
he fuflaincd great difficulties by reafon ofhis want of.
pilots, and. at the mouth of the river .very narrowly,
miffed being cafl away : yet all this^ did not hinder -
him from purfuing his firil deflg^, though it does notj
appear that'he had any other motive thereto than the .
vain deiire of boafling that he. had entered the ocean
beyond the Indus:, for, having confecrated certain .-
bulls to Neptune, and thsowu them into the fea,.
performed, certain, libations of golden cups, and.
throwa the cups alfo into the fea, he came back:
again ; . haviiig only-, furveyed two little iOands, one.-
at the- mouth of the Indus, and one a little farther inu
the ocean.

On the king's return toPattala, he refolved to faiT
down, the other branch of the Indus, that he might;

£e<r!

MAC

r 382 3

MAC

Tc6

Sets out for

Mieedon. f^^ wlicther it was more fafe and commodiou* for his
fleet than that which he had already tried ; and fof
this he had very good reafons. He had rcfolved to
fend NearchuB with his fleet by fea, through the
Periian gulf up the river Tygris, to meet him and
his army in Mefopotamia ; but as the poffibility of
this voyage depended on the ceafmg of the Etefian
winds, there was a neceflity of laying up the fleet till
the feafon fhould prove favourable. Alexander, there-
fore, failing through this branch of the Indus, fought
on the fea-coaft for bays and creeks, where his fleet
might anchor in fafety ; he caufed alfo pits to be
funk, which might be filled with frefh water for the
life of his people ; and took all imaginable precautions
for prefen'ing them in eafe and fefcty till the ieafon
would allow them to continue their voyage. In this
he fucceeded to his wifh ; for ht found this branch of
the river Indus, at its mouth, fpread over the plain
country, and forming a kind of lake, wherein a fleet
might ride with fafety. He therefore appointed Leo-
natiis, and a part of his army, to carry on fuch works
ai^'ere neceflary ; caufing them to be relieved by
frm troops as often as there was occafion : then ha-
ving given his laft inllru^ions to Nearchus, he de*
parted with the reft of the army, in order to march
back to Babylon.

Before the king's departure, many of his friends
advifed him acrainfl the route which he intended to
take. They told him, that nothing could be more rafli
or dangerous than this refolution. They acquainted
fiim, that the country through which he was to travel
was a wild uncultivated defart ; that Semiramis, when
fhe Jed her foldiers this way out of India, brought
home but 20 of them ; and that Cyrus, attempting
to do the fame, returned with only fcven. But all this
was fo far from deterring Alexander, that it more
than ever determined him to purfue no other road. As
foon, therefore, as he had put things in order, he
marched at the head of a fufficient body of troops to
yeduce the Oritae, who had never vouchfafed either to
make their fubmiflion or to court his friend fhip. Their
territories lay on the other fide of a river called yfra-
l>iss which Alexander crofled fo fpeedily, that they
had no intelligence of his march ; whereupon moil of
them quitted their country, and fled into the defarts.
Their capital he found fo well Htuated, that he refol-
ved to take it out of their hands, and to caufe a new
and noble city to be founded there, the care of which
he committed to Hephaeftion. Tlien he received the
deputies of the Oritx and Gedroii ; and having afliired
them, that if the people returned to their villages, they
(hould be kindly treated, and having appointed Apol-
lophenes prefident of the Oritae, and left a confideraWe
body of troops under Leonatus to fecure their obe-
dience, he began his march through Gedrofia. In this
march his troops fuffered incredible hardflilps. The
road was very uncertain and trouWefome, on account
of its lying thro' deep and loofe fands, ri fmg in man^
places into hillocks, which forced the foldiers to climb,
at the fame time that it funk under their feet ; there
were no towns, villages, nor places of refrefhment, to
be met vrith ; fo that, after exccfiive marches, they were
forced to encamp among theie dry fands. As to^pro*'
vftions, they hardly met with any during their whole
siarch. The foldiers were therefore obliged to kill their

107
His dan-
grreut
march
throug;h
Geirolia.

b«afts of carriage: tad fuch as were dcut to bring fam^^
com from the fea-fidey were fo grieTOolljr dilbcSsd, *
thaty though it was fcaled with the king's fignct^ xksr
cut open the bags, choofing rather to die a ▼iaicat 6at^
for difobcdience than perifh by hunger. 'Wfaea ^
king, however, was informed- of this, he freely par-
doned the offenders; he was alfo forced to aoce^
the excufes that were daily made for 'the lotk d
mules, hoffes, &c. which were ia truth essten by t&;
foldiers, and their carriages broken in pseoes to
further trouble. As for water, their want of k
a great misfortune ; and yet their finding it in
was fometime; a greater: for, as by the £xib tiicr
peri(hed with thirit, fo by the htter they were harz^
thrown into dropfies, and rendered incapable of tsttd.
Frequently they met with no water for tke whole dsr
together : fometimes they were diikppotnted of it ai
night ; in which cafe, if they were able» tbey^ laard-
ed on ; fo that k was common with them to txsvd jc,
4^ 50» or even 60 miles without encamping. Nan-
bers through thefe hardfliips were obliged to lag in the
rear ; and of thefe many were left belundy and peiiih.
ed f for indeed icarce any ever joined the army agaa
Their miferies, however, they fuftained with iaciv-
diMe patience, being encouraged by the exaxnpk ct
their king ; who, on this occafion, fuflSEred greater
hardfhips than the meaneft foldier in his army. At lai t*
they arrived at the capital of Gedrofia, where they le-H-'f
frefhed themfelves, and fUid Tome time v after which. ^'-^
they marched into Caramania ; which being a ^cry j^cs-
tiful country, they there made tbemfelves ample aoKnds
for the hardfhips and fatigues they had fuftained. Hoc
they were joined firfl by Craterus with the troop* cs-
der his command, and a number of elephants; tf:«3
came Stafanor prefident of the Arians, and Ffaar^
manes the fon of Phrataphernes governor of Parthk
They brought with them camels, horfes, and ot^r
beafls of buiden, in vafl numbers ; having forefeea,
that the king's march thra' Gedrofia woaJd be attcBC-
ed with tike lofs of the greatefl part, if not of all ti*?
cavalry and beafts belonging to his army.

During Alexander's flay in Caramania, he redrcird ^
the injuries of his people, who had been grievouflrop-f;";,'
prefTed by their governors during his abfence* Hct^^
alfo he was joined by his admiral Neardhns, vkou.-^
brought him an account that all under his commasd
.were in perfed fafet]^ and in excellent condidoc;
with which the king was mightily pleafed, and, afb*
having beftowed on him Angular marks of his hnosxn
fent him back to the navy. Alexander next fet out kx
Perfia, where great diforders had been committed durirg'
his abfence. Thefe alfo he redreffed, and caufed the
governor to be crucified ; appointing in his zoom Pen-
ceflas, who faved his life when he ^onght fingly agaioit
a whole garrifon as above related. The new goveraar
was no fooner invefted with his dignity, than be bak
afide the Macedonian gajrb, and put on that of the
Medes ; being the only one of Alexander** captains,
who, by complying with the manners of ti^e people be
governed, gained their afFedtion.

While Alexander vifited the different porta of Ptr-
fia, he took a view, among the reft, of the ruins of Per-
fepolis, where he is faid to have expreficd great (or*
row for the def^ru^^ion he had ibrmcriy occafioaed.
I'Vom Perfepolis he marclted to Sufa, where he gaie

M A C

«attnMwdiiuuy loofe to pleafurc i refolvmg to make

lumfclf and hw foUowen foine amends for tbe difficid-

.x'hcs thty had hitherto undergone ; purpofing at the

. iaxnip time Co efie^nally to unite his new conquered

"with hx8 hereditary fubje&s, that £he jealouiies and

£c9r9» which had hitherto tormented both, ihould no

longer fubfift* With this view he married two wives

-of the blood royal of Perila $ vis% Bariine, or Statira,

the daughter of Darius, and Paryfatis the daughter

of Ochus. DrypetiSf another daughter of Darius, he

.^ave to HepbaeiUon ; Amaftrine, the daughter of Oxy-

artes the brother of Darius, married Craterus; and

to the reft of his friends, to the number of ^ he gave

other women of the greateft quality. All thefe mar-

rlsigea were celebrated at once, Alexander himfelf be-

flowing fortunes upon them ; he- directed like wife to

•take account of the number of his officers and foldiers

who had married Aiiatic wives ; and tho' they appear-

jed to be 10,000, yet he gprattfted each of tbfim accord-

[ 383 3

MAC

He is faid to haw receifcd feveral warnings of bis ap- Ma^e Jom^
proaching fate, and to have been advifed to avoid that » '
city; which advice he either defpifed or could not
follow. He died of a fever after eight days illaef^, He dies at
without namilig any fucceflbr ; having only given hisBib)iou.
rin^ to Perdiccas, and IcA the kingdom, as he faid,
to tie me/I worthy*.

The chara^ier of this great prince has been ^*"°^^7h' ' chanc
reprefented ; but mod hiilorians feem to have lot^^ked ^^^^
upon him rather as an illuflrious madman than one
upon whom the epithet of Grtai could be properly be-
ilow^ed. From a careful obfervation of his condu6^»
however, it muil appear, that he pofleiTed not only a
capacity to plan, but likewife to execute, the greateib
enterprifes that ever entered into the mind of any of
the human race. From whatever caufe tbe notion
originated, it \a plain that he imagined himfelf a divine
perfon, and born to fubdue the whole world : and ex*
travagant and impradicable as this fcheme may appear

ing to his rank. He next refolved to pay the debts of at prefeht, it cannot at all be looked upon in the fame

i ^ ;hi8 army, and thereupon iflued an edi^ directing
^i^ .every man to regiiier lus name and the fum he owed ;
with which the fokliers complying Oowly, from an ap-
preheniion that there was fome defign againft them,
Alexander ordered tables heaped with money to be fet
in all quarters of the camp, and caufed everr man's
debts to be paid on his bare word, without even
snaking any entry of his name ; though the whcje fum
came to 20,000 talents* On fuch as had diikinguiibed
themfelves in an extraordinary manner, he beftowed
crowns of gold. Feuceftaa had the firft ; Leonatua
the fecond ; Nearchue the third ; Oneficntus the
fourth ; Hephaeftion the fifth 1 and the ttk of his
guards had each of them one. After this he made
other difpofitioits for condliating, as he fuppofed, the
differences among all his fubjeds. He reviewed the
30,000 youths, whom at his departure fpr India he had
ordered to be taUight Greek and the Macedonian dif-
cipline ; expreffing high iatisfadion at the fine appear-
ance they made, which rendered them worthy of the
appellation he beftowed on them, viz. that of Epigom^
i. e. fueceffon. He promoted alfo, without any di-
ftio^bon of nation, all thofe who had ferved him faith-
fully and valiantly in the Indian wan When idl thefe
rcgruktions were made^ he gave the command of his
heavy armedtroops to Hephaeftion, and ordered him
, to march directly to the banks of the Tigris, while in
the mean time a Beet vras equipped for carrying the
king and the troops he retained with him down to
the ocean.

Thus ended the exploits of Alexander; the greateft
conqueror that ever the world faw, at leaft with re^
fpe£^ to the rapidity of hit conquefts. In 1 2 years
time he had brought under his fubje£tion Egypt,
Libya, Afia Minor, Syria, Phcenicis^ PalefUne, Ba*
bylooia, Perfia, with part of India and Tartary. Still,
however, he meditatCMi greater things. He had now
got a grrat tafte in maritime afiBiirs ; and is faid to
have meditated a voyage to the coafts of Arabia and

light in the time of Alexander. The Greeks were in
his time the moft powerful people in the world in re-
fpe^ to their (kill in the military art, and the Perfians
were the moft powerful with refped to wealth and
numbers. The only other powerful people in the
world were the Carthaginians, Gauls, and Italian na-
tions. From a long feries of wars which the Cartha^p
ginians carried on in Sicily, it appeared that they
were by no means capable of contending with the
Greeks even when they had an immenfe fuperiority of
numbers ; much lefs then could they have fuftained an
attack from the whole power of Greece and Afia
united. The Gauls and Italians were indeed very
brave, and of a martial difpofition 1 but they were
barbarous, and could not have refifted armies well dif*
ciplined and under the command of fuch a ikilful
leader as Alexander. Even long after his time, it ap-
peared that the Romani themfelves could not have
refifted the Greeks ; 'fince Regulus, after' having de-^
feated the Cathaginians and reduced them to the ut-
moft diftrefs, was totally unable to refift a Carthag^.
nian army commanded by a Greek general, and guided
by Greek difcipline.

Thus it appears, that the fcheme of Alexander ca(>-
not by any means be accounted that of a madman, or
of one who projefb great things without judgment or'
means to execute them. If we confider from- his ac-
tions the end which moft probably he had in view,
could his fcheme have been accompli/hed,. vrt fhall find
it not only the greateft hut the befi that can poifibly
be imagined. He did not conquer to deftroy, enflavc^
or opprefi^i but to civilize, and unite the whole world
as one nation. No fuoner was a province conquered
than he took care of it as if it jiad been part of hia
paternal inheritance. He allowed not his foldiers to*
opprefs and plunder the Perfians, which they were
very much indined to do ; on the contrary, by giving
into the oriental euftoms himfelf, he ftrove to extinguish
that inveterate hatred which had.fo long fubfifted be-

Ethiopia, and thence vouod the whole continent of twren the two nations. In the Scythian countries

Africa to tbe Straits of Gibrahar. But of this there
is ao great certainty $ though that he intended to fub-
due the Cafthagittians and Italians, is more than pro-
bable. All thde defigns^ however, were finiftrated by
his death, which happened at Babyloa i& 325 B. C.

which he fubdued, he purfued the fame excellent phuk.
His courage and ihiHtary fkill, in which he never wa»
excelled, wese difplayed, not with a view to rapine o^
defuhory conqoeft, but to civilise and induce the bar-
bavous *"M^if^n** to employ thmidlves ia amore pn»>

per

MAC { SH } MAC

Macedon. p^f ^^ay of life. *^ Amidft the hardftiips of a milxtaiy tranfmitted through the impure channels ^cn^^ J

life (fays Dr Gillies), obftinate iieges, bloody battles, rated flattery or malignant envy. The isBtsmeniic *

and dear bought vi^ories, he ftill refpe^ted the rights fi6Uonsy which difgrace the wocks of kis bapgrapfcoi,

of mankind, and pnl6Ufed the mild virtues of huma- are contradi6ted by the moft authentic accoaocs of ki

nity. The conquered nations enjoyed their aDcieht reign, and inconfiitent with thofe poblic tran&,Biam

laws and privileges; theri^urs of defpotifm foftened; which concurring auhorities confirm. la the picfiac

arts and induflry encouraged ; and the proudeft Ma- work it feemed unneceflaiy to expatiate on Cuefe a-

cedonian governors compelled, by the authority and pics, iince it is lefs the bunnefs of hiHory to repot «

example of Alexander, to obferve the rules of juftice even to expofe errors than to iiele^ and i mpr e ih sM

towards their meaneft fubje6is. To bridle the fierce truths. An author, ambitious of attaining thm p^

inhabitants of the Scythian plains, he founded cities pofe, can feldom indulge the language of genosl p>.

and eitabltfhcd colonies on the banks of the laxartes negyric» He will acknowledge, that Alennderf x.

and Oxus ; and thofe deftru6live campaigns ufnally tions were not always blameldls ; but, after the s^

afcribed to his reftlefs adivity and 1>lind ambition, careful examination, he wOl afiirm, that his feohs

appeared to the difcemment of tliis extraordinary man 'few in number, and refulted from his fituation

not only eflenttal to the lecurity of the-conquefts 'than from his chara^ber.

which he had already made, but neceffary for the ^^Fronthefirftyearsof his reign he experienced tk

'more remote und fplendid expeditions which he flill crimes of difaffedlion and treachery, which raaiti|^

purpofed to undertake, and which lie performed witk and became more dangerous with the extent dF ^

lingular boldnefs and unexampled fuccefs.*'-— In an- dominions and the difficulty to govern them. Sererrf

*other place the fame author gives his chamber in the of his lieutenants early afpired at independence; otba

'followhig words. formed confpiracies agatnffc the life of their rai^.

^< He was of « low ftature,^and fomewhat deform- The firft criminals were treated with a lenity bto-
-ed ; but the a6lirity aod elevation of his mind ani- ming the generous fpirit of Alexander : But «!et
•mated and ennobled his frame. By a life of continual Philotas, the fon of Parmenio, and even Pansoj
'labour, and by an early and habitual prance of the himfelf, afforded reafon to fufped their fidelity ; «^
'g)'mnallic exercifes, he had hardened his body againft the Macedonian youths, who, according to the idE-
'the impreifions of cold and heat, hunger and thtrft, tution of Philip, guarded the royal pavilion, pieinrd
aftd prepared his robuft conftitution for bearing fuch to murder their fovereign, he found it necellary to (k*
-exertions of ftrength and a6):ivity, as have appeared part from his lenient fyftem, and to hold with afirasr
incredible to the undifciplcned foftnefs of modem times, hand the reins of government. Elated by ancxaapfed
In generofity and in prowefs, he rivalled the greateft profperity, and the fubmiffive reverence of vaaqniikj
heroes of antiquity ; and in the race of glory, naving nations, his loftinefs difguiled the pride of his £*?o>
finally outftripped all competitors, became ambitious pean troops, particularly the Macedonian nobles, t^
to furpafs himfelf. His Superior ikill in war gave un- liad been accuflemed to regard themfelves rather as ^i
•interrupted fuccefs to his arms ; and his natural hu- companions than fubje^s. The pratenfions whjtk
manity, enlightened by the philofophy of Greece, found policy taught him to form and to maimam, d
taught him to improve his conquefls to the beft inte- being treated with thofe external honours ever dada^
rells of mankind. In his exteniive dominions, he built ed by the monarchs of the £aft, highly offended tbf
or founded not lefs than 70 cities ; the fituation of religious prejudices of the Greeks, who deemed ft a-
- which being chofen with conf ultimate wifdom/ tended pious to prc^rate the body or bend the knee to ssj
-to facilitate comnaunication, to promote commerce, mortal fovereign. Yet had he remitted fonnaiftss
and to diffufe civility through the greateft nations of confecrated by the pra6tice of ages, he muib infea£blf
*the earth. It may be fufpcded, indeed, that he mif- have loft the refped of his Afiatic fubje£b. Wit^ 1
took the extent oif human power, when in the courfe view to reconcile the difcordant principles of the tk-
of one reign he undertook to change the fiice of the tors and vanquiflied, he affe6^ed an immediate deuttt
world i and that he mifcalculated the ftubbomnefs of from Jupiter Ammon, a claim liberally admitted hj
ignorance and the force of habit, when he attempted the avarice or fears of the Libyan priefts; and whid,
to enlighten barbarifm, to foften fervitude, and to he had reafon to expert, could not be very obftinatdr
tranfplant the improvements of Greece into an Afri- denied by the credulity of the Greeks and Macedfw
can and Afiatic foil, where they have never been nians, who univerfally acknowledged that Phih'p, his
known to flourifh. Yet let not the defigns of Alex- reputed father, was remotely descended firom theGfe-
ander be too haftily accufed of extravagance. Who- cian Jupiter. But the fuccefs of this defign, vrtaA
ever ferioufly confiders what he adually performed be- might have intitled hiitt, as fon of Jupiter, to the iaxct
fore his 33d year, will be cautious of determining what obeifance from the Greeks which the barbarians ro-
be might have accomplifhed had he reached the ordi- dily paid him as monarch of the £aft, was couater-
nary tcnn of human life. His refources were peculiar afted, at firft by the fccrct difpleafure, and aftennnk
to himfelf ; and fuch views as well a^ afUons became by the open indignation, of feveral of his generals uA
him as would have become none befides. In the Ian- courtiers. Nor did the condu^ of Alexander tend to
guage of a philofophical hiftorian, '* he feems to have extricate him from this difficulty. With his fricndi
•been given to the world by a peculiar difpenfation of he maintained that equal intercourfe of vifits and tt^
Providence^ being a man like to none other of the tertainments which cliara^brifed the Macedonian mas*
human kind.' ners ; indulged the liberal flow of unguarded codttt-

<< From the part which his father Philip and himfelf fation ; and often exceeded that intemperance in wise

zdtd in tlie affairs of Greece, his hiftory has l^ea which difgcaced his age and country.'' «

N^i90- 4 " *' Wc

MAC

C 385 1

M A C

uimt^ yy^ Mi oottclude this chuniAer of Alexander with
^fervmgt that he had in yieWf und undoubtedly muii
have accotnpliihcdy the fovereignty of the ocean as well
us of the land. The violent refinance made by the
Tyriana had ihown him the ftrength of a commercial
nation I and it was undoubtedly with a view to en«
rich hia dominions by commerce, that he equipped the
fleet 00 the Indus, and wi(hcd to keep up a communis
cation with India by land as well as by fea, ** It was
chieHy.with- a view to the latter of thefe obje6ls (fays
X>r Robertfon), that he examined the navigation of
the Indua with fo much attention. With .the fame
view, on his return to Suia, he in perfon furveyed the
courfe of the Eruphrates and Tigris, and gave direc-
tions to remove the catara^s or dams with which the
ancient mooarchs of Perfia, induced by a peculiar pre-
cept of their religion, which enjoined them to guard
with the utmoft care againft defiling any of the ele-
ments, IukI conftruded near the mouths of thefe rivors,
ia order to fhut out their fubje^s from any accefs to
the ocean. By opening the navigation in this man-

jwlth Tatfles indPorus, Thefe two ttdtafl'priUeei,^^^
won by Alexander's humanity and beneficence, which,
as they were virtues feldom difplayed in the ancient
mode of carrying on v^r, excitM of courfe an higher
degree of admiration and gratitude, had continued
ftcady in their attachment to the Macedonians. Re«
inforced by their troops, and guided by their itkfou
mation as well as by the experience which he had ac«
quired in his former campaign?, Alexander muR have
made rapid progrefs in a country where every in*
vader from his time to the prefent age has proved fue-
cefaful.

** But this and all his other fplendid fcheraei were
terminated at once by his untimely death. In con«
fequence of that, however, events took place which
illuftrate and confirm the juftnefs of the preceding fpe*
culations and conjectures by evidence the mofl ilriking
and fatisfaAory. When that g?eat empire, which the •
fuperior genius of Alexander had kept united and in
fubjcAion, no longer fch his fuperintonding control,
it broke into' pieces, and its various provinces were

ner, he propofed, that the valuable commodities of feized by his principal officers, andparceHed out among

India (ho«dd be conveyed irom the Perfian Gulf into
the interior parts of hiS Aiiatic dominions, while by
the Arabian Gulf they fhoold be carried to Alexan-
dria, and diilributed to the reft of the world.

** Grand and extenfive aa theie fchemes were, the
precautions enHj^oyedy and the ammgemcnts made for
carrying them -into execution, were fo various and fo
proper, that Alexander had good reafon to enter-
tain fanguine hopes of their proving fuccefsful. At
the tinK when the mutinous fpirit ex his foldiers obli-

ABA aa a__. ^. _ - — .

them. From ambition, emulation, and perfond ani«
m^ity, they foon turned their arms againft one an-
other ; and as fevbral of the leaders were equally emi-
nent for political abilities and for military ikill, the
conteft was maintained long, and earned on with fre-
quent viciftitudes of fortune. Amidft the various con-
vulfioris and revolutions which thefe occafioned, it
was found that the meafures of Alexander for the pre-
fervation'of his conquefts had been concerted with fucH
fiigacity, that upon the fin&I t eft oration of tranquillity.

ged him to rclinquiih his operations in India,- he wa» the Macedonian dominion continued to be eftabli/hed

Hot 50'years of age complete. At this enterprifing
period of life, a prince of a fpirit fo a^ive, perfeve-
ring, and iode£idgablc, muft have foon found means
to.refume a &vourite meatfure on virhich he had been
long intent. . If he had invaded India a fecond time,
he would not, as formerly, have been obliged to force
his way through hoftile and unexplored regions, op-
poled at every ftep by nations and tribes of bai^ariani^
whofe names had never reached Greece. All Afia,
from the fhorea of the Ionian fea to the banks of the
Hyphaiis, would then have been fubje6fc to his domi-
nion ; and through that immenie ftretch of country he
had eftabliihed fuch a chain of cities or fortified fta^

in every part of Afia, and not one province had (ha-
ken off the yoke. Even India, the moft remote of
Aleiander's conquefts, quietly fubmitted to Pytho the
fon of Agenor, and afterwards to Seleucas, who fuc-
ceffively obtained dominion over that part of Afia.
Poms and Taxiles, notwithftanding the death qf their
benefactor, neither declined fubmiflion to the autho*
rity of the Macedonians nor made any attempt to re-
cover independence.'* '

With the death of Alexander fell alfo the glory of
the Macedonian! | who very foon relapfed into a fitu^ '
ation* as bad, or worfe, than that in which they had j.«
been before the reign of Philip. This was otcafioned CznCtt^t
tionst that his amdes might have continued their march principally by his not having diftia^y named a fuc- the diflbki-
with fafety^ and have found a regular fucc^ion of ma- ceffor, and havihg no child of his own come to the**""®^^
gaaines provided for their fubiiftence. Nor wouldit, years of difcrctioh to whom the kingdom might feem'^"^'"*
have been difBcult for him to bring into the field fcwces naturally to belong. The ambition and jealoufy of
fufficient to have atchieved the conqueft of a country his mother C^ympias, his queen Roxana, and efpeci-
fo popi^ous and vitenfive as India. Hsfving afrmed aBy of the great commanders of his army, not only
-_j j?r_;_i:__j 1-?. r.i^. «^_ • ,t ir» n ... -ir«» prevented a fncCeflbr from being ever named, but 00

cafioned the death of every perfon, whether male of*
female, who was in the leaft related to Alexander.
To have a juft notion of the origin of thefe difturb-
anccs, it is nqceflary in the firft place to uhderftand
the fituation of the Macedonian affairs at the time of
Alexander's death.

When Alexander fet out for Afia, he left Antipater,
as we formerly obferved, in Macedon, to prevent any
difturbances that might arife either there or in Gre^cci
The Greeks, even during the lifetime of Alexander, '
b'ore the fupcriority which he exerctfed over them with
great impatieacc ; and, though nothing could be more

3 C gentle

and difciplined his fubje&s in the Eaft like Eiuopeans,
they would have been ambitious to imitate and to equal
their inftruAons;, and Alexander might have drawn
recruits, not> from his fcanty dontains in Macedonia
and Geeece, but hom the vaft regions of Afia, which
in every age has ccwered the eartl^ and aftonifhed man-
kind with its numeiotts armies. When at the head
of fuch a formidable power he had reached the con-
fines of India, he might have entered it under ciroum-
ftancea very diflferent from thofe in bis firft expedition.
He had ietured « firm fbeting- there, partly by means
©f the garnfons which he left in the diree cities which
he had built and fiartifiedt «ad partlr by his alii«ace
VewJLPartL

MAG

M^cednii.

r 386 1

MAC

gentle thtn the government of Antipater» yet he wai
exceedingly hated, becaufe he obliged them to be
quiet. One of the hSi adions of Alexander's life fet
all Greece in a flame. He had, by an edid, direded
all the cities of Greece to recal their exiles; which
tdid, when it was publifhed at the Olympic games,
created much confufion. Many of the cities were
afraid, that, when the exiles returned, they would
change the government ; moft of them doubted their
own fafety if the edid took place ; and aU of them
held this peremptory decree to be a total abolition of

not aflift the royal f«nkQy who were in Afia $ sad So- Ike
mene9 had not as yet fufficient intereft to ibrm a pwtj'"^!
in their favour. In a Ihort time, howerer, Pcniccaiy/' "
prevailed againfl Meleager, and got him BiixrdeTcd;«^'T^
by which means the fupreme power for a time fefi ia-jc^
to his hands. Jiis fim ftep, in confcqucace of thn?^^
power, was to diftribute the provinces of tlie cmpct*^
among the commanders in the foUowing^ mamierf ii
order to prevent competitors, and to fatisfy tike ambi.
tion of the principal commanders of the army. An-
dseus, and the ion of Roxana, bom after the death of

their liberty. No fooner therefore did the news of his £iither, were to enjoy the regal authority. Ami-

Alexander's death arrive than they prepared for

war.

«5

Afidxus

appointed
kmg.

In Afia the ftate of things was not much better }
not indeed through any inclination of the conquered
countries to revolt, but through the diffeniions among
the commanders.^In the general council which was
called food alter the death of Alexander, after much
confuiion and altercation, it was at lail agreed, or
rather commanded by the foldiers, that Aridaeus the
brother of Alexander, who had always accoihpanied
the king, and had been wont to facrifice with him,
ihould afTume the fovereignty. — ^This Aridaeus was a
man of very (lender parts and judgment, not naturally.

pater had the government of the European pn>viBce«.
Craterus had the title of froieSon Perdiccas was ge-
neral of the houfehold troops in the room of Hcphz-
iUon. Ptolemy the fon of Lagus had Hgypt, Ubj?,
and that part of Arabia which borders upon £gTpc.
Cleomenes, a man of infamous charader, vrhom Alex*
ander had made receiver-general in £gypt, was made
Ptolemy's deputy. Leomedon had Syria ; PbOotas,
Cilicia ; Pithon, Media ; Eumenes, Cappadocia, P»-
phlagonia, and all the country bordering on the £uxii:e
Sea, as far as Trapezus ; but thefe were oot yet cue-
quered, fo that he was a governor without a pxtnricce.
Antigonus had Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia ^ia-

but by the wicked pradiccs of Olympias, who had jor ; CalTander, Caria ; Menander, Lydia; JLeonatos,
given him poifonous draughts in his infancy, left he Phrygia on the Hellefpont.

A party
formed
by Melea-
ger, and
uiorber by
l*erdiccu.

ihould flaad in the way ofher fon Alexander or any
of his family ; and for this, or fome other reafon. Per-
diccas, Ptolemy, and moft of the horfe-bfficers, refent-
'ed his promotion to fuch a degree, that they quitted
the aftembly, and even the city. However, Meleager,
at the he£id of the phalanx, vigorouily fupported their
firft refolution, and threatened loudly to fhed the blood
of thofe who affeded to rule over their equals, and to
afTume a kingdom which no way belonged to them.
Aridasus was accordingly arrayed in royal robes, had
the arms of Alexander put upon him, and was faluted
by the name of Philip^ to render him more popular.
Thus were two parties formed, at the head of whom
were Meleager and Perdiccas ; both of them pretend-
ing vaft concern for the public good, yet, at bottom,
do^ring nothing more than their own advantage.
Perdioca» was a man of high birth, had had a fupreme
command in the army, was much in £ivour with Alex-
ander, and one in whom the nobility had put great
confidence. Meleager was become formidable by ha-
ving the phalanx on his fide, and having the nominal
king entirely in his power : for Aridxus, or Philip,
was obliged to comply with whatever he thought pro-
per; and publicly declared, that whatever he did was
by the advice of Meleager ; fo that he made his raini-

In the mean time, not only Alexander's wiD, bat »^
Alexander himfelf, was fo'much negle^ed, that faiths i"
body was allowed to remain feven days before aay^-f-
;iotice was taken of it, or any orders given for its bt-^A/
ing enbalmed. The only will he left was a ihoit '^
memonindum of ^x things he would have done.—
I. The building of a fleet of 1000 ftout galleys^ to be
made ufe of againft the Carthaginians and other na-
tions who fliould oppofe the redudion of the ica-
coafts of Africa and Spain, with all the adjaceat
iflands as far as Sicily, a. A large and reguhu- higli-
way was to be made along the coaft of ASiicM^ as far
as Ceuta and Tangier. 3. Six temples of extraoitii-
nary magnificence were to be ereded at the expencr
of X500 talents each. 4. Caftles, arfenals, havens
and yards for building ftiips, to be fetded in proper
places throughout his empire. 5. Several new cities
were to be built in Europe and Afia j thofe in Aiia
to be inhabited by colonies from Europe, and thodie in
Europe to be filled with Afiatics ; that, by blendii^
their people and their manners, that hereditary anti-
pathy might be eradicated which had hitherto fobfift-
ed between the inhabitants of the different continents.

6k Laftly, he had projeded the building q£ a pyra*
mid, equal in bulk and beauty to the higgcft in £•

ft'er accountable for his own fchemes, and no way en- gypt, in honour of his ^ther Philip. All thefb de-

dangered himfel£ The Macedonians jalfb, beifidet figns, under pretence of their being expenfiTe, were

tiielr regard for the deceafed kine,, foon began to en* referred to a council of Macedonians^ to be held n<K

teruin a peripnal love, for Phihp on. account of his. body knew when or where.

moderation. The government, . being now in^tbe hands of Per-

It. is remarkable,, however,- that notwithftandihg all' diccas and Roxana,. grew quickly very cruel and di£-

die favours which Alexander had conferred upon his tafteful*. Alexander was fcarce dead when the queen ^

officers^ and the fidelity with which they had ferved fent for Statira and Drypetis, the. two daughtcxs ofrb^

him during his life, only two of them were attached ta Darius, one of whom had been mamed ta Alcumdcr^en -''

the interefts, of his family after his death. Thefe were and the other to Hephaeftion ;. bat as foon astthey^TJ^

Antipater and. Eumenes the Cardian,. whom he had arrived at Babylon, caufed them both to be murdered,^

appointed his-decretary. Antipater, as we have al- that no fon of Alexander by any other woman, or of

aeadyfecn, was embroiled with the Greeks, andjcould: Hephaeftion, ought give any trouble to bet or her fan

MAC C 387 3 MAC

kHk Alesander. Syiigiimbisy the mother of Darias, no diately after marriage, and many jCIeopatm. By thit Mawdoa.^

"•^ foooer heard that Alexander the Great was dead, than U& marriage, he hoped to have a pretence for altering '

ihe bid violent hands on herfdf, being apprehenfive the government of Macedon ; and, ar'a neceflaxv mea<i

> of the calamities which were about to enfue. fure preparative to thefe, he entered into contrivances

^*^ War wais firft declared in GKece againft Antipater for deftroying Antigonus. Unfortanately for him-

^** in the year 321 B. C. Through the treachery of felf, however, he ruined all his fchemes by his own

the Theflalians, that general was defeated, with the jealoufy and precipitate crudity. Cynane, the daughter

army he had under his own command. Leonatus of Philip by his fecoad wife, had brought her daughter

was therefore fent from Afia, with a very confiderable named j^Jdof and who was afterwards nzmed EuryJtce^

army, to his aififtance ; but both were overthrown to court, in hopes that king Aridacus might marry

with great lofs by the confederates, and Leonatus him- her. Againft Cynane, Permccas, on fome political

felf was killed. Iii a ihort time, however, Craterus motives, conceived fuch a grudge, that he caufed her

arrived in Greece with a great army, the comniand of to be murdered. This raifed a commotion in the

which he refigned to Antipater. The army of the army ; which frightened Perdiccas to fuch a degree,,

confederates amounted to 25,000 foot and 3000 that he now promoted the match between Aridseua

horfe; but Antipater commanded no fewer than and Eurydice ; to prevent which, he had murdered

40,000 foot, 3000 archers, and 5000 horfe. In fuch the mother of the young princefs. But, in the mean

an unequal conteft, therefore, the Greeks wiere de- time, Antigonus, knowing the deiigns of Perdiccas

feated, and forced to fue for peace ; which they did againft himlelf, fled with his fon Demetrius to Greece,

not obtain but on condition of their receiving Macedo- there to take ihelter under the protedion of Antipater

nian garrifons into feveral of their cities. At Athens and Craterus, whom he informed of the ambition and

alfo the democratic government was abrogated ; and cruelty^ of the regent. ja^

fuch a dreadful punifhment did this feem to the Athe- A civil war was now kindled. Antipater, Craterus, A comM-

nians, that 22,0^0 of them left their country, and re- Neoptolemus, and Antigonus, jvere combined againft "^J«'J"*-

tired into Macedon. Perdiccas ; and it was the misfortune of the empire in 8**^** *****

While thefe things were doing in Greece, difturb- general, that Eumenes, tl>e moft able general, as

ances began alfo to arife in Afia and in Thrace. The weU as the moft virtuous of all the commanders, was

an"
kfia
race

Greek mercenaries, who were difperfed through the on the fide of Perdiccas, becaufe he believed him to

t, defpairing of ever bemg al- be'in the intercft of Alexander'^ feunily. Ptolemy, ifi

inland provinces of Afia, . „

lowed to return home by fair means, determined to .the mean time, remained in quiet pofleiiion of Egypt j

attempt it by force. For this purpofe, they aflembled but without the leaft intention of owning any perfon

to the number of 20,000 foot and 3000 horfe } but for his fuperior : however, he alfo acceded to the 1

were all cut off to a man by the Macedonians. In league formed againft Perdiccas; and thus the only

Thrace, Lyfimachus was attacked by one Seuthes, a perfon in the whole empire who confulted the intereft

prince of that country who-daimed the dominions of of the royal family was Eumenes. 114

his anceftors, and had raifed an army of 20,000 foot It was now thought proper to bury the body of ^K"*?!^*

and 8000 horfe. But though the Macedonian com- Alexander, which had been kept for two years, during g"''**

mander was forced to engage this army with no more all which time preparations had been making for it,

than 4000 foot and 2coo horfe, yet he kept the field Andacus, to whofe care it was committed, fet out

of battle, and could not be driven -out of the country, from Babylon for Damafcus, in order to carry the

Perdicca8,an the mean time, by pretending friendHiip king's body^ to Egypt. This was fore againft the

to the royal family, had gained over Eumenes entirely ^^ of Perdiccas \ for it feems there was a fuperili-

on to his intereft ; and at laft put him in poifeffion of the tious report, that wherever the body of Alexander

'*^' province of Cappadocia by the defeat of Ariarathes was laid, that country (hould flourifh moft. Perdiccas,

king of that country, whom he afterwards cruelly therefore, out of regard to his native foil, would have

caufed to be crucified. His ambition, however, now it conveyed to the royal fepulchres in Macedon ; but

began to lead him into difticulties. At the firft divi* Aridaeus, pleading the late king's exprefs diredion,

fion of the provinces, Perdiccas, to ftrengthen his own was determined to carry it into Egypt, from thenoe

authority, liad propofed to marry Nicaea the daughter to be conveyed to the temple of Jupiter Ammon.

of Antipater ; and fo well was this propofal relifhed, — ^The funeral was accordingly condu6ied with all

that her brethren JoUas and Archias conduced her imaginable magnificence. Ptolemy came to meet

to him, in order to be prefent at the celebration the body as far as Syria : but, inftead of burying

of the nuptials* But Perdiccas now had other things it in the temple of Jupiter Ammon, ere<^ed a ftately

in view. He had been folicited by Olympias to marry temple for it in the city of Alexandria ; and, by

her daughter Cleopatra, the widow of Alexander king the refped he fhowed for his dead mafter, induced

of Epirus, and who then refided at Sardis in X.ydia. many of the Macedonian veterans to join him, and

Eumenes promoted this match to the utmoft of his who were afterwards of the greateft fervice to him. 225

power, becaufe he thought it would be for the in- No fooner was the funeral over, than both the Perdiccas

tereft of the royal famUy ; and his perfuafions had . parties above mentioned fell to blows. Perdiccas ^^^^ ^

fuch an e£Re£t on Perdiccas, that he was fent to Sardis marched againft Ptolemy 4 but was flain by his own ^^^ ^^^

to compliment Cleopatra, and to carry prefents to her men, who, after the death of their genend, fubmitted

in name of her new lover. In the abfence of Eu- to his antagonift ; and thus Eumenes was left idone to

menes, however, Alcetas, the brother of Perdiccas^ contend againft all tl^e other generals who had ferved

perfuaded him to 'marry Nioeea; but, in order to under Alexander. In this conteft, however, he would

jpatifj ins ambition, he xefolved to divorce her imme* by no means have been overmatched, had his foldiers

J Ci bcca

men.

MAC C

to bin I but MM Atf had been

Mmm0Q« omi iCIadiM

"^ ' cuftomed to fcrve under thofc ▼ay gencnlsAgaiiift
whom thqr were now to fight, they were on ■& occa-
(ens ready to betray and defert Evmcnct. Howerer,
he defeated and killed Neoptolcmut and CrateniSy
l^ut then fonnd himfelf obliged to contend with AntU
, pater and Antigonus. Antipater was now appointed

E)te6ior of the kingt» with Ibverdgn power ; and
menet was declared a pubHc enemy. A new diTifion
A Dcwdi- of Alexander's empire took place. 'Egypt, Libya,

Tifion of and the parts adjacent, were given to Ptolemy becaufe
the emiiiie jj^^.^ ^^^j^j ^^^ ^^ ^^j^^ £^^ j^l^^ g^^^ ^^^ ^^^^

firmed to Leomedon. Philoxenus had Cilicia. Me-
(opotamia and Arbelitrs were given to Amphtmachus.
Babylon was beftowed on Strlcuctis. Sufiana fell to
Antigcnes, who commanded the Macedonian jlrgyra*

388 ] MAC

nd afiplacd for afiftaiice ^ CaflBuiden PotyTpoika Ihi
aUb bad the tnpntdenoe to recal Olymptaa maiEA-
mt^ and allow her a (hare in the admintfbwtioo ; v!udt
Antipater, aid even Akxinder hisnCdfy had ahmi
icfiiied her. The confequencc of all tbia was, tb:
Cafiander invaded Greece, where he prevailed agiisi
Folyfperchon : Olympms returned to Maccdon, wisoe
file cruelly murdered Aridcus and hia wife EurydiGe;
file herfelf was put to death by Cafiander, who afber-
wards caufed Roaana and her ion to be muxdered, asi
Folyfperchon being driven into Etolia, firft raiicd to
the crown Hercules the fon of Alexander by tbe
dai^hter of Darius, and then by the infiigation of Cii-
iander murdered him, by which means the line of Akx-
ander the Great became totally extin^

Caihinder having thus deftroyed all the royal fanxr, Vj

Jpid£ or Silver Sbieldi^ becaufe he was' the iirft who aifumed the regal title, as he had for 16 yean bdore^

oppofed Perdiccas. Peueeftas held Perfia. Tlepole- had all the power. He enjoyed the titkf of ^ «?;

mus had Caramania. Pithon had Media as hx as the Macedon only three years ; after which he died, abjLt

Cafpian (Iraits. Stafandcr had Aria and Drangia. , 298 B. C. By TheiFalonica, the daughter of Philip

Philip, Parthia. Stafonor, Ba6tria and Sogdia. Sy- king of Macedon, he left three fons^ Philip, Asttpo-

birtius, Aracopa. Oxyartes, the fether of Roxana,
Parapomifis. Another Pithon had the country be-
tween this province and India. Porus and Tallies
held what Alexander had given them, becaufe they
would not part with any of their dominions. Cappa-
docia was aiiigned to Nicanor. Phrygta Major, Ly-

ter, and 'Alexander. Philip fucceeded him, but io«
after died of a confumption. A conteft immediatclf
began between the two brothers, Antipater and Aki*
ander. Antipater feised the kingdom ; and to lie-
care himfelf in it, murdered his mother Tlie&i>-
nica, if not with his own hand, at leaft«the exeoable

caonia, Pamphylia, and Lycia, were given to Antigo* fad was committed in his prefencc. Alexander i>*
nus. Cari^to CafTander, Lydia to Clytus, Phrygia the vited Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and Demetrius the Cat
Lefs to Arida:us. CafFander was appointed general of of Antigonns, to aflift him and revenge the death d

the horfc ; while the command of the houfehold troop»
was given to Antigonus, with orders to profecute the
war againft Eumenes.— Antipater having thus fettled
every thing as well as he could, returned to Macedon
with the two kings, to the great joy of his country-
men, having left bis fon Caifander to be a check upon
Antigonus in Alia. ,

. Matters now feemcd to wear a better afpeA than
they had yet done ; and, had Eumenes believed that
his enemies really confulted the intereft of Alexander's
-fcmily, there is not the leaft doubt that the war
would hafve been immediately termjnated. He faw,
however, that the deiign of Antigonus was only to
fct up for himfelf, and therefore he refiifed to fubmit.
From this time, therefore, the Macedonian empire

his mother. But Pyrrhus being bought off, and •
peace concluded between the brothers, Alexander, be-
ing afraid of having too many protedors, formed s
fcheme of getting Demetrius afiaffioated. Inftcad of
this, however, botn he and Antipater were put to death;
and Demetrius became king of Maoedoa four yen
after the death of Ca£is«der.

In 287 B. C. Demetrius was driven out by Pynhair
who was again driven out by Lyfimachut two yecs
after, who waa (oon after kitted by Scleoca Nlcator;
and Seleucus, in his turn, was murdered by Ptolemy Ce»
ranus, who became king of Macedon about 2^0 B. C.
The new king was in a ihort time cut off, with his
whole army, by the Gauls ; and Ajitigonot Gooata^
the fon of Demetriua Poliorcetes, became kin? of Ma-

ceafed in Afia ; and an account of the tranfadtons of cedon in 278 B. C. He proved fuccrfsful

Akian-
der*t £i.
jnilf.

^is part of the wprld fall to be recorded under the
article SvaiA. The Macedonian affairs are now en-
tirely confined to the kingdom of Macedon itielf, and
y^ to Greece.

Tots] de- Antijpater had not long been returned to Macedoar^.

*»;^^'o«» of when he died ; and ^^ laft aAion of his life completed
the ruin of Alexander's fieunily. Out of a view to the
public good, he had appointed Polyfperchon, the eldeft
of Alexander's captains at hand, to be proteSor and
governor of Macedon. This failed not to difguft hia
fon Caifander r yho thought he had a natural right to
thefe offices, and o( courfe kindled a new civiT war in

Macedon. This was indeed highly promoted by hia tigoaiis was rcftorcd to his kingdonit which he govcra-
firft anions as a governor. He began with attempt*- ed for many yeasa in peace, dj a ftiatagem he nude
ing to remove all the governors appointed in Greece himOelf maftcr of the city of Coaathf aad firam due
^y Antipater, and to reilore democracy wherever it time began to form fchemeafiar the thorough cooqueft
h^ been aboh'ihed. The immediate confequence of of Greece. The method he took to aocomphih thia
this was, that the people refufed to obey their magi- was, to fupport the petty tyrants of Gieeoc agaiiJk
ftraut ; the govemoz9 zefufed to icfign tbnv phice^ the &ee kiaaki which iadccd wcakcntdthe power of

^ the

the
Gauls, but was driven out by Pyrrhus king of Epim;
who, however, foon difobliged his fobjeds to foch a
degree, that Antigonus recovered a great part of his
kingdom. But in a littHe dme, Pynhus betn^ kiHed
at the fiega of Argea in Greece, Antigoaas waa refto-
red to the whole of Macedon ; but Icarcely was he
feated on the throne, vi^en he was driven finom it by
Alexander the fon of Pynhus. This new invader was,
in his turn, expelled by Demetrius the (ba of Astigo-
nus ; who, though at that time but a hoy* had ahncib
amde himiclf matter of Epims. In thia eiitcrpnie«>
lum'erer, he was difappoinud ; but by hia means A»-

MAG

MAC

[ 3«9 3

^eedon. Hkt latter ; but nrrolved the whote cotrntrj in fe mtny Ij lung took refuge in the ifland of Simothniee; but Mi<c4b-

calamitietf thtt thefc tranfaftioni couH not redouna was at laft obliged to furrender to the Roman conful, '^^

much to the reputation either, of his arms or his ho* by whom he was carried to Rome> led in triumph^ and MachlenMv'

nonr. About 243 B. C. he died, leaving the king- aftenxrards moft barbaroudy ufed. Some pretenders

ia9

dom to his fon, Demetrius II.

Neither Demetrius, nor his fucceifor A ntigonus Do-
fon, performed any thine remarkable. In 221 B, C.
tho^kingdom fell to Philtp, the lail butoneof the Ma*
eedonian monarch s. To him Hannibal applied for
af&flance after the battle of Cannae, which he refufed ;
dnd the fame imfhiidence which made him refufe this
.affiftance prompted him to embroil himfelf with the
Romans ; and at lail to conclude a treaty with them, by
which he in effcft became their fubje^, being tied up
from making peace or war but according to their plea-
fure. In 1 79 B. C. he 'was fucceeded by his cldeft fon
Perfca, under whom the war with the Romans was re-
newed. Even yet the Macedonians were terrible in
war; and their phalanx, when properly conducted, feems

to the throne appeared afterwards; but being unable t$o,
to defend themf elves againft the Romans, the country Macedonia.
was reduced to a Roman province in 148 B. C. To^***^**™^' *
them it continued fubjedl till the year 1357, when itpro^^^,
was reduced by the Turkifti fultan Bajazet, and hath
remained in the hands of the Turks ever (ince.

MACEDONIANS, in ecclefiaftical hillory, the
followers of Macedenius, bifhop of Conftantinople^
who, through the influence of the Eunomians, waa
depofed by the council of Conftantinople in 360, and
fent into exile. He confidered the Holy Ghoil as a .
divine energy diffufed throughout the univerfe, and
not as a perfon diflindl from the Father and the Son.
The fe6l of Macedonians was cruflied before it had ar^--
rived at its full maturity, by the council affembled by

to have been abfolutely invincible by any method of Theodoiius in 381, at Conftantinople. See Semi*
making war known at that time. It conflHed of arians.

i6,oco men, of whom looo marched abreall, and thus
was 1 6 men deep, each of whom carried a kind of
pike 23 feet long. The foldiers ftood fo clofe, that
the pikes of the fifth rank reached their points beyond
the front of the battle. The hindermoft ranks leaned
their pikes on the fhoulders.of tkofe who went before
them, and, locking them fail, preffed.brifkly agaihfl
them when they made the charge ; fo that the fim five
ranks had the impetus of the whole phalanx, which
was the xeafon why the (hock was generally itrefiftible.
The Romans had never encountered fuch a terrible
enemy ; and in the firft battle, which happened 171
B. C. they were defeased with the lofs of 2200 men,
while the Macedonians lofl no more than 60. The ge-
nerals of Perfes npw preffed him to florm the enemy's
camp ; but he being naturally of a cowardly difpofi-
tion refufed to comply, and thus the befl opportunity
he ever had was \o&. Still, however, the Romans gain-
ed little or no advantage, till the year 168 B. C. when
Paulus JEmilius, a moft experienced commander^ was
fcnt into Macedon. Perfes now put all upon the iffue of .to foften them or draw out their virtues.

MACEDONIUS. See Macedonians.

MACER (Emilius), an ancient Latin poet, wha
bom at Verona» and flourifhed under Auguftus Cae-
far. Eufebius relates, that he died a few years after
Virgil. Ovid fpcaks of a poem of his, on the nature
and quality of birds, ferpents, and herbs ; which he
fays Macer being then very old had often read to him:

Sm^fuas vciutrtt legit mibi trrcmJiof dvo,

S^u^qui npitt ferptmtf qui jwyat leriuy Macer,

De Potti9fiih. iv. tle^, 10.

There is extant a poem upon the nature and power
of herbs under Macer's name ; but it is fpurious. He*
alfo wrote a fupplement to Homer, as Qaintus Cala-
ber did afterwards in Greek :

Tu eanh Mtermu qmicqvid refiaimi Homen i
Nt careemt fwmwta TrMcit helU tmaum*

De PintCf liL ii. e!eg» 10.

MACERATION, is an infufion of, or foaking in-
gredients in water or any other fluid,, in order either

a general engageifient ; and Emilius, with aU his cou-
rage and military experience, would have been defeat-
ed, had the Macedonians been commanded by a gene-
ral of the fmalleft courage or conduft; The light
armed Macedonians charged with fuch vigour, that
after the battle, fome of their bodies were found with-
ia two furlongs of the Roman camp. When the pha-
lanx came to charge, the points of their /pears ftriking
iato the Roman fliields, kept the heavy armed troops
from making any motion ; while, on the other hand,
Perfes's light-armed men did terrible execution. On
this occafion, it is faid, that Emilius tore his clothes,
and gave up all hope& However, perceiving that as
the phalanx gained ground it loft its order in feveral
places, he caufed his own ltght*armed troops to charge
. in thofe . places, whereby the Macedonians were foon
put into confufion. If Perfes with his horfe had on
tke firft appearance of this charged the Romans briik-
ly, his infantry would have been able to recover them-
felves ; but inftead of this, he betook himfelf to flight,
and the infantry at laft did the fame, but not till
20,000 of them had loft thetr 'lives.
' This battle decided the fate of Macedonia, which
immediately fubmltted to the^ conqueror. The coward*

MACERATA, a handfome and populous town
of Italy, in the territory of the church, and in the
Marche of Ancona, with a biffaop*s fee, and an uni-
verfity. It is feated near the mountain Chiento, ui.
E. Long. 15. 57. Nt Lat. 43. 15.

MACHAON, a celebrated phyfician among the
ancients, fon of iBfciilapius and brother to Podalirus.
He went to the Trojan war with the inhabitants of'
Trica, Ithome, and OEchalia. According to fome, he-
was king of MefTenia. He was phyfician to the
Greeks, and healed the wounds which they received
during the Tiojan war. Some fuppofe he was killed
before Troy by Eurypylus the fon of Telcphus, He
received divine honours after death, and had a temple
in MefTenia.

MACH-ffilRUS (anc.geog.),. a citadel on the other
fide Jordan, near the mountains of Moab, not far
from and to the north of the Lacw Afphalt'ttei, It
was the fouth boundary of the Pcnea : fituated on a
mountain encompaffed round with deep and broad
▼alleys ; buHt by Alexander king of the Jews, de-
ftroyed by Gabinius in the war with Ariftobulus, and
rebuilt by Herod with a cognominal town round it..
Here John the Baptift waa beheaded ( Jofephus).

MAC

t 390 3

MAG

•II
%Iscbifies.

-MACHIANy one of the Molueoa iflands, in the
Eaft Indian Oceant about to miles in circumference^
and the moil fertile of them all. It likewife produces
the beft doves; and is in pofleffion of the Dutch, who
have three ftrong forts built on it.

MACHIAVEL (Nich<^s), a famous j^litical
-writer of the i6th century, was bom of a dimnguifh-
-ed family at Florence.^ He wrote in his native Ian-
:guage with great elegance and polttenefs, though he
'.underftood very little of the Latin tongue ; but he was
in the fervi(:e of MarceUus Virgilius, a learned maut

MBCHAKicsandHiTDaosTATicsi alio the aftideiA-M>^

GRICULTUREtCANNONyCEMTRfFUOALyFl&EySTSaHi '

Furnace, Burroughs, Ramsden, Sec. &c* ^

Machines ufed in war amongfi; the Greeks, werci^iy..!
principally thefe: i.- K,kifta%ac^ or fcaltng ladden; |
2. The battering ram 1 3* The beiepoBt; 4. The x^^«>«
or tortoife, called by Uie Romans teftmh i $• The 5C"/<*
or agger ^ which was faced with ilone, and raifcd higher
than the wall ; 6. Upon the x^f^ were built -^^ty^ cr
towers of wood ; 7. ^<^f«<, or oiier hurdles ; B. Cai^
puli^i or K«7aTix7«i, from which they threw arrows with
who pointed out to him many ofthc beautiful pailages amazing force ; and, 9. The m3-oC»x©i, vir^Cox^/, or *?«•'•
in the ancients, which Machiavel had the art of pla- ^"»» from which ftones were caft with gpreat vck>-
• cing properly in his works. He compofed a comedy city.

upon the ancient Greek model; in which he turned The principal warlike machines made ufe of bf
•into ridicule many of the Florentine ladies, and which the Romans were, the ram, the h^ or wolf, the
was fo well received, that Pope Leo X. caufed it to be tefiudo or tortoife, the boRfta^ the catap^dutt and the
a6led at Rome. Machiavel was fecretary, and after- /corpUm,

wards, hiiloriographcr, to the republic of Florence. MACHINERY, in epic and dramatic poetry, 11
The houie of Medicis procured him this lail office, whenthcpoetintroducestheufcof machines for brings
'together with a handforae falary, in order to pacify fome fupernatural beiiig upon the fbgCt in order to
bis refcntment for having fuffei'cd the torture upon folve fome difficulty or to perform fome exploit out
(ufpicion of being an accomplice in the confpiracy of of the reach of human power.

the Soderiui againil that houfc, when Machiavel bore ^ The ancient dramatic poeU never made ufe of
kis fufferings without making any confeffion. The machines, unlefs where there was an abfolute neocffitf
great encomiums he beflowed upon Brutus and Caf- for fo doing: whence the precept of Horace ;
fius, both in his converfations and writings, made him Net Deui imterfit^ mifi Hgmmt vituike a^Au

flrongly fufpe6led of being concerned in another con- ImdJerit.

fpiracy againit cardinal Julian de Medicis, who waa It is quite otherwife with epic poets, who introdoce
aifterwards pope under the name of Cknuni VIL How- machines in every pait'of their poems; fo that nothing
ever, they carried on no proceedings againft him ; . but is done without the ^tervention of the gods. In Mil-
from that time he turned every thing into ridicule, and ton's Paradife Loil, by far the greater part bf the adon
gave himfelf up to irreligion. He died in 1530, of a, are fupernatural perfonages : Homer and Virgil do no-
remedy which he had taken by way of prevention. — Of thing without them; and, in Voltaire's Henriade» the
sin his writings, that which has made the moil noife, . poet has made excellent ufe of St Louts,
and has drawn upon him the inoft enemies, is a poli- As to the manner in which thefe machines fhould
tical treatife entitled the Prince t which has been tranf- a6l, it is.fometimes invifibly, by iimple inspirations and
'lated into feveral languages, and wrote againfl by many fuggeflions; fometimes by adually appearing under
authors. The world is not agreed as to the motives fome human form \ and, laiUy, by means of dreams
of this work; fome thinking, he meant 'to recommend and oracles, which partake of the other two. How-
tyrannical maxims ; others, that he only delineated ever, all thefe ihould be managed in fuch a manner sj
them to excite abhorrence. Machiavel alfo wrote. Re- to keep within the bounds of probability.
fle6tions on Titus Li vius, which are extremely curious; . MACHUL, an inilrument of mufic among the^
The Hiilory of Florence, from the year 1 205 to 1494; Hebrews. KLxher apprehends that the name was ^^^''™
and a quarto volume of Poems and other pieces. Mr given to two kinds of inlbruments, one of the ftringed
Harrington coniiders him as a fuperior genius, and as and the other of the pulfatile kind. That of the
the moil excellent writer on politics and government former fort had fix chords : though there is great rea-
that ever appeared. - ' . fon to doubt whether an inibrument requiring the rid

MACHINE, (Machina)f in the general, fignifie.s of the hair-bow, and fo much refembling the vioUn,
any thing that fervcs to augment, or to regulate mo- be fo ancient. The fecond kind was of a circular form,
ving powers : Or it is any body deibined to produce made of metal, and either hung round with little bells,
motion, fo as to fave either time or force. The word or furniihed with iron rings fufpended on a rod or bar
comes from the Greek f^^x*^"* ** machine, invention, that paifed acrofs the circle. Kircher fuppofes that
art :" And hence, in llridnefs, a machine is fomething it was moved to and fro by a handle fixed to it, and
that coniiils more in art and invention, than in the thus emitted a melancholy kind of murmur,
ftrength and folidity of the naaterials ; for which rea- MACHYNLETH, a town of Montgomeryihire
fon it is that the inventors of machines are called inge" in North Wales, i^S miles from London, and 32 firom
mieun or engineers, Montgomery. It is an ancient town ; and has a

Machines are either fimple or compound. The iimple market on Mondays, and fairs on May 16, June 26,
ones are the feven mechanical powers, viz. lever, bal-' July 9, September 1 8, and November 25, for iheqH
iance, pully, axis and wheel, wedge, fcrew, and in- homed cattle, and horfes. It is feated on the river
jglined plane. See Mechanics. Douay, over which there is a large flone bridge, which

From thefe the compound ones are formed by various leads into Merionethihire. It was here that Owat
tfomb io a tionii and ferve for different puxpoies. Sec Glyndwr exercifod the firft ai&s of his royalty in 1403.

Hot

MAC E 3gi ] MAC

tckensie, Here he aeeepted the crown of Wale«, and aflembled MACKEY (John,) an Englifliman, employed hj Wackfy,
ackcrci. ^ parliament j and the houfe wherein they met is now the government as a fpy upon James II. after the rc» Madaqrin^
^ Handing, divided into tenements. ^ volution, was author of Memoirs of James's court at ' ' -
MACKENZIE^ (Sir George), an able lawyer, St Germaine, and of the court of England in the
a polite fcholar, and -a celebrated wit, was bom at reigns of William III. and queen Anne ; in which are
Dundee in the county of Angus in Scotland in 1636, many curious anecdotes not to be met with in any ot'
and ftudied at the univerfities of Aberdeen and St An- ther work. He died in 172(5.
drcw's ; after which he applied himfelf to the civil law, MACLAURIN (Colin), a moft eminent mathema-
travelled into France, and profecuted his ftudy in that tician and philolbpher, was the fon of a clergyman, and-
faculty for about three years. At his return to his bom at Kilmoddan in Scotland in i698. He was fent
native country, he' became an advocate in the city of to the univerfity of Glafgow in 1709L; where he con-
Edinburgh ; and foon gained the charader of an emi* tinned five years, and applied himfelf to ftudy in a
net pleader. He did not, however, fuffer his abili- moft intenfe manner. His great genius for mathema-
ties to be confined entirely to that province. He had tical learning difcovered itfelf fo early as at twelve*
a good taile for polite literatiure ; and he gave the pu« years of age ; When, having. accident aUy met with an
blic, from time to time, inconteftable proofs of an un« Euclid in a friend's chamber^, he became in a few dkyr-
common proficiency therein. He hadpra6iifed but a mailer of the firib fix books- without any affiftance r-
few y«ar8, when he was promoted to the office of a and it is certain, that in his i6th year he had invent*
judge in the criminal court $ and, in 1674, ^^^ made ed many of the propofitions which were afterwards'
king's advocate, and one of the lords of the privy coun- publifhed under the title oF Geometria organlca, , In-
cil in Scotland. He waa alfo knighted by ms majefty, his 15th year he* took the degree of mafterof arts ; oR'
In thefe (lacions he met with a great deal of trouble, which occafion he compofed and pUbKcly defended a^
•n account of the rebellions which happened in hia thefis On the power of Gravity, with great applaufe. .
time ; and his office oC advocate requiring him to a6i After this he quitted^ the univerfity, and retired to af
with fevjerity, he did not efcape being cenfured, as if country-feat of his uncle, who had the' care of his e*'
in the. deaths of fome particular perfons who were ducat ion ; for his parents had been dead fome time.'
executed he had ilretched the laws too fan But there Here he fpent two* or three years in purfuing his fa«
does not feem to have been any juil foundation for this Tourite fludies ; but,, in 1 7 1 7, he ofFbred' himfelf «
clamour againft him ; and it is generally agreed, diat candidate for the profeflbHhipr-of mathematies in ther
he acquitted himfelf like an able and upright magi* Marifchal college of Aberdeen, and ob.t^ined it after
flrate. Upon the abrogation* of the penal laws by a ten days trial with S'^ery able competitor* In 17199
king James II. our advocate, though he had always he went to London, where he became acquainted with*
been remarkable for his loyalty, and even cenfured for Dr Hoadly then bifhop of' Bangor, Dr Clarke, Sir
his zeal againft traitors and mnatics, thought himfelf Ifaac Newton, and other eminent men ; at which time
obliged to refign his poft ; being convinced, that he alfo he was admitted a' mennber of the Royal Society :*
could not difcharge the duties of it in that point with and in another journey in 1721^ he contra6led an in«
a good confcience. But he was foon after reftored, timaey with Martin F(^es». Efq.* the prefident of it,«
and held his offices till the revolution ; an event which, which lafted to his death.

it feems, he could not bring himfelf to approve. He In 1 722, lord Polwarthr plenipotentiary* of the king*"

had hoped that the prince of Orange would have' re- of Great-Britain at the congrefv of Cambray, engaged*^

turned to his own country when matters were adjufled him to go as a tutor and companion to his eldeflfbn, who--

between the king and his Aibje^ts ; and upon its pro- was then to fet out on his travels. After a (hort fbiy at^

viag othen»dfe, he quitted all his employments in Sicot^ Paris, and vifiting other towns in France, they fixed ^

land,, and retired into England, refolving to fpend the in Lorraiih; where Maclaurin wrote his^tece On the '

remainder of his days in the univerfity of Oxfords He Percuffion of Bodies, which 'gained the prize of the"

arrived there in September 1689, and profecuted his* royal academy of fciences for tb^ year 1724. Butt

dudies in the Bodleian library, being admitted a flu- his pupil dying foon after at Mbntpelier, he returned '

dent there by a grace pafFed in the congregation,. June immediately- to his profeflion at Aberdeen. He was**

2. 1690. In the fpring following,* he went to Lon- hardly fettled here, when he received* an -^invitation ter-*

don ; where he fell into a diforder, of which he died' Edinburgh^ the curators of that univerfity being de- -

in May 1691. His corpfe waa con^yed by- land^to firous that he ihould fupply the place of Mr James •

Scotland^ and interred there with great pomp and fb- Gregory, whofe great age and infirmities lud render- *

knmity. ** The politenefs of his learning, and the ed him-incepable of teaelnng. He had fome difficult*

fprightlanefs of his wit, were (fays the reverend Mr' ties to encounter, arifing from competitors, who had '

Granger) confpicuous in all his pleadings, and fhone good interefl with the patrons of the univerfity, an d**.

in his ordinary converfation." Mr Dryden aoknowv alfo from the want of an additional fund for the new '

ledges, that he was unacquainted with what he calk the profefTor ; which however at length were all furmount- -

beautiful turn of words and thoughts in poetry f till they^ ed, prineipally by thie means of Sir Ifaac NewtOn. In

were explained and exemplified to him in a converfa- Nov« 1725, he was introduced into the univerfity $ as^

tioq with that noble wit of Scotland Sir Greorge Mac- was at the fame time* his learned colleague and • inti- •

kenzie.— -He wrote feveial pieces, of hiftory and anti* n>ate friend, Dr Alexander Monro, profefTor 'of ana--

quities ; Inflitutions of the laws of Scotland ; EfTays- tomy. After this, the mathematical clafles foon be- -

upon various fub)e6is^ &c. His works were printed ^ came very numerous, there being generally upwards of'

together at Edinburgh in 17 16, in 2 vols folio. 100 young gentlemen attending his le6lures every year; •'

MAC K E REL» . in ichthyology. See Scombsk. who being^pf different ftandings- and p.rofici<$ncy> he*

wad«

MAG

r 39a 1

MAC

^tacU urln y^g obliged to* divide them into four or fire claffefi in
each of which he employed i full hour every day»
from the ifirfl of November to the firft of June,

He lived a bachelor to the year 1733 : but being
not l^fs formed for fociety than for coatemplation* he
then married Anne, the daughter of Mr Walter Stew-
art folicitor-gcnepd to his late najefty for Scotland*
By this lady he had feven children, of whom two fonx
and three daughters, together with his wife» furvived
liixn. In 1734, Berkeley, bifliopof Cloyne, puUifh-
ed a piece called ** The Analyft ;" in which he took
•occafion, from fome difputes that had arifen concern-
ing the grounds of the fluxionary method, to explode
the jnethod itfelf, and alfo to charge mathematicians
in general . with infidelity in religion. Maclaurin
thought himfeir included in this charge, and began an
anfwer to Berkeley's book: but, as he proceeded, fo
tnany difcoveries, £0 many new theories and problems
occurred to him, that instead of a vindicatory pamph-
let, his work came out, A complete fy ftem of Fhixions,
with their application to the mpft coniiderable pro-
Vems in geometry and natural philofophy. This work
was publiihed at Edinburgh in 1742, ^ v<^ 4to ; and
as it coil him infinite pains, fo it is the moft conAder**
able of all his works, and will do him immortal ho«
nour* In the mean time, he was continually obliging
the public with fome performance or obfervation of
bis own ; many of which were publifhed in the fifth
and -fix th volumes of the *' Medical EfTays" at Edin-
burgh* Some of them were likewife publiflied in the
Philofophical Tranla^ons ; as the following : i. Of
the conftrudtion and meafure of curves, N" 356* 2.
A new method of defcribing all kinds of curves, N^
359; 3* A letter to Martin Folkes, Ef^^; on equa«
tions with impoifible roots* May 1 7269 N^ 394. 4*
Continuation of the fame, March 1729^ N^ 408. 5.
December the aiftt 173a, on the defcription of
curves ; with an account of farther improvements, and
« paper dated at Nancy, Nov. 27, 172a, N*" 439.
6« An account of the treati£e of fluxions, Jan. 27,

1742, N^ 467* 7* The fame continued, March 1O9

1743, N° 469. 8. A rule for finding th^ meridional
parts of a fpheroid with {he fame exa6knefs as of a
/phere, Auguft 17419 N^46i. 9. Of the bafis of
tLe cells wherein the bees depofite their honey ; Nov*

> 1734- N«47i^

Inr the midfl of thefe ftudies, he was always ready

to lend his aififlance in contriving and promoting any
icheme which might contribute to the fervice of his
country.. When the earl of Morton fct out irt 1739
for Orkney and Shetland, to vifit his eilates there,
he defired Mr Maclaurin to alfift. him in fettling the
geography of thofe countries, which is very errone-
ous in all our maps ; to examine their natural hiiVory,
to furvey the coaiis, and to take the ineafure of h de-
gree of the meridian. Maclaurin *s family affairs, and
Cither connediionSf would not permit him to do this :
he drew, however, a memorial of what he thouglit
ncceflary to be obferved, furnifhed the proper inflru-
xnents, and recommended Mr Short, the famous op-
tician, as a fit operator for the management of them.
He had fiill another fcheme for the improvemcift of
'geography and navigation, of a more extenfive nature;

fage might be fonndy be was fo fully porfuiided, ti»t^i'>^.

be has been heard tu fay, if his fituation could adinlt """v^
of fuch adventures, he would undertake the voyage,
even at his own charge* But when fchemes for ficdiLg
it were laid before the parb'ament in I744t and htm-
felf confuked by feveral perfons of high rank coscen-
ing them, before he 'could finifli the memorials he pn>
pofed to fend, the premium waa limited to the diiico*
very of a North-weft paffage : and he ufed to regret,
that the word Weft was inferted, becaufe he Lhoixg:iit
that paffage, if at all to be found, maft lie not in
from the pole*

In 174^9 having been very adive in fortifying tlbe
city of Edinburgh againft the rebel army, he was 6l^
ged to fly from thence t9 the north of ^jigUnd ;
where he wa^ invited by Herring, then archbi&op of
York, to re fide with him during his ftay in this cooa-
try. In this expedition, however, being cxptdcd to
cold and hardftiips, and naturally of a weak and tea*
der conilitution, he laid the foundation of an tSscis
which puf an end to his life, in June 1746^ at the
age of 48.

Mr Maclaurin was a very good as well as a very
great man, and worthy of love as well as admiratioa.
His pectdiar merit afi a pEilofopher waa» that all his
ftudies were accommodated to general utility ; and we
find, in many places of his works, an application evea
of the moft abftrufe theories, to- the pcrfie^n^ of me*
chanical arta. He had re£blved, for the fame purport
to compofe a courfe of pradycal mathematics^ and to
refcue feveral ufeful branches of the fciencc from the
bad treatment they often met with in lefk fldlfitl baad&
Biit all this his death prevented ; unleft we ftoaid
reckon, as a part of his intended work, the tranilatioo
of Dr David Gregory's " Pra£tical Geometzy*"
which he revifed, and publiihed with additionsy 1 745.
In his lifetime, however, he had frequent opportuni-
ties of fcrving his friends and his country by his great
fldU. Whatever difficulty occurred concerning' dte
conftrudting or perfe^ng of machines, the working of
mines, the improving, of manufii^kuresi the conveying
of water, of the execution of any other public wwk,
he was at hcuid to rciolve it. He was likewi(e em-
ployed to terminate ibme difputes of confequencc that
had arifer at Glafgow concerning the gauging of vef-
fels ; and for that purpofe prefrated to thecommiffioB-
ers of excife two elaborate memorials, with their de-
monftrations, containing rules by which the officers
now a6b. He mi^e ^o calculations relating to the
provifion^ now efiabUfhed by law, for the children and
widows of the Scots clergy, and of the profeflbrs in
the univerfities, mtitling them to certain annuities and
fums, upon the voluntary annual payment of a certain
fum by the incumbent- In contriving and adjufting
this wife and ufeful fcheme,. he beftowed a great deal
of labour, and contributed not a little towards brings
ing it to perfe^ion. It may be jGaid of (udi a. man,
that ** he lived to fome puipofe ;" which can hanlly
be faid of thofe, how uncompion foevcr their abilities
and attainments, who fpend their whole time in ab-
ilrafl: fpeculations, aBd*prodttce nothing to the real
ufe and fervice* of their fellow creatures.

Of his works, we have mentioned his Gtemttria Or^

ivhich was the opening a paflage from Greenland to ganica, in which he treats of the defcription of curve
ths South Sea by the north pole* That fuch a paf- lines by coaduued mouoa. We need not eepeat wlut
N^Jpo. has

MAC

•bit be» hid coAoerttinghii piece whicb gitned tbt
*cquer . p^*^^ Qf ^^ roytl academy ox fciencci in 1724. U

1 740> the academy adjud^^ him a prize, vvhich did
him ftill more honour, for fohring the motion of the
tides firom the theory of gravity; a qaeiUon which
had been given out the former year, without receiving
any folution. He had only ten days to draw this pa-
per up in, and could not nnd leifure to tranfcribe a
fur copy ; fo that the Paris edition of it is incorre6fc.
He afterwards revifed the whok, and inferted it in
his Treatife of Fluxions ; as he did aifo the fubftaace
of the former piece. Thcfe, with the Treatife of
Fluxions, and the pieces printed in the Philofophical
Tranfa6^ions, of v^ich we have given a lift, are all
the writings which our author lived to puhlifii. Since
his death, two volumes more have appeared ; his Al*
gebra, and his Account of Sir Ifaac Newton's Philo-
iophical Difcoveries. His Algebra, though not fini/h-^
ca by himfelf, is yet allowed to be< excellent 'in its

r 393 1

MAC

V di Pwfu^J^ »7J9i'i7<55» m two vob. fvd. This Msciti*
book, in point of accuracy^ is worthy of the Pre- U
fident Henault, by whom it was begun \ but it dif- ^^^^^^^
plays no discrimination of chara^ler nor depth of re-
learch. The author received affiftance from M. La-
combe, whofe talents for chronological abridgement
are well known. The republic of letten foflained 4
lois by the death of M. Macquer, which hsippeoed on
the 27th of January 1770, at the age of 50. As to hia
chara^er, he was induftrious, agreeable, modeft, and
fincere, and an enemy to all foolifh vanity and affe^ka-^
tion. He had a cold imagination, but a corre^ taft^.
He had an eager thirft for knowledge of every kind^
and he had negleded no ufeful branch of ftudy. He
had a fhare in the Di^^ionuy of Arts and Profeflions,
in 2 vob 9vo, and in the Tranflation of the Syphilid
of Fracaftor publi(hed by Lacombe.

Mac^uer (Pierre Jofeph), brother to the former,
was bom at Paris the 9th of 06iober 171 8, and died

kind ; containing, in no krge volume^a complete ele- ^ there February i6th 1784. He was a member of the

mentary treatife -^ -^- '" '- - -' »— '-'--'— * ' ' " ^ ' ^ '^ ' ^

to been carried.
I'hilofophy was

Sir Ifaac dying in the beginning of f ^3» his nephew,
Mr Conduitt, propofed to publilh an account of his
hfe, and defired Mr Maclaurin's afliftanoe. The lat-
ter, out of gratitude to his great benefa6^or, cheer-
fully undertook, and foon finimed, the hiftory of the
progrefs which philofophy had made before Sir Itaac's
time, and this was the iirft draught of the work in
hand ; which not .going forwai^d, on account of Mr
Conduitt's deaths was returned to Mr Madaurin. —
To this he afterwards made g^reat additions, and left
it in the ftate in which it now appears. His main
defign Teems to have been, to explain only thofe parts
of Sir Ifaac 's philofophy which have been, and itill
are, controverted : and this is fuppofed to be the rea-
fbn why his grand difcoveries concerning light and
colours are but traniiently and generally touched upon.
F6r it is known, that ever iince the experinients, on
which his do^rine of light and colours is founded,
have been repeated ]^ith due care, this dofbine has
not been conteiied ; whereas his accounting for the
celeilial motions, and the other great appearances of
nature, from gravity, is mifunderiftood, and even ridi-
culed by fome to this day.

MACQUER (Philippe), advocate of the parlia-
ment of Paris, where he was bom in 1720, being

fcience he was intiniately acquainted* He had a
(hare in the Phgrmaeopma Parifienjuy publiihed in 1 75 8»
in 4to. His other works are, l. Elemens de Chinue
ibeorique; Paris, 1749» I753» i^^o J which have been
translated into Englifli and German. — 2. Elemens de
Chhme pratique^ 1751,2 vols. 1 2mo. Thefe two works
were re-publifhed together, in 1756, in 3 vols i2mo*
5. PAnt d*un court de Chimie experlmmiak Csf raifonh^
1797, i2mo; in the compofition of which he was
aiibciated with M. Beaum^. 4. Fortmds Medicattiftit^
nun Maglftraltumt 17^3- 5« L,*y1rt de la Teinture en
Stne^ i'j6^^^, DiBumneure de Chemieycontenantlatheorii
Cff la pratique de eet artf 1766, 2 vols 8vo ; which
has been tranflated into German, with notes; and
into Englifh, with notes, by Mr Keir. Macquer has,
by his labours and writings, greatly contributed to
render ufeful an art which formerly tended only to ruin
the health of the patient by foreign remedies, or to
reduce the profeffors of it to beggary, while they
profecuted the idle dreams of converting every tiling
into gold.

MACRIN (Salmon), one of the befl Larin poets>
of the 1 6th century, w^s bom at Loudon. His true
name was ^olm Salmon ; but he took that of Macrin^
from his being frequently fo called in ridicule by Fraa«
defcended from a rcfpcAable family. A weak- cis I. on account of his extraordinary leannefs. He
nefs in his lungs having prevented him from en- was preceptor to Claudius of Savoy, count of Tende ;
gaging in the laborious exercife^ of pleading, he de- and to Honorius the count's brother ; and wrote fc-
dicated himfelf to literary purfuits'. • His works are, vera! pieces of poctiy in lyric verfe, which were fo ad-
I. UAhrtge Chronolo^tque de , VH'tfioire Ecckfiafiique% mired, that he was called ibi Horace^ of hit time* He
q vols. 8vo, written in the manner of the rreiident diedof old age, at Loudon, in i555.-*C^/fr/f/ ^>fcaii^,
Henault's Hiftory of France, but not pofleffed of his fon, was not inferior to him as a poet, and furpa^-
equal fpirit and elegance. 2. Les jlimalet Romainet, ed him in his knowledge of the Greek tongue. He was

17 96, 8vo ; another chronological abridgement, and
much better fupported than the former. Into this
work the author has fttroduced every thing moil
worthy of notice which has been written by Saint
Evreniond, Abbe Saint* Real, Prefident Montefquieu,
Abbe Mably^^:^c. concerning the Romans; and, if
we except a difference of ftyle, which is eafily difcem-
iblci it IS, in other refpeds, a very judicious compila-
tion. 9. j4h'ege GbfWMk^fue de- PHt/loin ^.EJpagne
Vol. X. Part L

preceptor to Catharine of Navarre, the fifter of Henry
the Great ; and periihed in the maffacreon.St Bartho*
lomew's day in 1572.

MACROBII, a people of Ectopia, celebrated
for their juftice, and die innocence of their man-
ners : alfo a people in the ifland Meroe. The Hy^
perboreans were alfo called Macrobii: They ge-
nerally lived to their 120th yeaK; and from their lon«
gevity they obtained their name {/*««i»»f ^u longhfe. )

. 3 D MACRO-

M AC

{ 394 ]

MAC

fhalttt.

MACROBIUS (Ambrofius Aurelius . Theodo-
'JJ^f^** fi us), an ancient Latin writer, who flourifhed to-
wards the latter part of the fourth century.—
Of what country he was, is not dear; Erafmu8>
in hts CiceronianuB, feepis to think he was a Greek ;
and he himfcif tells us, in th^ preface to his Saturnalia,
tliat he was not a Roman, but laboured under the
inconveniences of writing in a lan&ruage which was
not natural to hun. Of. what religion he was, Cbrii-
tian or Pagan, is uncertain. Barthius ranks him auaong
tlie Chriftiana ; but Spanheim and Fabncius fuppole
him to have been a heathen. This, however, is cer-
tain, that he was a man of confular dignity, and one
t)f the chamberlains or maders of the wardrobe to
Theodoiius; as appears from a refcript dire6^ed to
Florentius,. concerning thofe who were to obtain that
office. He wrote a Commentary upon Cicero's Som*
n'tum Scifionist and feven books of SatumaTtay whibh
treat of various fubjefts, amd are an agreeable mixture
of criticifm and antiquity. He was not an original wri-
- .ter, but made gr^t ufe of other people's works, borrow-
ing not only their materials, but even their language,
and for this he has been {atirically rallied by fome mo-
dem authors, though rather unfairly, confidering the
exprefs declaration and apology which he makes on
this head, at the very entrance of his worl^. *< Don't
blame me," fays he» '* if what I have colleded from
multifarious reading, I (hall frequently exprefs in
the very words of the authors from whom I have
taken it : for my view in this prefent work is, not
to give proofs of my eloquence, but to collet and
digcll into fome regularity and order fuch things
as I thought might be ufeful to be known. I (hall
therefore here imitate the bees, who fuck the beft
juices from all forts of flowers, and afterwards work
them up into various forms and orders, with fome
mixture of their own proper fpirit." The Somnivm
Sciploittt and SatunuWta have been often printed ; to
which has been added, in the later editions, a piece inti-
tuled, De Djffiren^ l*f Societatihus Grsd Latmigut Verbu

MAC ROCEPH ALUS, (compounded of M««/»»ff
" great,'* and »«>»*» " head;" denotes a perfon with
a head larger or longer than the coounon (ize. Ma-
crocephali, or Long-headSf is a name given to a certain
people, whoy according to the accounts of authors,
were famous for the unfeemly kngth of their heads ;

fibly to enkrgc ihe interval between the two eyes, &
that the vifuid rays turning more to the right and left,
the fight would embrace a much larger portion of the
horizon ; the advantage of which they are wdl ac-
quainted with, either in the conftant exerctiie of bust-
ing, or on a thoufand other occaiioos. Elver fioce the
1 6th centufy, the miffionaries eft^lifhed m tbe
tries inhabited by the lavages of America, kaTe
deavoured to dellroy this cuftom ; and we find in the
feifions of the third council of Lima, bdd in 1585, 2
canon which exprelsly prohibits it. But if it -has beea
repre(re4 one way, tlie free negroes and Maroons, al-
though Africans, have adopted it, flncc thry hai«e
been eftabli(hed among the Carib^ .(bldy writh the
riew of difUngui(hing their children, wiiich are bora
free, from thofe who are bom in flavery. The Om»-
quas, a people of South America, according to P.
Veigh, prefs the heads of their children fo violently
between two planks that they become quite fharp at
the top, and flat before and behind. They &y they
do this to give their heads a greater refenablance to
the moon.

MACROCERCI, a name given to that ckfs of
animalcules which have tails longer than their bodies.

MACROCOLUM, or Macrocollum (fonacd
of /*««^«t <* large," and ^okkbl-^ m I join/*) among.the
Romans, the lar^eft kind of paper then in ufe. It
meafured (ixteen inches, and frequently two feet.

MACROCOSM, a word denoting^ the great world
or univerfe. It is compounded of tlie Greek vrards
(cxnf%' " great," and ««>a/c#- « world."

MACROOMP, or Macroom, a town of Irel»d,
in the barony of Muflcerry, county olF Cork, and pa>-
rince of Munfter, 14a miles from Dudilin ;, it is fitu-
ated amongft hills, in a dry gravelly limcftone foD. —
This place is faid to take its name from an okl crook-
ed oak, fo called in Irifth which formerly grew hert\
The caftle was firfl built in King John's time, fboa af-
ter the £ngli(h conquefl, (according to Sir Richaid
Cox) by the Carews, but others attribute it to the
Daltons. It vras repaired and beautified by Te^oe
Macarty, who died in the year i 169, and was £ather to
the celebrated Sir Cormac Mac Tei^e mentioned by
Cambden and other writers as an adlive pcr^sa in
Queea Elizabeth's time. The late Earls of Gbocarty
altered this caftle into a more modem ftrudhzre, it b^

K: cuftom fb far habituated them to it, that inflead of ing burnt down in the wars of i64r. Oppofitc to

king on it as a deformity, they eftecmed it a beauty, the bridge, is the pari(h-church, dedicated to St Coi-

and, as foon as the child was bom, moulded and fa- man of Cloyne*. Here is a barrack for a feot coca-

(hionetl its head in their hands to as great a length as p«ny, a nuirket-houie, and handf(MEne Roman CadioUo

pofiible, and aftervraxds ided all fnch rollers and band- chapeL A con(iderable number of perfens have been

ages as itfight fcem moft likely to determine its grow« employed in this town in combing wool aftd fpinnnig

ing long. The greater part of the i/landei^s in the yam, and fome iait-works have been ere^ed here. At

Archipelaffo, fome^of liie people of A(ia, and even half a mile's diflance is a fpa, that rifes on t}ie ^Kry

fomis of uiofc of Europe, ftill prefs their childrens brink of a bog ; its waters are a nsild chalybeate, and

heads out lengthwife. We may obferve alfo, that the are accounted lerriceable in hypochondriacal cafes, and

Epirots, many people of America, &c. are all bora in cutaneous eraptions. The fairs are four ia the

with fome fingulanty in the conformation of their year.

beads ; either a flatnefs on the top, two eztraoidinary MAC ROPY RENIUM, in natural Inftorys a gc-

protubenoces behind, or one on each fide; fingularities nns of foflils confining of ciuf^ated feptariz, with

which we can only regard as an tfkSt of an ancient and
iirange mode, which at length is become hereditary in
thenation. According to the report of many travellers,
the operation of compreffin^ the head of a child
lengthwife, while it is yet fo^ ia with a view infen-

a long nucleus (banding out at each end of the inafs*

MACROTELOSTYLA, ia natural hlftory, the
name of a genua of cryftals, which are composed of
two pyramids joined to the end of a column ; bodi the
pyramidi» aa aUb the eolunn, being hexaaguiar,

and

tf-i

MAD. f ^95 ] MAD

md tkc whole body confequentlf compofcd of i8 of which i& never repreiTed by the intemperance or the tlUAm^

planes. , ^ vicHlitude of the feafons. The eye contemplates with ^"''

MACTATIO, in the Roman facrifices, fignifies pleafure thofe vaft favannas which nourilH numberlefs '
the a^ of killinfr the vi^im. This was performed ei- herds of bnUocks and of (heep. Yon behold a flou-
ther by the prieft himfe1f» or fome of his inferior ofii- rifliing agriculture, produced abnoft ^kMj by the fer«
cers, whom we meet with -under the names of fofits tilifing womb 6f nature. The fortunate inhabitants
agvneff cnhrdriif and viSimariii but, before the beaft of Madagafcar do not bedew the earth with their
%iiras killed, the prieft, turning himfelf to the e&ft, drew fweat ; they fcarce flir the ground with a rake, and
& crooked line with hi) knife, from the forehead to even that flight preparation isfuffictent. They fcrape
the tail. Among che Greeks, this ceremony was per- little holes at a fmdl distance from each other, injto
formed moft commonlv by the prieft, or,' in his abfence, which they fcatter a few grains of rice, and cover them
by the moft honourable perfon prefent. If the facri- with their feet ; and fo great in the fertib'ty of the
6ce waft offered to the celeftial gods, the vi6kim*8 foil, that the lands fown in this carelefs manner pro-
throat was bent up towards heaven ; if to the infernal, duce an hundred fold.
or to heroes, it was killed with its throat towards the The forefts prefent a prodigious variety of the moft

f round. The manner of killing the aninaal was by a ufeful and the moft beautiful trees ; ebony, wood for

roke on the head, and, after it was fallen, thrufting dying,bamboosofan enormous thicknefs, and palm trees

a knife into its throat. Much notice was taken, and of every kind. The timber employed in fhip-bailding

good or ill fuccefs predi£ied, from the ftruggles of the is no lefs commpn than thofe kinds fo much prized

beaft, or its quiet fubmiflion to the blow, from the by the cabinet-maker. We arc told by the French

flowing of the blood, end the length of time it hap- governor Flacourt, in his hiftory of this ifland t* ihatf J^ift ^^

pcned to live after the fall, &c. in the year 1650 he fent to France 52,000 weight of ^''^*'^

MACUL/S, in aftronomy, dark fpots appcarftig aloes of an excellent quality. All of tKefe various trees J^^^^Jl

on the luminous furfaces of the Tun and moon, and and fhrubs are furrounded by an infinite nilfhberof pa-

even fome of the phnets. See Astronomtt, n^jo. rafitical plants : mufhrooms of an infinite diverfity of

and ri^ 58 ft fig- and n* 98. and n^ 1 2 1 et/eg* kinds and colours are to be met with every where in the

MAD-A p p LK. See Sol anu m. woods; and the inhabitants know well how to diftinguifh

MAD A G ASC A R,thelai^eft of the African iflands, thofe which are prejudicial to the health. They colleft

is frtuated between 430 and 510 of £. Long, and be- large quantities of ufeful gums and rclins ; and out of

tvveen 12^ and 26** of S. Lat. ; extending in length near the milky fap of a tree, denominated by them finguhn-^

I coo miles from north-north-eaft to fouth-fouth-wrft, the inhabitants, by means of coagulation, make that

and about 300 in breadth where broadeft. It was fi ngular fubftance known to naturalifts by the name of

difcovcrcd in 1506 by Laurence Almcyda ; but the gum elttflk^ (See Caoutchouc and Jatropha.).
Periians and the Arabians were acquainted with it Beiides the aromatic and medicinal herbs which a*

from time immemorial under the name of ■S'^tfii^ff^. bound in the forefts, the ifland produces flax and hemp

Alphonzo Albukcrque ordered Ruy Pereira dy Con- of a length and ftrength which furpals any in Europe,

thinto to vifit the interior parts, and that general in- Su^r canes, wax, honey of different kinds, tobacco,

trufted Triftan d* Acunha with the furvey. The Por- indigo, white pepper, gum-lac, ambergris, - flik, and

tuguefe called it the ifland of '^/Z/7tfr<7rr^; theFrench) cotton, would long fince have been obje6^8 of com-

who vifited it in the reign of Henry IV. named it IJU merce which Madagafcar would have yielded in pro-

Daupbme ; its proper name is Madegajfe* It is now, fufion, if the Europeans, in vifiting the ifland, had

however, by common confent, called Madagafcar. fumi(hed the inhabitants with the neceflar)' informa-

Thts large ifland, according to many learned geo- tton for preparing and improving thefe feveral pro-

graphers, is the Ceme of Pliny, and the Menuthiafde du6tion8.

of Ptolemy. It is every where watered by large rivers. The fugar-canes (as we are informed by another tm-

ftreams, and rivulets', which have their fource at the vellerj] ) are much larger and finer than any in the weft ) f^^/V

foot of that long chain of mountains which runs thro' Indies ; being as thick as a man's i/v-rift, and fo full of ^<gr^ ^

the whole extent of the ifland from eaftto weft* The juice, 'that a foot of them will weigh two pounds. '^■^»A«4*

two higheft promontories are called Fivagora and Bo^ When the natives travel, they carry a fagar>cane along

tlfimenem with them, which will fupport them for two or three

'Vvyapa T)iefe mountains (according to the Abbe Rochon*) days. ' Here are alfo plenty of tamarinds ; and fuch

Vladagaf- inciofc within their bofoms a variety of precious mine- * quantities of limes and oranges, that very large cafictf

^^' rals and ufeful foffils* The traveller (who for the firft may be filled with their juices at a trifling expence, as

' ^^^'' time rambles over lavage and mountainous countries, in- they may be purchafed for iron-pots, mufkets, powderi

terfe£ied with valleys and with hills, where nature left ball, £(c. During the fliort time that Admiial Wat-

to herfelf brines forth the moft Angular and the moft fon*s fquadron ftaid here in 1 754, Mr Ives preferved

varied produ£^ione) is involuntarily furprifed and ter- about half a hogfliead full of thofe juices, which pr6«

rified at the fight of precipices, the fummits of which ved afterwards of the greateft fervice to the fliips

arc crowned with monftrou' trees, that fcem coeval crews. It muft be obfei-ved, however, that no good

with the world. His aftonifliment i» redoubled at the %vater is to be had at St Auguftine in the fouth-weft

noife of thofe grand cafcades, the approach to which part of the ifland, where fliips ufually touch, unlcfil

is generally inacceflible. But to thofe views fo fub- boats are fent for it four or five miles up the river | ,

limely pi^ureique, rural fcenes foon fucceed ; little and inftead of filling their caflcs at low water (as is thid

hills, gentle rifing grounds, and plains, the vegetation cafe in moft other rivers), they muft begin to iill ift

3D2 ^ • about

c»r.

MAD C 396 3 MAD

Mtdagaf. about a quarter's flood: The reafon affigocd for this tbefe acknowledgct a chief} tbli chief it fofaetittt )Mp
is, that the river has a communication with the fea at eledive, but more ufually hereditarjr* The U&di zit '*-
other places befidesthis of St Auguftine's bay) and it not divided and portioned out, but belong to dtoit *^
has been found by experience, that the fea-water broiu^ht
into the river by the flood-tide is not difchaiged tm a
quarter's flood oif the next tide in St Auguftine's bayi
and for three miles up the river, the water is always
very brackifh, if not quite (alt.

The abundance and variety of provifions of every
kind, which a fine climate and fertile foil can produce,
are on no part of the globe, according to M. Rochonp
fuperior to thofe of Madagafcar : game, wild-fowl,
poultry, fiih, cattle, and fnuts, are alike plentiful. The
exen, Mr Ives alfo informs us, are large and &t, and
kave each a protuberance of fat between the fhoulders,
* weighing about 20 pounds. Their flefh is greatly
efteeme^ by all the European nations trading to In-
dia, and (hips are fent to Madagafcar on purpofe to
kin and (alt them on the ifland. The protuberance
9f fat above mentioned is particularly eftemed after
k has lain fome time in (alt ; but our author (ays,
that he could not join in the encomiums either on this
piece or the beef in general ; as the herbage on which
the creatufes feed ^ives their flefli a particular tafle,
which to him was difagreeable. The (heep differ little
from the goats ; being equally hairy, only that their
heads are fome what larger ; their necks refemble that
of a calf, and their tails weigh at leaft ten pounds.
Vafl quantities of locufts rife here from the low Isinds
in thick clouds, extending fometimes to an incredible
length and breadth. The natives eat thefe infers, and
even prefer them to their fined fifh. Their method
of dref&ng them is to (trip off their legs and wings,
and fry them in oiL

The inhabitants (termed Melagachesof MaJtcaJJes)^
M. Rochon infomis ns, arc in perfon above the middle
^ze of Europeans. The colour of the fkia is different
in different tribes : among fome it is of a deep black,
among others tawney ; fome of the natives arc of a copper
i:olour, but the complexion of by hx the greateil number
h olive. AU thofe who are black have wodly hair like
the negroes of the coafl of Africa: thofe, on the other
hand, who i^iemble Indians and Mulattoes, have hair
' equally flralght with that of the Europeans \ the nofe
is not broad tvnd flat ;, the forehead is large and open ^
in fliort, all the features are regular and agreeable.
Their phyfiognomy difplays the appearance of frank-
IKfsand of^isfadion: they are defirous only of learn-
iog fuch things as may adminiiler to their neceflities ;
4iiat fpecies of knowledge which demands refledioa ia
V^different to them; fober, agile, a^ve, they fp'endthe

(reateik part of their time either in fleep or in amufe* «. « c,

attest. In fine, according to the Abbe, the ;uitives. of which they had adorned witkfmallglafs beads byway
Madagafcar, like favages ia general, poffcffes'a chara£ker of border or fringe. Their hair rcfembkd that aii^

3ually devoid of vice and of rirtue ;, the gratifications Indians in being long and black, nithei than the wool*
the prefeal moment folely occupy his reflediions ; ly heads of the African negroes. **- The wives of tk
\i poffeffes no kind of foreiight whatever ; and he can* Mdagaches (according to our author) take great paint
not conceive the idea that there are men in the world with> their huibanda hair ; fometimes putting it ift
^ho trouble themfelves about the evils of futurity*

The population of the iiland has been, eftimated al
lour millions ; but this calculation, is thought exag-
gerated by our author^ and indeed it appears incredible
%Q US. Every tribe or fociety inhabits its own caa-

who are at the trouble of cultivating them. Tbde
iHanders make ufe of neither locks «or keys; tbc
principal part of their food confifls in rice, fi{h» ud
flefli; their rice is moiilened with a foqp which it lb-
foned with pimento, ganger, iaffron, and aromtie
herbs. They difplay wonderful cunning in caiciiag
a variety of birds, many of which are unknown ioEQ.
rope : thev have the phealant, the partridge, theqiuil,
the pintado, the wild duck, teal of five or fix diffcrat
kinds, the blue hen, the black paroquet, and th<: tuitJc-
dove, in great plenty ; and alfo a bat of a nv>Qtlruj$
iize, which is much prized on account of its ezqukte
flavour. Thefe lafl are fo hideous in their appcarascc,
that they at firft terrify the European fsQojrs; butaiur
they have vanquiflied their repugnance to them, they
prize their flefh infinitely before that of the pulku of
their own country. The Melagaches alfo catch aa im-
mcnfc quantity of fca-fi(h ; fuch as the dorado, the
fol(, the herring, the mackarel, the turtle, &c. witb
oyfters, crabs, &c. The rivers afford excellent ecl^
and mullets of an exquifite flavour.

The inhabitants near St Augufline*a bay, Mr I^n
informs us, fpeak as much broken Englifli as eiiibl»
them to exchange their provifions for Europeon ar-
ticles. Thefe, on the part of the Melagaches, are cattle,
poultry, milk, fruit, rice, fait, porcelain, poutoes,
yams, fifli', lances, and (hells. From the Europeans
they receive muikets, powder^ bullets, flints, W5«ter»
(including handkerchiefs^ and linen of all kind^),
beads^ iron pots, &c. — Silver, which they call Ma^(i%
is in great efteem with them, and is. made by them
into bracelets for their wives.

That part of the ifland at which the Englifh fqua-
dron touched, is the dominions of the king of BM^
who, by the account of Mr Ives, feemed greatly to sf-
k6t to be an Eaglifliman. They had no foooer
touched at the ifland, than they were waited on by ooe
called Robin Hoodf and another perfon^ both of whom.
bore the office of purfirt* Along, with.- thefe were
PhWtbey the general; John. Anderfon and Fredaic
Martin, captains. Nor did the king himfelf and hii
£unily difdain to pay them a vifit ; who,, in like man-
ner, were diftinguiflied by EngL'ib names ; the kicg's
.eldelt fott being called the pnnce of Wales,^ and tiie
court not being without a. duke of Cumberiandi a
prince Augufius, princeffes,. &c. as in England. Ail
thefe grandees came on. board naked, excepting only
a flight covering about their loins and on. their flioul*
ders, made of a kind of grafs growing 00 the iilaod ;

large and regular curia ; at other times braiding it ia
great order, and making it fhine with a particular oil
which the ifland psodiices.. The men always carry ia
their hands a wooden lance headed with iron, whidv
is commonly made very neat ; and they are fuch ex«

{.and ia goveoocd by its own cuftoms. Each of cellent markiineiit. that they will flrike with it » very

^ fiaiil

nfr

car.

MAD r 397 1 . MAD

fmiA ol^cft «t 30 or 40 yardt difttnee. They have after its being fereted from the body, wai pbced; Mtdigtil^

alfo commonly a muiket» which they get . from £urb- with the hom» on» at the foot of the ahar ; the caul

pcaiis ID exchange for cattle, and are always fure to was burned on the iire, and moil of the pluck and en*

Jceep in excellent order. I am forry to fay (continues trails boiled in a pot. The iick mant who was brought

Mr Ives) that the Eogliih are frequently guilty of to the door, and placed on the ground fo as to face

great impoiitions in this kind of traific, by difpofing the facrifice, prayed often, and feemingly with great

' "' ' ' "^ ' *^ ' fierrency. His eyies were ftxed attentively towards the

of cheap and ill-tempered barrels among the poor in-
habitants, Who fometimes lofe their lives by the burn-
ing of thefe pieces. Such iniquitous prances a^
thefe muft in the end prove injurious to the nation ;
and has indeed already made the name of more than
one half of thefe traders truly infamous among the de-
luded but hitherto friendly Madagafcarians.

** They are a civil and good-natured people, but
eaiUy provoked, and apt to (how their refentment on
the leaft provocation, efpecially when they think
themfelves injured or llighted. Another charafterif-
tic of them is, the very high notions of dignity they
entertain of their king ; which is carried to fuch a
height, that they are never more feofibly hurt than
when they imagine he ia treated with incivility or dif-
refped. This mighty monarch reddes in a town
built with mud, about 1 2 miles up the country from
St AuguiUne's Bay. On the eaii fide of the bay, as
you enter, there refided one Prince William, a rela-
tion and tributary to the king; but who in moft cafes
a6led as an independent prince, and always ufed his
utmoft endeavours with the officers to caufe them buy
iheir provisions from him, and not from the kin^ or
his fubjedls.' In this prince's tenitories, not far &om
the. fea, are the remains of a fort built by Avery the
Pirate.

<* All the women of Madagafcar, excepting the

heavens, and his hands held up in a fupplicating po-
ilure. The ceremony ended with the fon*8 cutting up
the ox into fmall pieces ; ; the greatefl part of which
he diflributed among the poor naves belonging to his
father and himfelf ; referving, however, fome of the*
beft pieces for his own ufe. Upon the whole, I faw
fo many circumilances in this Madagafcarian facriiicey
fo exadly refembling thofe defcribed in the Old Te-
ilament as offered up by the Jews, that I could nbt
turn my thoughts back to the original,, without being;
fenfibly Rruck by the exadbiefs of the copy.."

When the fquadron firil arrived at Madagafcar, the-
king of Baba, a man of about Qo years of age, was
ill of the gout. Having demanded of admiral Wat»
fon fome prefents, the latter complimented him, among
other things, with fome brandy. The monarch then
aiked him if he had any dcf£tor with hhn^ and if he
was a great do<^or, and a king's do£lor ? To all which
being anfwered.in the affirmative, he deiired him to-
bring fome mahomets (medicines) for his iick knee.
With this requifition Mr Ives deiigned to comply^
but having waited until fome officers (hould be ready
to accompany him, his nni^jeily, ia the mean time»
took fuch a dofe of brandy as quickly fent the gout
into his head, and occafioned his death. Mr Ives ob-
ferves, that it happened very luckily for him that the

Yery pooreil fort, wear a covering over their breails monarch's dcceafe happened without his having taken

and ihoulders, omanaented with glafs beads, and none
go without a cloth about their loins. They common-
ly walk with a long Hender rod or dick. The men
are allowed to marry as many women as they can
Support.

*^ During our ftay at this iiland (fays Mr Ive«), I

any of ,the medicines intended for him, as it would^
have been in^poifible to avoid the imputation of ha-
ving poifoned him, which would ceftainly have beei>^
refented by his loyal fubjedls..

The king's death occafioned great corifufion ;, the^
grandees being deiirous that it (hould. be concealed for

obferved, with great concern, feveral miferable obje6ta fome time. This,, however, was found impolfible \ om

HI the lail ftage of the vencveal difeafe. They had
sot been able to find any cure ; and as far as I could
kam, their dolors are totally ignosant of medicine.
The only method they ufe for curing all diiWmpers,
«s well external as internal ,^ is the wearing on the 'arn\
or neck' a particular charm or amulet \. or befmearing
the ^2x\. affe<fled with earth moiftened with, the j^iice
of fon>e plant or tree, and made up into a foftpaile.
" I took fome pains, to learn their religious tenets ;

which they itst off for the Mud Town about 1 1 o'clock^
the fame evening. All the inhabitants of the village
followed their example ; leaving only the dogs, who
fet up the mofi hideous howling. Captain Frederic.
Maitin coming to take leave of the Engliih, begged.
with great earneiinefs for a fre(h fupply of gun-pow-
der \ whiCpering that the king was dead,, and that-
they (hould in. all probability go to war. about making;
another. They had been formerly told, that one who-

and find that they wodhip one Univerfal Father;, had the title of </«i« of Baba would certainly fucceed:
whom, when they (peak in £ngli(h, they call God; to the. throne; but they afterwards learned, that Phi-^
and in whom they conceive aU kinds of perfedion to^ libey the general having efpouled the caufe of Ra*

:fide. llie fun they look upon as a. glorious body-;
and, I believe, as a fpiutual being,, but created and
iependent. They freouently look up to it with, woor
4er, if not with praile and adoration. They make
Iheir fupplicationa to the One Ahmghty, and offer {»'
aifices to him in their diftreffes. I had the curioiity
ao attend a facrifioe,^ at the hut of John Andeifon,,
whofe father had fofi k long time been alBided with
ficknefs»» About fun-fetan ox was brought into the
prd $ and the fbn, who officiated at prieft, flew it.
An altar waa reared nigh, and the poft of it waa
%ritikkd wiO^ the hlopi of the viaim. The.head».

phani the late king's fon,. and taken, him under his tu-
telage and prote^on, thi& youth, who was only about
16' yeara of age, fucceeded his father as king ofi
Baba.

The following is a defcriptionof the fouthern divi-^^
fion of the ifland, from the Abb^ Rochon.

'''That part of Madagafcar in which fort Dauphin-
is fituated is very populous. Ahnoft aH the villages
are placed .on eminences, and furrounded with two row»'
of ftrong pallifadoeS) fomewhat.in the manner of fuch/
of our fences as are compbfed of hurdles and turf.
Within^ is a parapet of foUd earth about four feet. in*.

height i .

MAD

tfa.^a^''- height ; large pointed bamboos placed at the diftance
^"'* of five feet from each other, and funk in a pit, form
a kind of loop^ioles, which contribute towai^s the de-
fence of thefe villageft, fome of which are beAdes for-
tified with a ditch ten feet in breadth and fix in
depth. The dwelling of the chief Is called a eknae.
When the chiefs go abroad, tkey are always provided
with a muiket and a ftick armed with iron, and adorn-
ed at the extremity with a little tuft of cow's hair.
They wear a bonnet of red wool. It is chiefly by the
colour of their bonnet that they are difttnguiihed from
their fubjeAs. Their authoi^ty is extremely limited ^
however, in the province of Cartanoffu the lands by
cuftom belong to their chiefs, who diftribute them a-
mong their fubje6b for the purpofes of cultivation :;
they exafl a trifling 4|uit-rent in return^ which in their
language is called faenfa^ — ^The people of Carcanoffi
are not altogether ignorant of the art of writing-; they
even poflefs fome hiftorical work« in the Madagascar
tongue : but their learned men, whom they term Om*
Hafffs^ make ufe of the Arabic charaders alone. They
have treatifes on medicine, geomancy, and judicial

C 398 ]

MAD

moirs and Travels we have the following acoouet d lfa6
the religion, government, &c. of the peopk of thk
ifland.

*' The Madagafcar nation believe in a Supreme Bet&^
whom they call Zaubare^ wiiich denotes creator of 2
things. They honour and revere this Being; butbss;
dedicated no temple to him, and much lets ha?e tLq
fubftituted idols. They make facrifices, by kiDbg
oxen and iheep, and they addrefs all thc£e Ubatioia to
God. It has been aflerted, that this nation liknrje
makes offerings to the devil : but in this there is a de-
ception ; for tlie piece of the £u:ri£ced beaft. wbichis
ufually thrown into the fire is not intended is honour
df the devil, as is ufually pretended. This cufton k
very ancient, and no one can tell the true reafooofL
With regard to the immortality of the foul, the Ma*
dagafcar people are perfuaded, that, alter their dcatk,
their fpirit will return again to the region in which tb
Zanhare dwells ; but they by no means admit that the
fpirit of man, after his death, can fuifer any evil ib
to the diftin^on of evil or good, they arc perfuidcd
that the good and upright man ihal) be recompciiH

ftrology ; the moft renowned live in the province of ijp this life, by a good flate of health* the coflflasq

of his friends, the increafe of his fortunes, the ohedi*
ence of his children, and the happinefs of beholdis^
the profperity of his famDy : and they believe that tk
wicked man's fate fliail be the contrary to this. 'Die
Madagafcar people, upon this convi^ion, when thiy
make oaths, add benedifUons in favour of thofe wb»
keep them, and curfes againft thofe who break them. la
this manner it is that they appeal to the judgment of
Zanhare, in making agreements ; and it hajfoevcrbea

Matatane : it is in that dillri^l that magic ftitl remains
in all its glory ; the Matanes are a<^uaUy dreaded by
the other Madecaflees on account of their eatcellence
in this delufive art. The Ombiaifefi have public «fchoo!s
in which they teach geomancy and aiUology. The
natives haye undoubtedly learned the art of writing
from the Arabians, who made a^3onquefb of this ifland
about 300 years fince.

** The people of the province of AnnJJi^ near fort
iDauphin, are lively, gay, fenfihle, and gvateful ; they known, or heard of, that a native of ^Madagafcar bs
arepaflionately fond of women; are never melancholy in broken his oath, provided it was made in theofyai
their company ; and their principal oqcopation is to manner, which they fay was prefcribed by their fore^*
pleafe the fex : indeed, whenever they meet their wives, thers.
they begin tofing and dance. 1 he women, from being
happy, are always in good *humour. Their b'vely and
cheeiful'chiinidler is extremely pleafing to the Euro-
peans. I have often been prefent at their aflemblies,
where affairs of importance have been agitated ; I have
obferved their dances, their fports, and their amufe-

*' As to their king^ and form of fovemment»&e.
The Madagaicar people have always acknowkdged
the line of Ramini, as that to which die rights of Aa-
panfacabe or fovereign belongs*. They have cooikkr-
ed this line as extinS fince the death of Dian lUoi-
ni Larizon, which happened 61S years ago, and wbde

ments, and I h^c fonnd them free from thofe excefles body was buried upon a mountain, out of which the

which are but too <cammon among polifhied nations^
Indeed I was too young at this time for my obferva«
tions to be of much weight : but if my experience be
infiifficientto infpire confidence, I beg the reader will
rather confider the >nature of things, than the relations
given by men without principles or intelligence, who
fancy that the}' have a right to tyrannize over the in-
habitants of every- country which they can fubdue.
If the people of Madagaicar have fometimes availed
thcmfelves of treachery, they have been forced to it by
the tyranny of the Europeans. The weak have no
other arms againft the ftrong. Coiild they defend them-
felves by any other means from our artillery and
bayonets ? They are uninformed and helplefs ; and we
avail ourfelves of their weaknefs, in order to make them
fuhmit to our covetoufnefs and caprice* They receive

river Manangourou fprings ; but having adtnowled^
the heir of this line on the female fide, they rt^da-
Wiihed this title in the year 1776. The li^ of the
Ampanfacabe confifis in nominating the Rohaodnass
to ailifl in the cabars, at which aU thofe whoaivcitfd
are bound to appear, and the judgment of the Ao-
panfacabe in his cabar is decifive. Another preroga-
tive of the Ampanfacabe is, that each RohandiiaD
is obliged to leave him by wiU a certain proportigs
of his property, which thefucceflbrs ufually purchafe
by a (fight tribute or fine. Thirdly, the Ampanfr
cabQ has a right to exad from each Rohandriaa (uk
tenth of the produce of bis land, and a number of
horned cattle and flaves, in proportion to the riches rf
Ihe country poffeflcd by each Rohandrian.— The fa»oi
order is compofed of the Rohandrians, or priaces. Siutf

the moft cruel and oppreffivc treatment, in return for the lofs of the Ampanfacabe, three of thefe Rohan-

the hofpitality which they gcneroufly beftow. on us ;
arid we call them traitors and cowards, wlien we force
them to break the yoke with which we have been
pleafed to load them."
.4n the fccbnd volume of CoBAt Benyowfky's Me-

drians have afiumed the title of kings ^ namely the Ko-

handnan of the province of Mahavelou, namoi M^>'

\J[ the province of Voemar, named Lamboubi ; and a

third at Bombetoki, named C'manoumpou. The tiurd

order confifts of the Voadziri, or lords of a (hiln^

coinpufw

MAD

eompofed of feveral villages. The 'fotnth order con->
iifts of the Loharohits, or chiefs of vilkget. The
£fth order, Odzatzi, who are freemen, and compofe
the attendants or foUowers of the Rohandnans, Voad*
ziri» or Lohavohits. The fixth order coafills of Om-
biaffes, or learned men ; and this ocder forms the
warriors, workmen, phyficians, and diviners : thefe laft
pofFeis no charge. The feventh order coniiils of Am-
purias or Haves.

** Having made inquiries from Bomhetoki pafllng to
the northward, and as far as Itapere, the refult proved
that there are 38 Rohandrians a6iaally reigning, and
287 Voadziri. With refpe£l to the Lohavohits, Ond*
zatzi, and Ombiaifes, it was not poflible to obtain any
accurate determination of their number. Thefe 01^
ders preferve a regukr gradation, refpe£ting which it
would be very diffictdt to give a detailed account.
They live in the manner we read of concerning the
ancient patriarchs. Everv father of a family is prieft
and judge in his own houfe, though he depends upon
the Lohavohits, who fuperin tends his condudl. This
lail is anfwerable to his Voadeiriy and the Voadziri
to th^ Rohandrian.

** The Madagafcar people having no communication
with the main land of iBthiopia, have not altered
their primitive laws; and the language throughout
the whole extent of the ifland is the fame. It would
be a rafh attempt to determine the origin of this na-
tion'; it is certain that it confifts of three dillindl
races, who have £or ages pait formed intermixtures
which vary to infinity. The firft race is that of Zafe
Ibrahim, or defcendants of Abraham ; but they have
00 ytiHigc of JudatTm, except circumcifion, and fome
names, luch as Ifaac, Reuben, Jacob, &c. This race
is of a brown colour.-— >The fecond race is that of Za«
feramini: with refpe£l to this, fome books which, are
ftill extant among the OntbiaiTes, affirm, that it iv

C 399 3

MAD

plane, the compaffcs, &c. The fisth arc the omfa» Ma:!«gafr
niaWf or rope-makers. They, make their ropes of. '*'*
different kinds of bark of trees, and like wife of hemp.
The feventh, ampan lamba^ or weavers. This bufinefs
is performed by women only, and it would be reckon*
ed difgraceful in a man to exercife it. Tht.ombiaffet
are the literary men and phyilcians, who give advice
only. The htrauvli% are comedians and dancers.

*< The Madagafcar people always liye in focicty ; that
is to fay, in towns and villages. The towns are fur*
rounded by a ditch and pallifades (as already mention-
ed), at. the extremities of which a guard from 12 to
20 armed men is Jcrpt. The houfes of private people
confift of a convenient cottage, furrounded by feveral
fmall ones : the mailer of the houfe dwells in the
largeft, and his women or flaves lodge in the fmaller.
Thefii houfes are built of wood, cbvered with leavea*
of the palm-tree .or flraw.

" The houfes of the great men of the country are
very fpacious ; each houfe is compofed of two walb-
and four apartments : round about the principal houfe*
other fmaller habitations are built for the acconuno-
dation of the women, and the whole family of the
chief; but the flaves cannot pafs the night withio«
them. Moft of the houfes inhabited by the Rohan*
drians are built with tafle and admirable fyrametry."

The French attempted' to conquer and take pofTeA
fion* of the whole ifland,. by order,, and for the ufe of,,
their Moft Chriltian Majeflies, Louis XUL and XIV.
and they maintained a footing on it from the year
1642 to 1657* During this period, by the moil cruel
treachery, they taught tlie native princes the barbae
K>U8 traffio in flaves, by viUanouily' felling to the
Dutch governor of Mauritius a number of innocent.
people, who had been aflifling them in forming a
fcttlement at Fort Dauphin.

TheAbb^ Roahon tells us, that theinfalubrity of the*

not more than fix centuries fince their arrival at Ma- air in.Madagafoardetenmned his countrymen in j664to

dagafcar.— With refpe6l to the third race of Zafe quit that immenie ifland, in order to eilablifli them^

Canambou, it is of Arabian extradlion, and arrived felves at fo inconfiderable a place aa the Ide of Bour-

much more lately^ than the others firom the coails of bon, whieh is fcarcdy perceptible in a map of thcL

Ethiopia: hence it poiTeifes neither powes nor credit, globe :. but it is apparent, firom the account of the

and filb only the charges of writers, hiilorians, poets, dec.
''In regard to arts and trades, the Madagafcar na-
tion are contented with fuch as are nectffary to make
their moveables, tools, utenfils, and arms for defence ;.
to conflru^ their dwellings, and the boata which are
necefTary for their navintion ; and laftly, ta &bncate
cloths and fluffs for tfieir cloatbiag. They, are de-
firous only of poffeffing the neceflary fuppliea of im-
mediate utility and convenienoe. The principal and
moft refpcAed bufinef% is the manufknuie of iron
and fteel. The artifts in this way call themfelves om-
fanefa vihe^ They are very experts in fiifing the ore,,
and forging utenfUs, fuch as hatchets, hanuners,- an--
vils, knives, fpades, fagayes, razors, wncers, or twee-
aem for pulling out the hair» Ice. The fecond dafs-
oonfifts of the goldfmiths fQiafanefa vola menaj^ they caft
gold in ingots, and make up bracelets, buckle^ ear-rings,
drops, rings, &c. The third are called .off^tv/Am^/z,
and an; potters. The fourth are the omfanevaita^or
turners in wood, who make boxes caUed vatta^ pbrtes,
wooden; and horn fpoons, bive-hives, coffins. Sec. The
fifth, impan cacafour or carpenters. They are very
expert in tUs bufinefib. and make ufe. of the rule, the

ftate of ibe French affairs, on the ifland of Madagafcar
in i66i„whcii Flacouit*s- narrative was pnbliihed, that«
their ill tiratmcnt- of the natives had raifed fuch a ge*
neral and formideUe oftpofition to their refidMice in
the country, thai the French were obliged to abandot^
their poflcffioos for other reafoos than the unheahh7
quaKties of the climate* We have not roonr here for
a detailrof aH the oppieffive meaforet of the French,
which tlic Abb^ himfelf candidly, ccnfares in thef
ftroi^ft terms ; blit AaB catraft Use following narra*
five, both beeanfe it is intfltcAbg i&^ ilfelf, and exhi-
bits the caufes-aad the means.>of .tkir enpuUion.

La Cafe, .dne of the French officers employed by*
the governor of Fort: Dauphin aninft tifte natives,^
was fo fucoefsful m aU his enterpriles, that thej called:
him Dtaan Pouty the name of a« chief who had fioor—
nerly conquered the whole ifland. The French gt>«
vernor, jealous of his renown, treated^ him harihiy, and'
refufed to allow him the rank or -honours due to h1»'
valour. The fovereign of the' province of Amboidle^-
called Deatm RafcUat^ taking advantage of his difcon-
tent, prevailed on him to become his generaL Five'
Frenchmen followed bim. Deaan Nong,.the daugh-
ter.

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Encyclopædia britannica;"

See other formats